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Head Start is a program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and families. It is the oldest and largest program of its kind.^[1] The program's services and resources are designed to foster stable family relationships, enhance children's physical and emotional well-being, and establish an environment to develop strong cognitive skills. The transition from preschool to elementary school imposes diverse developmental challenges that include requiring the children to engage successfully with their peers outside the family network, adjust to the space of a classroom, and meet the expectations the school setting provides.^[2]

Launched in 1965^[3] by its creator and first director Jule Sugarman and Bernice H. Fleiss, Head Start was originally conceived as a catch-up summer school program that would teach low-income children in a few weeks what they needed to know to start elementary school. The Head Start Act of 1981^[4] expanded the program.^[5] The program was revised and reauthorized in December 2007. As of late 2005^[update], more than 22 million children had participated. As of June 30, 2023, the current director of Head Start is Dr. Khari Garvin.^[6]

History

Head Start began as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society campaign. Its justification came from the staff of the President's Council of Economic Advisers.^[7] Stan Salett, civil rights organizer, national education policy adviser, and creator of the Upward Bound Program, is also credited with initiating the Head Start program.^{[citation needed]}

Johnson started the War on Poverty shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. The murder shook the nation, and Johnson attempted to gain public trust by passing legacy legislation during the subsequent months. Johnson received an initial briefing from Walter Heller, who informed Johnson of Kennedy's poverty program. By March 1964, the legislation, now known as the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, had been prepared for Congress. The legislation included training, educational, and service programs for communities, including the Job Corps.^[8]

The Office of Economic Opportunity's Community Action Program launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer program in 1965. The program was led by Dr. Robert Cooke, a pediatrician at Johns Hopkins University, and Dr. Edward Zigler, a professor of psychology and director of the Yale Child Study Center. They designed a comprehensive child development program intended to help communities meet the needs of disadvantaged preschool children. Rather than proceeding with a smaller pilot program, the decision was made to roll it out on a large scale with the enrollment of 500,000 children in 2,500 communities.^[9] The following year it was authorized by Congress as a year–round program. In 1968, Head Start began funding a television series that would eventually be called Sesame Street, operated by the Carnegie Corporation Children's Television Workshop (CTW).^{[citation needed]}

In 1969, Head Start was transferred to the Office of Child Development in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (later the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)) by the Nixon Administration. Today the program is in the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) division of DHHS.^{[citation needed]}

In 1994, the Early Head Start program was established to serve children from birth to age three, in an effort to capitalize on research evidence that showed that the first three years are critical to children's long-term development.^{[citation needed]}

In the early years, some 700,000 children enrolled at a per-capita cost of $2,000 to $3,000 (2011 dollars). Under the full-time program, enrollment dropped to under 400,000 by the early 1970s. Enrollment reached close to 1 million children by 2011. The program has experienced underfunding and under-enrollment in recent years.^[10] In 2023, there were about 820,000 children enrolled in the program.^[11]

Policy Council

The Head Start Policy Council makes up part of the Head Start governing body. Policy Council must be composed of two types of representatives: parents of currently enrolled children and community representatives. At least 51% of the members of this group must be the parents of currently enrolled children (see 45 CFR 1306.3(h) for a definition of a Head Start Parent). All parent members of the Policy Council stand for election or re-election annually through individual parent groups. Grantees/Delegates are required to provide proportionate representation to parents in all program options and settings. If agencies operate programs serving different geographical regions or ethnic groups, they must ensure that all groups being served will have an equal opportunity to serve on the Policy Council. The Policy Council is required to meet once each month. The term follows the federal government fiscal year, running November–November. Service on the Policy Council board is limited to at most five one year terms.^[12] The meetings are conducted in accordance with Robert's Rules. The meeting day and time is agreed upon during the first meeting of the term year and may be adjusted as needed.^{[citation needed]}

The Policy Council approval is needed for several program functions, from new hires to the program, as well as for the budget and spending. The Council can serve the program in ways that the others in the program cannot, as it is the only body that is part of Head Start that can do fundraising. In addition to monthly meetings, Policy Council may at times need to hold special or emergency meetings or have a phone vote. Policy Council representatives are required to attend classroom meetings and report back to the Policy Council with issues and needs of the classroom. They may also be asked to sit in on interviews as Head Start requires that a Policy Council representative be present for all interviews. The officers of Policy Council include vice-chairperson, secretary, and vice-secretary. Classrooms are also able to elect alternate Policy Council reps in case the main rep is unable to attend the meetings.^{[citation needed]}

Services and programs

Head Start serves over 1 million children and their families each year in urban and rural areas in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the U.S. territories. Related health services include health screenings and check-ups, eye examinations and dental check-ups. Meals and snacks are also provided, which can help ease financial pressure on families and improve children's diets. Family advocates assist parents in accessing community resources. All services are specific to each family's culture and experience. Head Start programs also seek to support children's social emotional development.^{[citation needed]}

Programs and services include:^{[citation needed]}

Early Head Start promotes healthy prenatal outcomes, healthy families, as well as infant and toddler development beginning as early as birth.
Head Start helps to create healthy development and early childhood education in low-income children ages three to five.
Family and Community Partnerships engage and support parents to identify and meet their own goals, nurture their children, and advocate for communities that support children and families.
Migrant and Seasonal services are for children of migrant and seasonal farm workers. Service hours are longer and programs extend for fewer months than traditional Head Start.
Head Start serves indigenous Americans with centers on reservations and in urban communities.^[13]^[14]
Homeless children were included explicitly as subjects with the 2007 re-authorization.^[15] Programs must identify and provide services to homeless children of all ages within a reasonable period. The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 2001^[16] also requires access to early childhood education such as Head Start for homeless children and families.

