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{{Short description|Salt mine in Khewra, Pakistan}}
The '''Khewra Salt Mines''' are situated 160 km from Islamabad and 260 km from Lahore in Tehsil Pind Dadan Khan District Jhelum. THey are easily accessible via Lahore – Islamabad Motorway through Lilla Interchange. It is a tourist attraction, with up to 40,000 visitors per year.
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
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{{EngvarB|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox mine
| name = Khewra Salt
| image = Khewra Salt Mine - Crystal Deposits on the mine walls.jpg
| width = 250px
| caption = Khewra Salt Mine tunnel (Crystal Valley)
| pushpin_map = Punjab Pakistan#Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position = top
| pushpin_label =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_mapsize = 250
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|32|38|52.58|N|73|00|30.22|E|region:PK|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| place = [[Khewra]]
| country = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type = Province
| state/province = {{flag|Punjab}}
| owner = [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]
| official website = www.PMDC.gov.pk
| acquisition year =
| products = [[Rock salt]]
| financial year =2019–20
| amount =3,50,000 MT
| opening year = {{Start date|1872}}
| active years = 150 years
}}


The '''Khewra Salt Mine''' ({{langx|ur|{{nq|کھیوڑہ نمک کان}}}}), also known as '''Mayo Salt Mine''', is the world's second largest salt mine, located in [[Khewra, Punjab|Khewra]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]].<ref name="Spate">{{cite book |author=O.H.K. Spate |author2=Andrew T.A. Learmonth |author3=B.H. Farmer |title=India, Pakistan and Ceylon: The Regions|publisher=Methuen Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-0-416-75530-5|page=502|date=13 July 1972 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ItkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA502 |access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref> The mine is in the [[Salt Range]] of the [[Pothohar Plateau|Potohar plateau]], which rises from the [[Indo-Gangetic plain|Indus plain]] of the Punjab.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weller|first1=J. Marvyn|title=The Cenozoic History of the Northwest Punjab|journal=The Journal of Geology|volume=36|issue=4|pages=362–375|publisher=Chicago Journals|jstor=30055696|year=1928|doi=10.1086/623522|s2cid=129105623}}</ref>{{hsp}}<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book |author=Stanley J. Lefond |title=Handbook of World Salt Resources |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db87AAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra+Salt+Mines |access-date=3 April 2012 |edition=1st|date=1 January 1969 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-30315-9 |page=347}}</ref><ref name="Camerapix">{{cite book |author=Camerapix |title=Spectrum Guide to Pakistan |publisher=Interlink Books |isbn=978-1-56656-240-9 |page=150 |date=July 1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlwOAQAAMAAJ&q=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world |access-date=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Masudul. Hasan">{{cite book |author=Masud ul Hasan |title=Short encyclopaedia of Pakistan |publisher=Ferozsons |asin=B007EU8QHS |page=118 |edition=1st |year=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAoMAAAAIAAJ&q=khewra |access-date=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Pete Heiden"/>
== History ==


The mine is famous for its production of pink Khewra salt, often marketed as [[Himalayan salt]], and is a major tourist attraction, drawing up to 250,000 visitors a year.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/> Its history dates back to its discovery by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]'s [[Ancient Macedonian army|troops]] in 326 BC, but it started trading in the [[Mughal era]].<ref name="Sarina Singh">{{cite book |author=Sarina Singh |author2=Lindsay Brown |author3=Lindsay Brown |author4=Rodney Cocks |author5=John Mock |title=Lonely Planet Pakistan and the Karakoram Highway |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zn8I4qEew9oC&pg=PA138 |access-date=3 April 2012 |edition=7th|date=1 May 2008 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74104-542-0 |page=138}}</ref> The main tunnel at ground level was developed by H. Warth, a mining engineer, in 1872 during British rule. After independence, the BMR took possession until 1956 and then PIDC owned the mines till 1965. After India-Pakistan war in 1965, the WPIDC took over the administration of salt mines and in 1974, the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation took over the mine, which still remains the largest source of salt in the country, producing more than 350,000 tons per annum<ref name="The Seattle Times">{{cite news|last=Pennington |first=Matthew |title=Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |access-date=8 April 2012 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=25 January 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725072022/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |archive-date=25 July 2012 }}</ref> of about 99% pure [[halite]].<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/> Estimates of the reserves of salt in the mine vary from 82 million tons<ref name="natres"/> to 600 million tons.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey"/>
Discovery of Rock Salt dates back to days of Alexander the great. It was in the year 1872, when scientific mining operation started under the British rule.
Prior to annexation of Punjab by the British Empire in the year 1849, the salt mines in the province were owned and operated by the Janjua Rajas, and after its annexation, the British Government took over the administration of these mines. Centuries ago, salt was take out at these mines from the out-crops of the salt seams exposed to the surface of the hill by those who were living in its vicinity. Dr. Warth, a renowned Mining Engineer of UK, laid out the main tunnel at ground level in 1872 to have an easy and direct approach to salt deposits. The new system introduced by Dr. Warth is still in-vogue.


