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{{Short description|Ants capable of producing life threatening symptoms or injury}}
[[Ant]]s are capable of biting, stinging and spraying irritant chemicals. Most have only a mild effect on humans however a few can cause injury or sometimes even death. Like [[wasp]]s, individual ants are capable of stinging multiple times.<ref>O'Rourke, Fergus J. (1956) The medical and veterinary importance of the formicidae. nsectes Sociaux 3(1):107-118 {{doi|10.1007/BF02230671}}</ref>
Most [[ant]]s are capable of biting, stinging, and spraying irritant chemicals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Touchard A, Aili SR, Fox EG, Escoubas P, Orivel J, Nicholson GM, Dejean A | title = The Biochemical Toxin Arsenal from Ant Venoms | journal = Toxins | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 30 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26805882 | pmc = 4728552 | doi = 10.3390/toxins8010030 | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, only relatively few species can harm humans; among which some can cause significant injury or, in rare cases, death. Like [[wasp]]s, individual ants are capable of stinging multiple times as they do not lose their stingers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Rourke FJ | year = 1956 | title = The medical and veterinary importance of the formicidae | journal = Insectes Sociaux | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 107–118 | doi = 10.1007/BF02230671 | s2cid = 27064350 }}</ref>


==Fire ants==
==Fire ants==
[[Image:Fire ants02.jpg|thumb|[[Red imported fire ant]], ''Solenopsis invicta'']]
[[Image:Fire ants02.jpg|thumb|[[Red imported fire ant]], ''Solenopsis invicta'']]
The fire ant ''[[Solenopsis invicta]]'' is a species that is expanding in range around the world and is most often involved in medical emergencies. The species is aggressive and has a painful sting. A person typically encounters fire ants by inadvertently stepping into one of their mounds, which causes the ants to swarm up the person's legs, attacking ''en masse''. The ants respond to [[pheromone]]s that are released by the first ant to attack. The ants then swarm and immediately sting when any movement is sensed. People who are sensitive to the venom can die of [[anaphylaxis]]. In a survey of 29,300 physicians in the United States of America (in 1989), reports of 83 fatalities were obtained.<ref>Rhoades RB, Stafford CT, James FK Jr. (1989) Survey of fatal anaphylactic reactions to imported fire ant stings. Report of the Fire Ant Subcommittee of the American Academy of Allergy and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 84(2):159-62. PMID: 2760357</ref> Some fire ant attacks on humans confined to beds have also been noted it has been noted that fire ants can be a particular threat in medical facilities in some locations since they can have nesting colonies inside human habitations.<ref>deShazo RD, Kemp SF, deShazo MD, Goddard J. (2004) Fire ant attacks on patients in nursing homes: an increasing problem. Am J Med. 116(12):843-6. PMID: 15178500</ref>
The fire ants are a group of 20 species of New World ants which are reputed after their aggressiveness and painful stings. Four species are considered of relevant medical importance: ''[[Red imported fire ant|Solenopsis invicta]]'', ''[[Black imported fire ant|Solenopsis richteri]]'', ''[[Fire ant|Solenopsis geminata]]'', and ''[[Solenopsis saevissima]]''. The Red Imported Fire Ant ''[[Solenopsis invicta|S. invicta]]'' is the best studied among them, and reputed as the most dangerous species. ''[[Solenopsis invicta|S. invicta]]'' is expanding in range around the world and thus it is most often involved in medical emergencies. A person typically encounters problems with fire ants by inadvertently stepping onto one of their mounds, which causes the ants to swarm up the person's legs, attacking ''en masse''. The ants quickly respond to alarm [[pheromone]]s that are released by the first disturbed ants, causing a swarm followed by aggressive stinging. [[Toxicology of red imported fire ant venom|Fire ant stings]] are typically accompanied by burning and urticaria, followed by a welt formation. The welts often develop into white pustules that should not be scratched, as to avoid secondary infections. A few individuals are sensitive to the venom, and can, on rare occasions, die of [[anaphylaxis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rupp MR, deShazo RD, Rupp MR, deShazo RD | title = Indoor fire ant sting attacks: a risk for frail elders | language = en | journal = The American Journal of the Medical Sciences | volume = 331 | issue = 3 | pages = 134–8 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16538074 | doi = 10.1097/00000441-200603000-00005 | s2cid = 3005745 }}</ref> In a survey of 29,300 physicians in the United States of America (in 1989), reports of 83 fatalities were obtained.<ref name="pmid2760357">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhoades RB, Stafford CT, James FK | title = Survey of fatal anaphylactic reactions to imported fire ant stings. Report of the Fire Ant Subcommittee of the American Academy of Allergy and Immunology | journal = The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–62 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 2760357 | doi = 10.1016/0091-6749(89)90319-9}}</ref> Some fire ant attacks on humans confined to beds have also been noted; in some locations, fire ants can be a particular threat in medical facilities since they can have nesting colonies inside human habitations.<ref name="pmid15178500">{{cite journal | vauthors = deShazo RD, Kemp SF, deShazo MD, Goddard J | title = Fire ant attacks on patients in nursing homes: an increasing problem | journal = The American Journal of Medicine | volume = 116 | issue = 12 | pages = 843–6 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15178500 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.02.026 }}</ref>