Eligibility

Eligibility is largely income-based, although each local program includes other eligibility criteria, such as disabilities and services needed by other family members. Families must earn less than 100% of the federal poverty level. Programs may accept up to 10% of the total children over poverty given the program has unfilled spots and the over poverty is less than 130%.^{[citation needed]}

2023 Federal Poverty Level^[17]
Family Size	Income
2	$19,720
3	$24,860
4	$30,000
5	$35,140
6	$40,280
7	$45,420
8	$50,560

The federal poverty line measure is not absolute, and it changes yearly to account for inflation.^[18] Families may also qualify under a categorical eligibility category—receipt of Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) funds, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP),^[19] Supplemental Security funds, or Homeless, as per the McKinney-Vento Act. Up to 10% of any funded program's enrollment can be from higher income families or families experiencing emergency situations. All programs are required to provide services to children with disabilities, who must comprise 10% of their total enrollment. Per the Head Start Act (2007), programs may elect to serve families whose income is between 100-130% under certain circumstances. Programs must also complete additional reporting requirements if this is appropriate for their community.^{[citation needed]}

Military families stationed abroad can apply for Sure Start.^[20] Sure Start is the military version of Head Start and is overseen by the Department of Defense Education Activity.^[21] There are four priority tiers for Sure Start, and like Head Start, not all eligible families are guaranteed a spot. The tiers are based on the sponsor's rank and are, in order, E1-E4, E5, E6-E7, and E8-E9.^[20]

HHS POVERTY REGISTER^[22]
YEAR	First Person	Each Additional Person	Four Person Family	Page with Complete Details
2023	$14,580	$5,140	($30,000)	Federal Register 2023
2022	$13,590	$4,720	($27,750)	Federal Register 2022
2021	$12,880	$4,540	($26,500)	Federal Register 2021
2020	$12,760	$4,480	($26,200)	Federal Register 2020
2019	$12,490	$4,420	($25,750)	Federal Register 2019
2018	$12,140	$4,320	($25,100)	Federal Register 2018
2017	$12,060	$4,180	($24,600)	Federal Register 2017
2016	$11,880	Varies	($24,300)	Federal Register 2016
2015	$11,770	$4,160	($24,250)	Federal Register 2015
2014	$11,670	$4,060	($23,850)	Federal Register 2014
2013	$11,490	$4,020	($23,550)	Federal Register 2013
2012	$11,170	$3,960	($23,050)	Federal Register 2012
2011	10,890	3,820	( 22,350)	Federal Register 2011
2010	10,830	3,740	( 22,050)	Federal Register 2010 (Jan)Federal Register 2010 (Aug)
2009	10,830	3,740	( 22,050)	Federal Register 2009
2008	10,400	3,600	( 21,200)	Federal Register 2008
2007	10,210	3,480	( 20,650)	Federal Register 2007
2006	9,800	3,400	( 20,000)	Federal Register 2006
2005	9,570	3,260	( 19,350)	Federal Register 2005
2004	9,310	3,180	( 18,850)	Federal Register 2004
2003	8,980	3,140	( 18,400)	Federal Register 2003
2002	8,860	3,080	( 18,100)	Federal Register 2002
2001	8,590	3,020	( 17,650)	Federal Register 2001
2000	8,350	2,900	( 17,050)	Federal Register 2000
1999	8,240	2,820	( 16,700)	Federal Register 1999
1998	8,050	2,800	( 16,450)	Federal Register 1998
1997	7,890	2,720	( 16,050)	Federal Register 1997
1996	7,740	2,620	( 15,600)	Federal Register 1996
1995	7,470	2,560	( 15,150)	Federal Register 1995
1994	7,360	2,480	( 14,800)	Federal Register 1994
1993	6,970	2,460	( 14,350)	Federal Register 1993
1992	6,810	2,380	( 13,950)	Federal Register 1992
1991	6,620	2,260	( 13,400)	Federal Register 1991
1990	6,280	2,140	( 12,700)	Federal Register 1990
1989	5,980	2,040	( 12,100)	Federal Register 1989
1988	5,770	1,960	( 11,650)	Federal Register 1988
1987	5,500	1,900	( 11,200)	Federal Register 1987
1986	5,360	1,880	( 11,000)	Federal Register 1986
1985	5,250	1,800	( 10,650)	Federal Register 1985
1984	4,980	1,740	( 10,200)	Federal Register 1984
1983	4,860	1,680	( 9,900)	Federal Register 1983
1982	4,680	1,540	( 9,300)	Federal Register 1982

Budget and funding

The 2011 federal budget for Head Start was $8.1 billion. 85% was to be devoted to direct services and no more than 15% on administration, serving approximately one million students. The budget was $12 billion in 2023.^[23]

Local grantees must provide a 20% cash/in-kind match.^[24] Each local grantee is required to obtain an annual financial audit, if it receives more than $500,000 in federal support.