== Current Status ==
== Geology==
The Khewra Salt Mine is excavated within the base of a thick layer of highly [[Fold (geology)|folded]], [[Fault (geology)|faulted]], and stretched [[Ediacaran]] to early [[Cambrian]] [[evaporite]]s of the ''Salt Range Formation''. This [[geological formation]] consists of a basal layer of crystalline [[halite]], which is intercalated with [[potash]] salts. This basal layer is overlain by [[gypsiferous]] [[marl]], which is covered by interlayered beds of [[gypsum]] and [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]] with infrequent seams of [[oil shale]]. These strata are overlain by {{convert|200 to 500|m|ft|sp=us}} of [[Neoproterozoic]] to [[Eocene]] [[sedimentary rock]]s that have been uplifted and eroded along with the Salt Range Formation to create the [[Salt Range]] at the southern edge of the [[Pothohar Plateau]]. The Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation have been thrust southward over Neoproterozoic to Eocene sedimentary rocks by many kilometers, which tectonically incorporated fragments of the underlying younger strata within these evaporites. The Salt Range is the southern edge of a well-described fold-and-thrust belt, which underlies the entire Pothohar Plateau and developed south of the Himalayas as a result of the ongoing collision between India and Eurasia.<ref name="JauméOthers1998a">Jaumé, S.C. and Lillie, R.J., 1988. ''Mechanics of the Salt Range‐Potwar Plateau, Pakistan: A fold‐and‐thrust belt underlain by evaporites.'' ''Tectonics'', 7(1), pp.57-71.</ref><ref name="GrelandOthers2002a">Grelaud, S., Sassi, W., de Lamotte, D.F., Jaswal, T. and Roure, F., 2002. ''Kinematics of eastern Salt Range and South Potwar basin (Pakistan): a new scenario.'' ''Marine and Petroleum Geology,'' 19(9), pp.1127-1139.</ref><ref name="RichardsOthers2015a">Richards, L., King, R.C., Collins, A.S., Sayab, M., Khan, M.A., Haneef, M., Morley, C.K. and Warren, J., 2015. ''Macrostructures vs microstructures in evaporite detachments: An example from the Salt Range, Pakistan.'' ''Journal of Asian Earth Sciences'', 113, pp.922-934.</ref>


Palynomorphs (organic microfossils) have been used to make inferences about the ages of the Salt Range Formation and its salt layers that are exposed within the Khewra Salt Mine. For example, while working with [[Geological Survey of India]] in the 1930s and 1940s, [[Birbal Sahni]] reported finding evidence of [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]], [[gymnosperm]]s, and insects inside the mine which he regarded as originating from the [[Eocene]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=SAHNI|first1=B.|last2=TRIVEDI|first2=B. S.|year=1945|title=Age of the Saline Series in the Salt Range of the Punjab|journal=Nature|volume=155|issue=3925|pages=76–77|doi=10.1038/155076b0|s2cid=4092748|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> However, on the basis of additional geologic data, later research has concluded that these palynomorphs were contaminants.<ref name="SchindewolfOthers1955a">Schindewolf, O.H. and Seilacher, A., 1955. ''Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Kambriums in der Salt Range (Pakistan):'' ''Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaflichen Klasse Abhandlungen'', 10, pp.261-446.</ref><ref name="Teichert1964a">Teichert, C., 1964. ''Recent German work on the Cambria and Saline Series of the Salt Range:'' ''West Pakistan: Pakistan Geological Survey Records'', 11, no. 1, pp. 1–2.</ref><ref name="PotterOthers2005a">
The mines have 19 levels at present with the systematic workings. Only 50% of salt is excavated from the working seam while the remaining 50% is left as pillars.
Hughes, N.C., 2017. ''Biostratigraphical dating conundrums in the Cambrian and earlier stratigraphy of the Indian subcontinent:'' ''The Palaeobotanist,'' 66, pp. 1–15.</ref>


== History==
== Production of rock salt ==
[[File:Himalayan salt of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil.jpg|thumb|The mine is famous for its production of pink [[Himalayan salt|Khewra salt]].]]
The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine, in honour of [[Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo|Lord Mayo]], who visited it as [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy of India]].<ref name="Mayo Salt Mine">{{cite book|author=Society of Arts (Great Britain)|title=Journal of the Society of Arts|volume=43|date=7 November 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-271-48500-0|page=258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVgmAQAAIAAJ&q=Mayo |access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> The salt reserves at Khewra were discovered when [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] region during his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]]. The mine was discovered, however, not by Alexander, nor by his allies, but by his army's horses, when they were found licking the stones.<ref name="Karen Zarindast">{{cite video|people=Karen Zarindast (Reporter)|date=8 November 2011|title=Pakistan salt mine is open to tourists in the Punjab province|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15645121|medium=News report|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> Ailing horses of his army also recovered after licking the rock salt stones.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> During the [[Mughal era]] the salt was traded in various markets, as far away as Central Asia.<ref name="Andre Wink">{{cite book |author=Andre Wink |title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World |date=March 1990 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7Q3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> On the downfall of the Mughal empire, the mine was taken over by Sikhs. [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], the Sikh Commander-in-Chief, shared the management of the [[Salt Range]] with [[Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Gulab Singh]], the Raja of [[Jammu]]. The former controlled the [[Warcha]] mine, while the latter held Khewra. The salt quarried during [[Sikh Empire|Sikh rule]] was both eaten and used as a source of revenue.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}