Grants are awarded by the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) Regional Offices and the American Indian – Alaska Native and Migrant and Seasonal Program Branches directly to local public agencies, private organizations, Indian tribes and school systems.^[25]

The individual Head Start classrooms/centers "repay" the grant through a program known as InKind. The Inkind program is a way to get their parents and their students working together on out of class studies.^{[citation needed]}

Teachers

All lead teachers must have a bachelor's degree or be working towards one. Most have completed six or more courses in early-childhood education.^[26] By 2013, all teachers were to have associate degrees in a related field and half must have bachelor's degrees.^[27]^[28]

As of 2003, the average Head Start teacher made $21,000 per year, compared to the public school teacher average of $43,000.^[29]

Teachers are also required to complete a (CDA) Child Development Associate certificate.^{[citation needed]}

Operations

While Head Start is a national program, the implementation is up to individual states.^[30] Head Start programs typically operate independently from local school districts. Most often they are administered through local social-services agencies. Classes are generally small, with fewer than ten enrollees per adult staff member. Individual programs develop their own academic and social curricula, following federal performance standards.^[26]

Impact

Angel Taveras speaks about how Head Start changed his life as a child.

A 2020 study found that cohorts that attended Head Start had higher incomes and years of education as adults than similar children who did not attend.^[31] A 2021 study found that the children exposed to more generous Head Start funding had substantially improved test scores relative to children that were not exposed to generous Head Start funding.^[32] Another 2021 study found that students enrolled in Head Start ended up having substantially higher high school completion, college enrollment and college completion rates than comparable children who were not enrolled in Head Start.^[33] The authors of the study concluded, "these estimates imply sizable, long-term returns to investments in means-tested, public preschool programs."^[33] A 2009 study, which compared siblings, found that those who attended Head Start showed stronger academic performance as shown on test scores for years afterward, were less likely to be diagnosed as learning-disabled, less likely to commit crime, more likely to graduate from high school and attend college, and less likely to suffer from poor health as an adult.^[34] This study was replicated in a 2020 study which looked at 10 additional birth cohorts, and found a negligible impact.^[1]

A 2022 study found that Head Start increased the employment and earnings of single mothers.^[35]

In 2015, CCR Analytics, formerly Child Care Analytics, published the results of their Family Outcomes Survey completed by nearly 11,600 California Head Start and Early Head Start parents. 90% of parents surveyed said that Head Start helped them to get or keep a job. 92% of parents surveyed said that Head Start helped them to enroll in an educational or training program. 99% of families surveyed said that Head Start helped them to improve their parenting skills, such as responding to children's misbehavior and helping their children to learn. These results indicate that Head Start has a positive impact on the whole family, beyond the individual children who attend the program.^[36]

In 2014, CCR Analytics published the results of their study of 49,467 children assessed in the 2012–2013 school year from 81 Head Start programs throughout the state of California (more than 50% of the entire California Head Start population). Participation in the study was open to all California Head Start programs who used the DRDP-PS 2010 assessment tool. The study found that providing two years of Head Start to a child increases the probability by between 13% and 86% that the child will meet age appropriate expectations. Regression discontinuity design was used to measure program impact without denying a control group the opportunity to attend Head Start. The analysis compared three-year-olds enrolled in Head Start to four-year-olds who returned to Head Start for their second year. This also eliminated the issue of selection bias because both groups chose to attend Head Start as three-year-olds.^[37]

A randomized control study of the pre-k program serving socioeconomically disadvantaged children in Tennessee found short-term gains in language, literacy and math outcomes for pre-k participants compared with children who did not participate, which was also confirmed by a discontinuity analysis (Lip, Farran, Bilbrey, Hofer, & Dong, 2011).^{[citation needed]}

Lee collected data across sixty Head Start classrooms in 2007 and 2008. A sample of 1,260 children ages three to four were selected as the final sample. Of these children, 446 had entered Head Start at age 3 and enrolled for a year (Group 1); 498 had been entered at age 4 and enrolled for a year (Group 2); and 316 children had been enrolled for 2 years, entering at age 3 (Group 3). Academic outcome measures in literacy, math and science were collected based on the Head Start and Early Childhood Program Observational Checklist rating on a 4-point scale (1—not yet to 4—excels. Family risk factor indicators (developed by the State Department of Education) included single parent, unemployed parent, teenage parent, parental loss (divorce/death), low parental school achievement, food insufficiency. Group 3 had higher literacy, math and science scores than the other groups. Children in the high-risk group had significantly lower literacy, math, and science scores than those who had three or fewer risk factors. Head Start is associated with significant gains in test scores. Head Start significantly reduces the probability that a child will repeat a grade.^[38]

In 2002, Garces, Thomas and Currie used data from the Panel Survey of Income Dynamics to review outcomes for close to 4,000 participating adults followed from childhood and compared with non-participant siblings. Among European Americans, adults who had attended Head Start were significantly more likely to complete high school, attend college and possibly have higher earnings in their early twenties. African-American adults who had attended Head Start were significantly less likely to be booked/charged for a crime. Head Start may increase the likelihood that African-American males graduate from high school. Separately the authors noted larger effects for younger siblings who attended Head Start after an older sibling.^[39]

In 1998, Congress mandated an intensive study of the effectiveness of Head Start, the "Head Start Impact Study," which studied a target population of 5,000 3- and 4-year-old children.^[40] The study measured Head Start's effectiveness as compared to other forms of community support and educational intervention, as opposed to comparing Head Start to a nonintervention alternative. Head Start Impact Study First Year Findings were released in June 2005. Study participants were assigned to either Head Start or other parent–selected community resources for one year. 60% of the children in the control group were placed in other preschools. The first report showed consistent small to moderate advantages to 3-year-old children including pre-reading, pre-vocabulary and parent reports of children's literacy skills. No significant impacts were found for oral comprehension, phonological awareness, or early mathematics skills for either age group. Fewer positive benefits were found for 4-year-olds. The benefits improved with early participation and varied across racial and ethnic groups. These analyses did not assess the benefits' durability.^[41]

In 1975, Seitz, Abelson, Levine and Zigler compared disadvantaged children enrolled and not enrolled in Head Start, using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). The participants were low-income inner-city black children whose unemployed, economically disadvantaged parents were considered unskilled. The Head Start children had attended for at least five months at the time of testing, including nine boys and 11 girls. The non-enrolled group was on the Head Start waiting list. The control group consisted of 11 boys and nine girls. The groups were matched by family income, parental employment and marital status. The tester tested children at home and in a school or office setting. The Head Start children scored higher than the controls in both settings, which suggested preschool intervention programs may have influenced the result. The controls tested at home scored the lowest, apparently due to anxiety from having an unfamiliar person in their homes. The Head Start children were unaffected by the environmental factor. In evaluating this study vs. others, the relatively small sample size should be noted: 20 children vs. thousands in other studies.^[42]

A 2005 review of the literature by Barnett and Hustedt found "mixed, but generally positive, evidence regarding Head Start's long-term benefits. Although studies typically find that increases in IQ fade out over time, many other studies also find decreases in grade retention and special education placements. Sustained increases in school achievement are sometimes found, but in other cases flawed research methods produce results that mimic fade-out. In recent years, the federal government has funded large-scale evaluations of Head Start and Early Head Start. Results from the Early Head Start evaluation are particularly informative, as study participants were randomly assigned to either the Early Head Start group or a control group. Early Head Start demonstrated modest improvements in children's development and parent beliefs and behavior."^[43]

A 1995 within–family analysis compared subjects with nonparticipant siblings. Mothers who had themselves been enrolled in Head Start were compared to adult sisters who were not. Currie and Thomas separately analyzed white, black and Hispanic participants. White children showed larger and longer lasting improvements than black children.^[44]

"Head Start Fade", in which significant initial impacts quickly fade, has often been observed, as early as second and third grade.^[45]^[46]^[47] One hypothesis is that the decline is because Head Start participants are likely to attend lower-quality schools, which fail to reinforce Head Start gains.^[45] Fryer and Levitt found no evidence that Head Start participation had lasting effect on test scores in the early years of school.^[48]

A 2010 report by the Department of Health and Human Services, Head Start Impact, examined the cognitive development, social-emotional development, and physical health outcomes of 4,667^[26] three- and four-year-old children in a nationally representative sample of programs across 23 states. Children were randomly assigned to either a Head Start group (participants) or a non-Head Start group (control group). The children in the two groups were similar in all measured characteristics at program entry. Pre-participation assessments of all critical outcome measures were taken. Control group children optionally enrolled in non-Head Start programs. Nearly half of the control-group children enrolled in other preschool programs. Outcome measures covered cognitive development, social-emotional development, health status and access to health care, and parenting practices. Head Start students were split into two cohorts – 3-year-olds with two years of Head Start and 4-year-olds with one year of Head Start.^[26] The study found:

Participants showed positive effects in cognitive skills during their Head Start years, including letter-naming, vocabulary, letter-word identification and applied math problems,^[26] although the "advantages children gained during their Head Start and age 4 years yielded only a few statistically significant differences in outcomes at the end of 1st grade for the sample as a whole. Impacts at the end of kindergarten were scattered. ... "^[49] The gains applied to different skills across cohorts and grades, undermining generalizations about program impacts.^[26]
Participants showed fewer significant improvements in social and behavioral skills, even in the Head Start year, with inconsistent results between the three- and four-year-old cohorts. The four-year-old cohort showed no significant improvement in the Head Start year or kindergarten, but in third grade, parents reported a significant reduction in total problem behavior and social and behavioral skills. Three-year-olds showed multiple, significant improvements in social and behavioral skills, but only for outcomes assessed by parents. Significant negative effects emerged in teacher relationships as rated by first-grade and third-grade teachers; and no significant positive effects for this cohort were reported by teachers for any elementary year.^[26]
By the end of first grade, only "a single cognitive impact was found for each cohort". Compared to students in the control group, the 4-year-old Head Start cohort did "significantly better" on vocabulary and the 3-year-old cohort tested better in oral comprehension.^[49]
Head Start had significant health-related effects, especially in increasing the number of children receiving dental care and having health-insurance coverage. These effects were not consistent, however. For example, while participants increased health-insurance coverage, it did not extend into the third-grade year for either cohort. Parenting practice changes were significant, but applied only to the three-year-old cohort. Most related to discipline, such as reduced spanking or time-outs. The spanking outcome occurred did not last into the first grade. The significant effect on parental reading to children did not last into kindergarten.^[26]

The HSIS study concludes, "Head Start has benefits for both 3-year-olds and 4-year-olds in the cognitive, health, and parenting domains, and for 3-year-olds in the social-emotional domain. However, the benefits of access to Head Start at age four are largely absent by 1st grade for the program population as a whole. For 3-year-olds, there are few sustained benefits, although access to the program may lead to improved parent-child relationships through 1st grade, a potentially important finding for children's longer-term development."^[49]

In an op-ed piece in The New York Times, "Head Start Falls Further Behind", Besharov and Call discuss a 1998 evaluation that led to a national reevaluation of the program. The authors stated that research concluded that the current program had little meaningful impact.^[50]

In 2011, Time magazine's columnist Joe Klein called for the elimination of Head Start, citing an internal report that the program is costly and makes a negligible impact on children's well-being over time. Klein wrote, "You take the million or so poorest 3- and 4-year-old children and give them a leg up on socialization and education by providing preschool for them; if it works, it saves money in the long run by producing fewer criminals and welfare recipients ... it is now 45 years later. We spend more than $7 billion providing Head Start to nearly 1 million children each year. And finally there is indisputable evidence about the program's effectiveness, provided by the Department of Health and Human Services: Head Start simply does not work."^[51]

W. Steven Barnett, director of the National Institute for Early Education Research at Rutgers University, rebutted Klein, "Weighing all of the evidence and not just that cited by partisans on one side or the other, the most accurate conclusion is that Head Start produces modest benefits including some long-term gains for children."^[52]

Access

There is not enough government funding to provide Head Start for all eligible families, so to enroll in Head Start, families must apply and then be chosen.^[53] In 2017, there were 1 million children enrolled in Head Start and Early Head Start, but there were about 19 million children under five in the United States and around 3 million children under five living in poverty.^[54]

Head Start covers families living below the federal poverty line, but there 65% of children under the age of 6 having both their parents (or one parent, if they are a single parent) in the workforce.^[54]^[55] Hotz and Wiswall’s research found that for two-parent households, childcare is the most expensive cost outside their rent or mortgage; in perspective, the median percent of income that goes towards childcare is 30%.^[54]