In 1872, some time after they had taken over the Sikhs' territory, the British developed the mine further.<ref name="Sarina Singh"/> They found the mining to have been inefficient, with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous. The supply of water inside the mine was poor, and there was no storage facility for the mined salt. The only road to the mine was over difficult, rocky terrain. To address these problems the government levelled the road, built warehouses, provided a water supply, improved the entrances and tunnels, and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt. Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling.<ref name="Edwin Arnold">{{cite book |author=Sir Edwin Arnold |title=The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India |year=1862 |publisher=Saunders, Otley, and Co. |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-290-28762-3 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA296 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref>
They produce about 3,25,000 tonnes salt per annum. A major portion of production, in the range of 2,00,000 to 2,40,000 tonnes annually, is supplied to Imperial Chemical Industries ICI Soda Ash Khewra. Based on Khewra salt ICI Soda Ash Plant was established in 1938. Rock Salt produced from Khewra Mines besides ICI Khewra is supplied to other Industrial consumers like Ittehad Chemical Limited Kala Shah Kaku, and tanneries etc. Selected quality Rock Salt is supplied to dealers for animal and human consumption. A reasonable quantity is also exported to foreign countries including India. Decoration pieces like; lamps, vases, ash rays etc are also made from Khewra Rock Salt and exported to foreign countries in large quantity by some exporters.


== Social obligations ==
== Location ==
[[File:Khewra Salt Mines Pakistan (206).jpg|thumb|Entrance to the mine]]


Khewra Salt Mine is in [[Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil]] of [[Jhelum District]]. About {{convert|160|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Islamabad and Lahore, it is accessed via the [[M-2 motorway (Pakistan)|M-2 Motorway]], about {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=off}} off the Lilla interchange while going towards Pind Dadan Khan on the Lilla road.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/> The mine is in mountains that are part of a salt range, a mineral-rich mountain system extending about 200&nbsp;km from the [[Jhelum River]] south of [[Pothohar Plateau]] to the [[Indus River]] near Kalabagh.<ref name="Pete Heiden">{{cite book|author=Pete Heiden|title=Pakistan|date=August 2011|publisher=Essential Library|isbn=978-1-61783-117-1|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RQwcO0wM6IC&pg=PA27 |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Stacy Taus-Bolstad">{{cite book|author=Stacy Taus-Bolstad|title=Pakistan in Pictures|date=January 2003|publisher=Lerner Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8225-4682-5|page=55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9QbtVadL_gC&pg=PA55 |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> Khewra mine is about {{convert|288|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} above sea level<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> and about {{convert|730|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} into the mountain from the mine entrance. The underground mine covers an area of {{convert|110|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}
THe mines are managed by the [[Pakistan Mineral Devlopment Corporation]] ([[PMDC]]) which also discharge its social obligations. It provides basic civic amenities to the Miners and local population. It runs a model high school, girls college and a survey institute in Khewra.


== Khewra Tourist Resort ==
== Production ==
[[File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (67).JPG|thumb|Display of daily salt production]]


Estimates of the total reserves of salt in the mines range from 82 million tons{{which|date=August 2016}}<ref name="natres">{{cite book|title=Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia (Natural Resources Research)|date=April 1974|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-101056-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKkvAAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra|edition=1st|access-date=14 May 2012|page=101}}</ref> to over 600 million tons.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey">{{cite book |author=Frank C. Whitmore |author2=Mary Ellen Williams |title=Resources for the twenty-first century |year=1982 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Washington D.C. |oclc=623259129 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LP5RNv1tGYAC&pg=PA175 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> In raw form it contains negligible amounts of [[Calcium]], [[Magnesium]], [[Potassium sulfate]]s, and moisture; it also contains iron, zinc, copper, manganese, chromium, and lead as [[trace element]]s.<ref name="Pennsylvania Environment dept">{{cite tech report|author=Robert V. Titler |author2=Paul Curry |title=Chemical Analysis of major constituents and trace contaminants of Rock Salt |institution=[[Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection]] |url=http://files.dep.state.pa.us/water/Wastewater%20Management/WastewaterPortalFiles/Rock%20Salt%20Paper%20final%20052711.pdf |format=PDF |date=14 September 2011 |page=17 |access-date=15 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119060057/http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/Wastewater%20Management/WastewaterPortalFiles/Rock%20Salt%20Paper%20final%20052711.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name="JCSP:Chemical composition">{{cite journal |author=Qazi Muhammad Sharif |author2=Mumtaz Hussain |author3=Muhammad Tahir Hussain |date=December 2007 |title=Chemical Evaluation of Major Salt Deposits of Pakistan |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan |volume=29 |issue=26 |pages=570–571 |publisher=Chemical Society of Pakistan |editor1=Viqar Uddin Ahmad |editor2=Muhammad Raza Shah |access-date=15 April 2012 |url=http://jcsp.org.pk/ArticleUpload/1249-5588-1-RV.pdf }}</ref> Salt from Khewra, also known as [[Himalayan salt|Khewra salt]], is red, pink, off-white or transparent.<ref name="Dorothy Moore">{{cite web|url=http://materialscience.uoregon.edu/ttsem/curriculum%20to%20share/The_Significance_of_Salt.pdf |title=The Significance of Salt |author=Dorothy K. Moore |publisher=Material Science Institute, University of Oregon |location=Eugene |page=33 |access-date=8 April 2012 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301063644/http://materialscience.uoregon.edu/ttsem/curriculum%20to%20share/The_Significance_of_Salt.pdf |archive-date= 1 March 2015 }}</ref> In the early years of British rule, the Khewra mine produced about 28,000 to 30,000 tons per annum; it increased to about 187,400 tons per annum for the five fiscal years ending 1946{{ndash}}47 and to 136,824 tons for the two years ending 1949{{ndash}}50 with the systematic working introduced by H. Warth.<ref name="Coggin">{{cite book |author=J.Coggin Brown |title=Mineral Wealth: Part III. Materials used in building construction, civil engineering, etc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Quim3r1ReaEC&pg=PA507 |access-date=5 April 2012 |date= 7 February 2008 |publisher=Isha Books |isbn=978-81-8205-483-7 |page=507}}</ref> The mine's output was reported in 2003 to be 385,000 tons of salt per annum, which amounts to almost half of Pakistan's total production of rock salt.<ref name="Kogan Page">{{cite book |author=Kogan Page |title=Asia & Pacific Review 2003/04 |date=1 August 2003 |edition= 21st |publisher=World of Information |isbn=978-0-7494-4063-3 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGsEvg7NdoQC&pg=PA279 |access-date=8 April 2012}}</ref> At that rate of output, the tunnel would be expected to last for another 350 years.<ref name="The Seattle Times"/>
The main tunnel at ground level developed by Dr. Warth in 1872 has been converted into Tourist Resort. Thousands of tourists visit Khewra Salt Mines every year. They are fascinated by nature’s beauty inside the mountain. Nearly 35,000 to 40,000 visitors, comprising college students, general public, and foreigners visit Salt Mines Khewra every year. The Salt Mines Khewra has developed as a big attraction for the tourist. Impressed by the interest of the tourist, the PMDC Management launched “Khewra Salt Mines Resort Development Project” in February, 2002 with an estimated cost of Rs.4.2 million which now has been increased by another Rs.3 million.
Khewra Salt Mines Tourist Resort has been developed by PMDC with its own resources. Inside the Mine a beautiful mosque made of different shades of rock salt bricks has been constructed – hollow walls of salt bricks when lighted gives a beautiful look. A large chamber called “Assembly Hall” measuring more than 250 ft in height fascinates tourists. There are certain chambers filled in with saturated brine solution. These ponds when illuminated with fancy lights give splendid look. There is an area of transparent salt of light pink colour known as “Shish Mahal”. Different chambers are connected with salt bridges over water ponds and when illuminated with lights show marvelous reflection of different colours of salt. The development programme envisages creation and development of following facilities at Khewra Salt Mines in the first phase of development programme, which have since been completed.
*'''CREATION OF RECEPTION/BRIEFING HALL:''' A reception/briefing hall has been constructed to serve as reception center for tourists.
*'''WALKWAY:''' The walkway from receipt/briefing hall to the Mine Mouth has been constructed by fixing pavers for the smooth walk of tourist.
*'''SOUVENIR SHOP:''' For the convenience of tourist, a souvenir shop has been established in the reception/briefing hall area where tourists can find model lamps and other articles made of salt.
*'''CLEANING THE MINES:''' The Main Mine area reserved for tourist has been cleaned and cleared from the unwanted materials and debris for the convenience and comfort of the tourists.
*'''ILLUMINATION:''' The mines have been illuminated at a grand scale with fancy and reflector type lights to magnify intrinsic beauty of the salient features of the mine, its interior look and texture of rock salt.
*'''ELECTRIC TRAIN:''' Electric train has been made available for tourists to have a joy ride upto main juncture inside the Mines.
*'''REFRESHMENT:''' Seating arrangements have been made in side the mine. Refreshments have been provided inside the mine, where kiosks have been fitted, having sufficient capacity for tourists to relax and enjoy light refreshments.
*'''MINE GUIDE:''' Trained female guides are available at the mine to conduct tour of visitors inside the Mines.
*'''CHARGES:'''
'''Entry Fee:'''
- Foreigner Adult US$ 6.00 or equivalent
- Foreigner Student US$ 3.00 or equivalent
- Pakistani Adult Rs. 30.00
- Pakistani Student Rs. 15.00
'''Trolley Charges'''
- Upto group of 12 person Rs. 250.00 per trip
- A group of 12 person and above Rs. 20.00 per head
'''Parking Fee'''
- Scooter/Motor Cycle Rs. 3.00
- Car/Jeep/Suzuki Van Rs.10.00
- Van/Hiace Rs. 20.00
- Coaster/Flying Coach Rs. 30.00
- Bus Rs. 50.00
'''Guest House Charges'''
- VIP suit (per night) Rs.500 + Rs. 100 (Air condition charges)
- Side Room (per night) Rs.300 + Rs. 100 (Air condition charges)