References

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^ McWayne, C. M., Cheung, K.; Wright, L.; Hahs-Vaughn, D.L.; Thomas, D. P#20306090#rt? (August 2012). "Patterns of School Readiness Among Head Start Children: Meaningful Within-Group Variability During the Transition to Kindergarten" (PDF). Journal of Educational Psychology. 104 (3): 862–878. doi:10.1037/a0028884.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Currie, J.; Thomas, D. (1995). [376337693768** http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/spring05/mcguem/psy8935/readings/currie1995.pdf "Does Head Start Make A Difference?"] (PDF). American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
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^ "Family Outcomes Bulletin 2015". CCR Analytics.
^ "2014 Child Outcomes Bulletin".
^ Lee, K. (2011). "Impacts of the duration of Head Start enrollment on children's academic outcomes: Moderation effects of family risk factors and earlier outcomes". Journal of Community Psychology. 39 (6): 698–716. doi:10.1002/jcop.20462.
^ Eliana Garces; Duncan Thomas; Janet Currie (September 2002). "Longer-Term Effects of Head Start". The American Economic Review. 92 (4): 999–1012. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.196.91. doi:10.1257/00028280260344560. S2CID 12458311.
^ Impact study, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
^ First year executive summary (PDF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
^ Seitz, V. Abelson, W., Levine, E. & Zigler, E."Effects of place of testing on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test scores of disadvantaged Head Start and non-Head Start children", Child Development, 1975
^ Barnett, W. Steven; Hustedt, Jason T. (January–March 2005). "Head Start's Lasting Benefits". Infants & Young Children. 18 (1): 16–24. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.644.8716. doi:10.1097/00001163-200501000-00003. S2CID 7617558.
^ Currie, Janet; Thomas, Duncan (September 1998). "Does Head Start Make a Difference?". American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341–364. doi:10.3386/w4406. Retrieved May 14, 2021.
^ ^a ^b Valerie E. Lee; Susanna Loeb (Spring 1995). "Where Do Head Start Attendees End up? One Reason Why Preschool Effects Fade Out". Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 17 (1): 62–82. doi:10.2307/1164270. JSTOR 1164270.
^ S. Barnett (1993). "Does Head Start Fade Out?". Education Week. 5: 40.
^ S. Barnett (Winter 1995). "Long Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Cognitive and School Outcomes". The Future of Children. 5 (3): 25–50. doi:10.2307/1602366. JSTOR 1602366.
^ Fryer; Levitt (2004), Understanding the blacK-white test score gap in the first two years of school (PDF), University of Chicago
^ ^a ^b ^c Weigel, Margaret (August 11, 2011). "Head Start Impact: Department of Health and Human Services Report". Journalist's Resource.org.
^ Besharov, Douglas J.; Call, Douglas M. (February 7, 2009). "Head Start Falls Further Behind". The New York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
^ Klein, Joe (July 7, 2011). "Time to Ax Public Programs That Don't Yield Results". Time. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011.
^ Valerie Strauss, "Does Head Start work for kids? The bottom line", The Washington Post, March 5, 2013.
^ "How to Apply | ECLKC". eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hotz, V. Joseph; Wiswall, Matthew (2019). "Child Care and Child Care Policy: Existing Policies, Their Effects, and Reforms". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 686 (1): 310–338. doi:10.1177/0002716219884078. ISSN 0002-7162. S2CID 210683897.
^ Farquhar, Sarah-Eve (January 1989). "Assessing New Zealand child day care quality using the early childhood environment rating scale (1)". Early Child Development and Care. 47 (1): 93–105. doi:10.1080/0300443890470105. ISSN 0300-4430.

External links

US government—Administration for Children & Families

Head Start Associations

General Information

[2020demingreplication-1] Pages, Remy; Lukes, Dylan J.; Bailey, Drew H.; Duncan, Greg J. (December 2020). "Elusive Longer-Run Impacts of Head Start: Replications Within and Across Cohorts". Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 42 (4): 471–492. doi:10.3102/0162373720948884. ISSN 0162-3737. S2CID 85530116.

[Difference1-2] McWayne, C. M., Cheung, K.; Wright, L.; Hahs-Vaughn, D.L.; Thomas, D. P#20306090#rt? (August 2012). "Patterns of School Readiness Among Head Start Children: Meaningful Within-Group Variability During the Transition to Kindergarten" (PDF). Journal of Educational Psychology. 104 (3): 862–878. doi:10.1037/a0028884.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[Difference2-3] Currie, J.; Thomas, D. (1995). [376337693768** http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/spring05/mcguem/psy8935/readings/currie1995.pdf "Does Head Start Make A Difference?"] (PDF). American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)

[FDAMemo-4] FDA. Memorandum of Understanding.

[CFC-5] Gonzalez-Mena, Janet (2009). Child, Family, and Community (Fifth ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0135132302.

[6] "ACF Home » Office of Head Start » About » Leadership". Administration for Children and Families. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. May 16, 2018. Retrieved November 20, 2018.

[7] Vinovskis, Maris A. (2005). The Birth of Head Start. University of Chicago Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-0226856728.

[8] Lyndon B. Johnson and the War on Poverty, archived from the original on May 16, 2015, retrieved April 30, 2013

[9] "Jule Sugarman, Head Start Founder, Dies at 83".

[10] "Biden-Harris Administration Proposes New Rule to Strengthen the Head Start Workforce, Increase Wages & Support Quality Programming". www.hhs.gov. November 15, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2024.

[11] Hollingsworth, Heather (September 29, 2023). "Looming shutdown rattles families who rely on Head Start program for disadvantaged children". AP News. Retrieved February 11, 2024.

[12] "Head Start Program Performance Standards Part 1301 — Program Governance". U.S. Department of Health & Human Services — Administration for Children & Families. Retrieved May 1, 2020.

[13] The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework

[14] "American Indian and Alaska Native". Archived from the original on March 17, 2017. Retrieved March 16, 2017.

[15] NAEHCY

[16] "Part C - Homeless Education". US Department of Education.

[17] "HHS Poverty Guidelines for 2023 - HealthCare.gov Glossary". aspe.hhs.gov. Retrieved May 30, 2023.

[18] "Beyond the Poverty Line (SSIR)". aspe.hhs.gov. Retrieved May 30, 2023.

[19] "Head Start Categorical Eligibility for Families Eligible for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program | ECLKC". April 20, 2022.

[Communications-20] Communications, DoDEA. "Preschool". www.dodea.edu. Retrieved April 10, 2021.