The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground. From the entrance, the mine extends about {{convert|730|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} into the mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Camerapix"/><ref name="PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt mine|url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|work=Salt mine|publisher=[[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]|access-date=7 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326142338/http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|archive-date=26 March 2012}}</ref> Quarrying is done using the [[room and pillar]] method, mining only half of the salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above.<ref name="Bushra Khalid">{{cite journal |author=Bushra Khalid |title=Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Salt Mine Environment |journal=[[Pakistan Journal of Meteorology]] |volume=7 |issue=13 |page=73 |publisher=[[Pakistan Meteorological Department]] |access-date=8 April 2012 |url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/rnd/rnd_files/vol7_issue13/7_Effect%20of%20Temperature%20and%20Humidity%20on%20Salt%20Mine%20Environment.pdf}}</ref> The temperature inside the mine remains about {{convert|18|–|20|°C}} throughout the year.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> The {{Track gauge|2ft|lk=on}} [[Narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]] [[Khewra Salt Mines Railway]] track laid during the British era is used to bring salt out of the mine in [[Minecart|rail cars]].<ref name="Helen">{{cite book |author=Helen Bateman |author2=Jayne Denshire |title=Dangerous Creatures of the Oceans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHMORt-4LIsC&q=khewra&pg=PA9 |access-date=3 April 2012 |date=30 July 2005 |publisher=Creative Co |isbn=978-1-58340-768-4 |page=9}}</ref>
*'''MINE VISITING TIMES:''' Mine is open for tourist from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. every day including Sunday and gazetted holidays.


Khewra salt is Pakistan's best known rock salt.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey"/> It is used for cooking, as [[bath salt]], as [[brine]]<ref name="Dorothy Moore"/> and as a raw material for many industries, including a [[ICI Pakistan#Soda Ash|soda ash plant]] set up by [[AkzoNobel]] in 1940.<ref name="A K Madan">{{cite book|author=A. K. Madan|title=The economic prospects of chemical industries in India|year=1949|publisher=Thacker|asin=B007HDU8LY|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyoEAAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra |access-date=13 April 2012}}</ref> Salt from Khewra mine is also used to make decorative items like lamps, vases, ashtrays and statues,<ref name="Daily Times:Salt production">{{cite news|title=Salt production target on track this year |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_12-11-2003_pg5_11 |agency=[[Associated Press of Pakistan]] |newspaper=Daily Times |date=12 November 2003 |access-date=8 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041105093410/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_12-11-2003_pg5_11 |archive-date= 5 November 2004 }}</ref> which are exported to the United States, India and many European countries.<ref name="Helen"/><ref name="Dawn: Salt exports">{{cite news|title=PMDC to increase salt exports|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2004/12/29/ebr5.htm|access-date=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=29 December 2004}}</ref> The use of rock salt to make artistic and decorative items started during the Mughal era, when many craftsman made tableware and decorations from it.<ref name="Art in Mughal Era">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|date=5 February 2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/102 102]|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne |url-access=registration|access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> Warth introduced the use of a [[lathe]] to cut out art pieces from the rock salt, as he found it similar to [[gypsum]] in physical characteristics.<ref name="Joseph Louis Ratton">{{cite book|author=James Joseph Louis Ratton|title=Hand-book of Common Salt|date=30 August 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-178-95413-5|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jxUAAAAAQAAJ&q=warth|access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref>
----

In 2008 the [[Government of Pakistan]] decided to sell off seventeen profitable organisations including Khewra salt mines,<ref name="The Nation: 17 units privatised">{{cite news|title=Steel Mills to be sold this fiscal|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/14-Nov-2008/steel-mills-to-be-sold-this-fiscal|access-date=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=14 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107135154/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/14-Nov-2008/Steel-Mills-to-be-sold-this-fiscal|archive-date=7 January 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> but the plan was shelved. The mine is now operated by the [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]], a government department.<ref name="PMDC"/>

== Tourism ==
[[Image:SaltMosque.JPG|thumb|A small [[Masjid]] made of salt bricks inside the Khewra salt mine complex]]
Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year,<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/> earning it considerable revenue.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> Visitors are taken into the mine on the [[Khewra Salt Mines Railway]].<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour">{{cite news|last=Faisal Khan|first=Zeeshan|title=Khewra: Above the salt|url=http://dawn.com/2010/12/12/khewra-above-the-salt/|access-date=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=12 December 2010}}</ref> There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Masjid was built in the mining tunnels with multi-coloured salt bricks<ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Annemarie Schimmel">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam in the Indian Subcontinent |date=December 1980 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-06117-0 |page=107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYImm1TnemwC&pg=PA107 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> about fifty years ago.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place">{{cite news|last=Sheikh |first=FD |title=Khewra Salt Mines: A fascinating place |url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/080412/yworld8.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130121072710/http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/080412/yworld8.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 January 2013 |access-date=13 April 2012 |newspaper=Dawn |date=12 April 2008 }}</ref> Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], a statue of [[Allama Iqbal]], an accumulation of crystals that forms the name of [[Muhammad]] in [[Urdu]] script, a model of the [[Great Wall of China]] and another of the Mall Road of [[Murree]].<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/> In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees,<ref name="Dawn: Asthma ward">{{cite news|title=Salt mine resort for asthma patients|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2007/03/27/nat18.htm|access-date=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 March 2007}}</ref> for the treatment of [[asthma]] and other respiratory diseases using [[salt therapy]].<ref name="Telegraph:Asthma treatment">{{cite news|last=Shahzad|first=Khurram|title=Asthma treatment in Pakistani salt mine|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7527907/Asthma-treatment-in-Pakistani-salt-mine.html|access-date=6 April 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=26 March 2010}}</ref> The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a [[Heritage railway|train safari]] visit of Khewra Salt Mine.<ref name="Visit Pakistan 2007">{{cite news|title=Prepare to 'visit Pakistan Year 2007' |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C12%5C08%5Cstory_8-12-2006_pg11_7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416065936/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C12%5C08%5Cstory_8-12-2006_pg11_7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2013 |access-date=13 April 2012 |newspaper=Daily Times |date=8 December 2006 }}</ref> In February 2011 [[Pakistan Railways]] started operating special trains for tourists from [[Lahore]] and [[Rawalpindi]] to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.<ref name="Dawn: Tourist train">{{cite news|title=Khewra railway station restored|url=http://dawn.com/2011/02/05/khewra-railway-station-restored/|access-date=12 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=5 February 2011}}</ref>

Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75-meter-high (245-foot-high) Assembly Hall; ''Pul-Saraat'', a salt bridge with no pillars over a 25-meter-deep (80-foot-deep) brine pond; ''Sheesh Mahal'' (Palace of Mirrors), where salt crystals are light pink; and a café.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra">{{cite news|author=F. I. Dar |author2=Safdar Vail |title=The beauty of Khewra Salt Range |url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/051222/review5.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130121172922/http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/051222/review5.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 January 2013 |access-date=14 April 2012 |newspaper=Dawn |date=22 December 2005 }}</ref><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:A Mosque Made Up of Salt Rocks.JPG|A mosque has been built inside the salt mines.
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Rock salt as ceiling.JPG|Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling.
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Mined area from Mughal Times.jpg|It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal era.
File:KhewRa Mines Salt and Water.jpg|Reflection in salty water at Khewra Salt Mines.
File:Crystal Valley (Khewra Salt Mines).JPG|Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colourful lights.
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (85).JPG|Artistic work with rock salt.
File:Inside Khewra Salt Mines (55).jpg|Copy of Minaar-e-Pakistan made of rock salt.
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (62).JPG|Walls made of rock salt.
</gallery>

== Other projects ==
[[Image:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (71).JPG|thumb|right|220px|Students of the Mine Survey Institute gathered inside a tunnel]]
The [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]] established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt Mines Project |url=http://www.privatisation.gov.pk/industry/PMDC.htm |work=Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation |publisher=Privatisation Commission of Pakistan |access-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725032613/http://www.privatisation.gov.pk/industry/PMDC.htm |archive-date=25 July 2012 }}</ref> The institute conducts [[mine survey]]s, organises mining-related courses for the miners<ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services">{{cite web|title=Mine Survey Institute |url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/services.htm |work=Khewra Services |publisher=PMDC |access-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412055029/http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/services.htm |archive-date=12 April 2012 }}</ref> and established the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services"/> More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water.<ref>General Secretary, West Pakistan Salt Miners Labor Union Khewra, Jhelum v. The Director, Industries and Mineral Development, Punjab, Lahora, Human Rights Case No. 120 of 1993, (1994) S.C.M.R. at 2061.</ref> The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt, coal and other nearby mining activity. This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment.<ref name="UNESCAP: Summary of Judicial decisions of Environmental cases">{{cite web|url=http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/document/compendium/pk1.htm |title=Pakistan – Constitutional Rights, Mining Operations, Water Pollution |date=30 October 2003 |work=UNESCAP Virtual Conference |publisher=United Nations |access-date=8 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607170313/http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/document/compendium/pk1.htm |archive-date= 7 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>http://www.unhchr.ch/environment/bp4.html [[UNHCR]] paper on Human Rights and the environment</ref><ref name="Louis J Kotzé">{{cite book|author=Louis J Kotzé|author2=A. Paterson |title=The Role of Judiciary in Environmental Governance: Comparative Perspectives|date=16 April 2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Law & Business|isbn=978-90-411-2708-2|pages=396–397|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2IWYb40mQ8oC&pg=PA396|access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2003, while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country's strategic store of oil to 90 days, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves">{{cite news|title=PMDC offers salt mine for oil reserves|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2003/02/28/ebr12.htm|access-date=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=28 February 2003}}</ref> Scientific reports confirmed the feasibility of this proposal, but it was turned down.<ref name="Dawn: Building oil reserves">{{cite news|title=Building oil reserves with taxpayers' money|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2006/11/27/ebr2.htm|access-date=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 November 2006}}</ref>

== Flooding in 2010 ==
In 2010, during [[2010 Pakistan floods|torrential rain]] all over Pakistan, water from a nearby [[nullah]] entered the mine,<ref name="The Nation: Floods">{{cite news|title=Floodwaters enter Khewra Salt Mines|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/07-Aug-2010/floodwaters-enter-khewra-salt-mines|access-date=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=7 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005014014/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/07-Aug-2010/Floodwaters-enter-Khewra-Salt-Mines|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> reaching a depth of {{convert|2|ft|cm|spell=in}} and blocking the exits, after which the mine was closed.<ref name="Tribune:10 villages flooded">{{cite news|title=Breach floods 10 villages|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/38389/breach-floods-10-villages/|access-date=14 April 2012|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=12 August 2012}}</ref>
It was subsequently reopened and remains open.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/617747/khewra-salt-mines-healing-heights/ | title=Khewra salt mines: Healing heights| date=2013-10-14}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{commons category|Khewra Salt Mines}}
* [http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/?p=KhewraSaltMines Khewra Salt Mines] – Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation


{{PunjabGeography}}
*[http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/ Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation Official Site]
{{Salt topics}}


[[Category:Jhelum District]]
{{pakistan-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Salt mines in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Jhelum]]
[[Category:Mining companies of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Salt museums]]
[[Category:Mines in Pakistan]]

Latest revision as of 08:19, 7 December 2024

Khewra Salt
Khewra Salt Mine tunnel (Crystal Valley)
Location
Khewra Salt is located in Punjab, Pakistan
Khewra Salt
Khewra Salt
Khewra Salt is located in Pakistan
Khewra Salt
Khewra Salt
LocationKhewra
Province Punjab
Country Pakistan
Coordinates32°38′52.58″N 73°00′30.22″E / 32.6479389°N 73.0083944°E / 32.6479389; 73.0083944
Production
ProductsRock salt
Production3,50,000 MT
Financial year2019–20
History
Opened1872 (1872)
Active150 years
Owner
CompanyPakistan Mineral Development Corporation
Websitewww.PMDC.gov.pk

The Khewra Salt Mine (Urdu: کھیوڑہ نمک کان), also known as Mayo Salt Mine, is the world's second largest salt mine, located in Khewra, Punjab, Pakistan.[1] The mine is in the Salt Range of the Potohar plateau, which rises from the Indus plain of the Punjab.[2] [3][4][5][6]

The mine is famous for its production of pink Khewra salt, often marketed as Himalayan salt, and is a major tourist attraction, drawing up to 250,000 visitors a year.[7] Its history dates back to its discovery by Alexander's troops in 326 BC, but it started trading in the Mughal era.[8] The main tunnel at ground level was developed by H. Warth, a mining engineer, in 1872 during British rule. After independence, the BMR took possession until 1956 and then PIDC owned the mines till 1965. After India-Pakistan war in 1965, the WPIDC took over the administration of salt mines and in 1974, the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation took over the mine, which still remains the largest source of salt in the country, producing more than 350,000 tons per annum[9] of about 99% pure halite.[7] Estimates of the reserves of salt in the mine vary from 82 million tons[10] to 600 million tons.[11]

Geology

[edit]

The Khewra Salt Mine is excavated within the base of a thick layer of highly folded, faulted, and stretched Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation. This geological formation consists of a basal layer of crystalline halite, which is intercalated with potash salts. This basal layer is overlain by gypsiferous marl, which is covered by interlayered beds of gypsum and dolomite with infrequent seams of oil shale. These strata are overlain by 200 to 500 meters (660 to 1,640 ft) of Neoproterozoic to Eocene sedimentary rocks that have been uplifted and eroded along with the Salt Range Formation to create the Salt Range at the southern edge of the Pothohar Plateau. The Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation have been thrust southward over Neoproterozoic to Eocene sedimentary rocks by many kilometers, which tectonically incorporated fragments of the underlying younger strata within these evaporites. The Salt Range is the southern edge of a well-described fold-and-thrust belt, which underlies the entire Pothohar Plateau and developed south of the Himalayas as a result of the ongoing collision between India and Eurasia.[12][13][14]

Palynomorphs (organic microfossils) have been used to make inferences about the ages of the Salt Range Formation and its salt layers that are exposed within the Khewra Salt Mine. For example, while working with Geological Survey of India in the 1930s and 1940s, Birbal Sahni reported finding evidence of angiosperms, gymnosperms, and insects inside the mine which he regarded as originating from the Eocene period.[15] However, on the basis of additional geologic data, later research has concluded that these palynomorphs were contaminants.[16][17][18]

History

[edit]
The mine is famous for its production of pink Khewra salt.

The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine, in honour of Lord Mayo, who visited it as Viceroy of India.[19] The salt reserves at Khewra were discovered when Alexander the Great crossed the Jhelum and Mianwali region during his Indian campaign. The mine was discovered, however, not by Alexander, nor by his allies, but by his army's horses, when they were found licking the stones.[20] Ailing horses of his army also recovered after licking the rock salt stones.[21] During the Mughal era the salt was traded in various markets, as far away as Central Asia.[22] On the downfall of the Mughal empire, the mine was taken over by Sikhs. Hari Singh Nalwa, the Sikh Commander-in-Chief, shared the management of the Salt Range with Gulab Singh, the Raja of Jammu. The former controlled the Warcha mine, while the latter held Khewra. The salt quarried during Sikh rule was both eaten and used as a source of revenue.[citation needed]

In 1872, some time after they had taken over the Sikhs' territory, the British developed the mine further.[8] They found the mining to have been inefficient, with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous. The supply of water inside the mine was poor, and there was no storage facility for the mined salt. The only road to the mine was over difficult, rocky terrain. To address these problems the government levelled the road, built warehouses, provided a water supply, improved the entrances and tunnels, and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt. Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling.[23]