[21] "Sure Start for Military Children". Military OneSource. March 12, 2021. Retrieved April 10, 2021.

[22] "Prior HHS Poverty Guidelines and Federal Register References". ASPE.

[23] Seitz, Amanda (November 22, 2023). "Biden's plan would raise salaries for Head Start teachers but could leave fewer spots for kids". AP News. Retrieved February 11, 2024.

[24] Lubeck, Sally; DeVries, Mary; Nicholson, Julie; Post, Jackie (July 1997). "Head Start in Transition". Early Education & Development. 8 (3): 219–244. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0803_2. ISSN 1040-9289.

[acf.hhs.gov-25] Head Start factsheet, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, archived from the original on January 15, 2010

[nj14-26] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h "The Dubious Promise of Universal Preschool > Publications >". National Affairs. December 20, 2013. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014. Retrieved April 8, 2014.

[27] Glod, Maria (November 15, 2007). "Bill to Expand Head Start, Bolster Its Teacher Qualifications Is Approved". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 10, 2013.

[28] "Head Start Act Section 648A". Archived from the original on October 12, 2008.

[29] "NIEER Fact Sheet on Head Start Teachers – July 2003". Archived from the original on October 27, 2008.

[30] Burger, K. (April 3, 2012). "A Social History of Ideas Pertaining to Childcare in France and in the United States". Journal of Social History. 45 (4): 1005–1025. doi:10.1093/jsh/shr144. ISSN 0022-4529.

[31] De Haan, Monique; Leuven, Edwin (September 3, 2019). "Head Start and the Distribution of Long-Term Education and Labor Market Outcomes". Journal of Labor Economics. 38 (3): 727–765. doi:10.1086/706090. hdl:10852/74324. ISSN 0734-306X. S2CID 44049841.

[32] Kose, Esra (2021). "Public Investments in Early Childhood Education and Academic Performance: Evidence from Head Start in Texas". Journal of Human Resources: 0419. doi:10.3368/jhr.0419-10147R2. ISSN 0022-166X. S2CID 231906512.

[:1-33] Bailey, Martha J.; Sun, Shuqiao; Timpe, Brenden (2021). "Prep School for Poor Kids: The Long-Run Impacts of Head Start on Human Capital and Economic Self-Sufficiency". American Economic Review. 111 (12): 3963–4001. doi:10.1257/aer.20181801. ISSN 0002-8282. PMC 9005064. PMID 35418710.

[34] Deming, D. (2009). "Early Childhood Intervention and Life-Cycle Skill Development: Evidence from Head Start" (PDF). American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 1 (3): 111–134. doi:10.1257/app.1.3.111.

[35] Wikle, Jocelyn; Wilson, Riley (2022). "Access to Head Start and Maternal Labor Supply: Experimental and Quasi-experimental Evidence". Journal of Labor Economics. 41 (4): 1081–1127. doi:10.1086/720980. hdl:10419/250541. ISSN 0734-306X. S2CID 232045060.

[36] "Family Outcomes Bulletin 2015". CCR Analytics.

[37] "2014 Child Outcomes Bulletin".

[Difference3-38] Lee, K. (2011). "Impacts of the duration of Head Start enrollment on children's academic outcomes: Moderation effects of family risk factors and earlier outcomes". Journal of Community Psychology. 39 (6): 698–716. doi:10.1002/jcop.20462.

[39] Eliana Garces; Duncan Thomas; Janet Currie (September 2002). "Longer-Term Effects of Head Start". The American Economic Review. 92 (4): 999–1012. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.196.91. doi:10.1257/00028280260344560. S2CID 12458311.

[hsis-final-40] Impact study, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

[41] First year executive summary (PDF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

[wiley.com-42] Seitz, V. Abelson, W., Levine, E. & Zigler, E."Effects of place of testing on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test scores of disadvantaged Head Start and non-Head Start children", Child Development, 1975

[43] Barnett, W. Steven; Hustedt, Jason T. (January–March 2005). "Head Start's Lasting Benefits". Infants & Young Children. 18 (1): 16–24. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.644.8716. doi:10.1097/00001163-200501000-00003. S2CID 7617558.

[CurrieThomas-44] Currie, Janet; Thomas, Duncan (September 1998). "Does Head Start Make a Difference?". American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341–364. doi:10.3386/w4406. Retrieved May 14, 2021.

[Valerie_E._Lee,_Susanna_Loeb_62–82-45] Valerie E. Lee; Susanna Loeb (Spring 1995). "Where Do Head Start Attendees End up? One Reason Why Preschool Effects Fade Out". Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 17 (1): 62–82. doi:10.2307/1164270. JSTOR 1164270.

[46] S. Barnett (1993). "Does Head Start Fade Out?". Education Week. 5: 40.

[47] S. Barnett (Winter 1995). "Long Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Cognitive and School Outcomes". The Future of Children. 5 (3): 25–50. doi:10.2307/1602366. JSTOR 1602366.

[48] Fryer; Levitt (2004), Understanding the blacK-white test score gap in the first two years of school (PDF), University of Chicago

[weigel-49] Weigel, Margaret (August 11, 2011). "Head Start Impact: Department of Health and Human Services Report". Journalist's Resource.org.

[50] Besharov, Douglas J.; Call, Douglas M. (February 7, 2009). "Head Start Falls Further Behind". The New York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2011.

[51] Klein, Joe (July 7, 2011). "Time to Ax Public Programs That Don't Yield Results". Time. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011.

[52] Valerie Strauss, "Does Head Start work for kids? The bottom line", The Washington Post, March 5, 2013.

[53] "How to Apply | ECLKC". eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2021.

[:0-54] Hotz, V. Joseph; Wiswall, Matthew (2019). "Child Care and Child Care Policy: Existing Policies, Their Effects, and Reforms". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 686 (1): 310–338. doi:10.1177/0002716219884078. ISSN 0002-7162. S2CID 210683897.

[55] Farquhar, Sarah-Eve (January 1989). "Assessing New Zealand child day care quality using the early childhood environment rating scale (1)". Early Child Development and Care. 47 (1): 93–105. doi:10.1080/0300443890470105. ISSN 0300-4430.

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v t e Lyndon B. Johnson
36th President of the United States (1963–1969) 37th Vice President of the United States (1961–1963) U.S. Senator from Texas (1949–1961) U.S. Representative for TX-10 (1937–1949)
Presidency	Timeline Inaugurations first second Let Us Continue Great Society (Model Cities Program) Architectural Barriers Act Child Nutrition Act Clean Air Act Civil Rights Act of 1964 Coinage Act of 1965 Department of Housing and Urban Development Department of Transportation Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 Head Start Program Job Corps Elementary and Secondary Education Act Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Civil Rights Act of 1968 Fair Housing Act Truth in Lending Act Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968 Food Stamp Act of 1964 Glassboro Summit Gun Control Act of 1968 Higher Education Act of 1965 Upward Bound TRIO Teacher Corps Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 Johnson Doctrine Dominican Republic occupation Medicare Medicaid Meritorious Service Medal National Endowment for the Arts National Endowment for the Humanities Executive Order 11246 Executive Order 11375 Older Americans Act Operation CHAOS Outer Space Treaty Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 Foreign policy Vietnam War Gulf of Tonkin Resolution "Credibility gap" VISTA 24th Amendment Voting Rights Act of 1965 War on poverty White House Conference on Civil Rights Cannabis policy White House preservation State of the Union Address 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court Thurgood Marshall Supreme Court nomination controversies Johnson desk Presidential transition of Richard Nixon Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations
Life	Early years and career Operation Texas Texas Broadcasting Company Johnson Amendment Box 13 scandal Bashir Ahmad
Legacy and memorials	Bibliography Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Lyndon Baines Johnson Day Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs Memorial Grove on the Potomac U.S. Postage stamp USS Lyndon B. Johnson Black Jack (state funeral riderless horse)
Elections	United States House of Representatives special elections, 1937 1938 United States House of Representatives elections 1940 1942 1944 1946 United States Senate special elections, 1941 1948 United States Senate elections 1954 1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1960 1964 campaign 1968 withdrawal Democratic National Convention 1956 1960 1964 1960 United States presidential election transition 1964
Public image	Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture Daisy advertisement Johnson cult The Years of Lyndon Johnson LBJ (1991 television film) Path to War (2002 film) All the Way (play, film) Selma (2014 film) LBJ (2017 film)
Family	Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor Johnson (wife) Lynda Bird Johnson Robb (daughter) Luci Baines Johnson (daughter) Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. (father) Sam Houston Johnson (brother) Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. (grandfather) Joseph Wilson Baines (grandfather) George Washington Baines (great-grandfather) Chuck Robb (son-in-law)
← John F. Kennedy Richard Nixon → ← Richard Nixon Hubert Humphrey → Category

v t e Contemporary social welfare programs in the United States
Transfer payments	Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Social Security Supplemental Security Income Social Security Disability Insurance Unemployment insurance
Public housing	Section 8 (housing) Office of Public and Indian Housing
Food	Commodity Supplemental Food Program Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program WIC Child and Adult Care Food Program Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico School meal programs in the United States School Breakfast Program Farmers' Market Nutrition Program Summer Food Service Program Special Milk Program Nutrition Assistance Grants Reduced-price meal Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations
Education	Head Start Program Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant
Health Insurance	Medicare Medicaid Children's Health Insurance Program
Grants & subsidies	Community Development Block Grant Community Services Block Grant Child care and development block grant HOME Investment Partnerships Program Housing trust fund Mutual self-help housing Single Family Housing Direct Home Loans (Section 502) NeighborWorks America Urban Partnership Bank HOPE VI Government National Mortgage Association FHA insured loan HUD Neighborhood Networks Renewal community Empowerment zone Outreach and Assistance for Socially Disadvantaged Farmers and Ranchers Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program Lifeline
State & territory	California New York Puerto Rico