Location

[edit]
Entrance to the mine

Khewra Salt Mine is in Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil of Jhelum District. About 160 km (99 mi) from Islamabad and Lahore, it is accessed via the M-2 Motorway, about 30 kilometres (19 miles) off the Lilla interchange while going towards Pind Dadan Khan on the Lilla road.[24][25] The mine is in mountains that are part of a salt range, a mineral-rich mountain system extending about 200 km from the Jhelum River south of Pothohar Plateau to the Indus River near Kalabagh.[6][8][26] Khewra mine is about 288 meters (945 feet) above sea level[27] and about 730 meters (2,400 feet) into the mountain from the mine entrance. The underground mine covers an area of 110 km2 (42 sq mi).[citation needed]

Production

[edit]
Display of daily salt production

Estimates of the total reserves of salt in the mines range from 82 million tons[which?][10] to over 600 million tons.[11] In raw form it contains negligible amounts of Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium sulfates, and moisture; it also contains iron, zinc, copper, manganese, chromium, and lead as trace elements.[28][29] Salt from Khewra, also known as Khewra salt, is red, pink, off-white or transparent.[30] In the early years of British rule, the Khewra mine produced about 28,000 to 30,000 tons per annum; it increased to about 187,400 tons per annum for the five fiscal years ending 1946–47 and to 136,824 tons for the two years ending 1949–50 with the systematic working introduced by H. Warth.[31] The mine's output was reported in 2003 to be 385,000 tons of salt per annum, which amounts to almost half of Pakistan's total production of rock salt.[32] At that rate of output, the tunnel would be expected to last for another 350 years.[9]

The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground. From the entrance, the mine extends about 730 meters (2,400 feet) into the mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km (25 mi).[4][33] Quarrying is done using the room and pillar method, mining only half of the salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above.[34] The temperature inside the mine remains about 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) throughout the year.[21] The 2 ft (610 mm) narrow gauge Khewra Salt Mines Railway track laid during the British era is used to bring salt out of the mine in rail cars.[35]

Khewra salt is Pakistan's best known rock salt.[11] It is used for cooking, as bath salt, as brine[30] and as a raw material for many industries, including a soda ash plant set up by AkzoNobel in 1940.[36] Salt from Khewra mine is also used to make decorative items like lamps, vases, ashtrays and statues,[37] which are exported to the United States, India and many European countries.[35][38] The use of rock salt to make artistic and decorative items started during the Mughal era, when many craftsman made tableware and decorations from it.[39] Warth introduced the use of a lathe to cut out art pieces from the rock salt, as he found it similar to gypsum in physical characteristics.[40]

In 2008 the Government of Pakistan decided to sell off seventeen profitable organisations including Khewra salt mines,[41] but the plan was shelved. The mine is now operated by the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, a government department.[33]

Tourism

[edit]
A small Masjid made of salt bricks inside the Khewra salt mine complex

Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year,[7] earning it considerable revenue.[27] Visitors are taken into the mine on the Khewra Salt Mines Railway.[21] There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Masjid was built in the mining tunnels with multi-coloured salt bricks[8][42] about fifty years ago.[25] Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of Minar-e-Pakistan, a statue of Allama Iqbal, an accumulation of crystals that forms the name of Muhammad in Urdu script, a model of the Great Wall of China and another of the Mall Road of Murree.[21][25] In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees,[43] for the treatment of asthma and other respiratory diseases using salt therapy.[44] The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a train safari visit of Khewra Salt Mine.[45] In February 2011 Pakistan Railways started operating special trains for tourists from Lahore and Rawalpindi to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.[46]

Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75-meter-high (245-foot-high) Assembly Hall; Pul-Saraat, a salt bridge with no pillars over a 25-meter-deep (80-foot-deep) brine pond; Sheesh Mahal (Palace of Mirrors), where salt crystals are light pink; and a café.[24][25]

  • A mosque has been built inside the salt mines.
    A mosque has been built inside the salt mines.
  • Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling.
    Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling.
  • It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal era.
    It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal era.
  • Reflection in salty water at Khewra Salt Mines.
    Reflection in salty water at Khewra Salt Mines.
  • Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colourful lights.
    Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colourful lights.
  • Artistic work with rock salt.
    Artistic work with rock salt.
  • Copy of Minaar-e-Pakistan made of rock salt.
    Copy of Minaar-e-Pakistan made of rock salt.
  • Walls made of rock salt.
    Walls made of rock salt.

Other projects

[edit]
Students of the Mine Survey Institute gathered inside a tunnel

The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971.[7] The institute conducts mine surveys, organises mining-related courses for the miners[47] and established the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College.[7][47] More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water.[48] The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt, coal and other nearby mining activity. This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment.[49][50][51]

In 2003, while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country's strategic store of oil to 90 days, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves.[27] Scientific reports confirmed the feasibility of this proposal, but it was turned down.[52]

Flooding in 2010

[edit]

In 2010, during torrential rain all over Pakistan, water from a nearby nullah entered the mine,[53] reaching a depth of two feet (61 cm) and blocking the exits, after which the mine was closed.[54] It was subsequently reopened and remains open.[55]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ O.H.K. Spate; Andrew T.A. Learmonth; B.H. Farmer (13 July 1972). India, Pakistan and Ceylon: The Regions. Methuen Publishing Ltd. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-416-75530-5. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  2. ^ Weller, J. Marvyn (1928). "The Cenozoic History of the Northwest Punjab". The Journal of Geology. 36 (4). Chicago Journals: 362–375. doi:10.1086/623522. JSTOR 30055696. S2CID 129105623.
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