It has been demonstrated that, whilst the burning sensation and pustule formation is an effect of the sting injecting insoluble venom [[alkaloid]]s, the more serious allergic reactions are caused by venom protein allergens.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zamith-Miranda D, Fox EG, Monteiro AP, Gama D, Poublan LE, de Araujo AF, Araujo MF, Atella GC, Machado EA, Diaz BL | title = The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 14427 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30258210 | pmc = 6158280 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-018-32327-z | bibcode = 2018NatSR...814427Z }}</ref>


==Other species==
==Other species==
[[Image:Linepithema Argentine ant.jpg|thumb|[[Argentine ant]]]]
[[Image:Linepithema Argentine ant.jpg|thumb|[[Argentine ant]]]]
Apart from ''Solenopsis invicta'' and ''Solenopsis richteri'', serious allergic reactions are known from ants belonging to 6 different subfamilies (Formicinae, Myrmeciinae, Ponerinae, Ectatomminae, Myrmicinae, and Pseudomyrmecinae) and 10 genera (''Solenopsis'', ''Formica'', ''Myrmecia'', ''Tetramorium'', ''Pogonomyrmex'', ''Pachycondyla'', ''Odontomachus'', ''Rhytidoponera'', ''Pseudomyrmex'', and ''Hypoponera'').<ref>Klotz, John H.; Deshazo, Richard D.; Pinnas, Jacob L. ; Frishman, Austin M. ; Schmidt, Justin O. ; Suiter, Daniel R. ; Price, Gary W. ; Klotz, Stephen A. (2005) Adverse reactions to ants other than imported fire ants. Annals of allergy, asthma, & immunology 95(5):418-425</ref>
Apart from ''Solenopsis invicta'' and ''[[Solenopsis richteri]]'', serious allergic reactions are known from ants belonging to 6 different subfamilies ([[Formicinae]], [[Myrmeciinae]], [[Ponerinae]], [[Ectatomminae]], [[Myrmicinae]], and [[Pseudomyrmecinae]]) and 10 genera (''[[Solenopsis (ant)|Solenopsis]]'', ''[[Formica]]'', ''[[Myrmecia (ant)|Myrmecia]]'', ''[[Tetramorium]]'', ''[[Pogonomyrmex]]'', ''[[Pachycondyla]]'', ''[[Odontomachus]]'', ''[[Rhytidoponera]]'', ''[[Pseudomyrmex]]'', and ''[[Hypoponera]]'').<ref name="pmid16312163">{{cite journal | vauthors = Klotz JH, deShazo RD, Pinnas JL, Frishman AM, Schmidt JO, Suiter DR, Price GW, Klotz SA | title = Adverse reactions to ants other than imported fire ants | journal = Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology | volume = 95 | issue = 5 | pages = 418–25 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16312163 | doi = 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61165-9 }}</ref>


The [[Argentine ant]], ''Linepithema humile'' is found in Argentina, Southern Europe, Southern USA, California. They are small and are found in human habitations. They often kill other ant species.<ref>Harris, R J (2002) Potential impact of the Argentine ant (''Linepithema humile'') in New Zealand and options for its control. Science for Conservation 196 [http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/SFC196.pdf PDF]</ref> They have been noted as having the potential to carry pathogens in hospital environments.<ref>Fowler, H.G.; Bueno, O.C.; Sadatsune, T.; Montelli, A.C. 1993: Ants as potential vectors of pathogens in hospitals in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Insect Science and its Application 14: 367–370.</ref>
The [[Argentine ant]], ''Linepithema humile'' is found in Argentina, Southern Europe, Southern US and California. They are small and are found in human habitations. They often kill other ant species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris RJ | date = 2002 | title = Potential impact of the Argentine ant (''Linepithema humile'') in New Zealand and options for its control. | journal = Science for Conservation | volume = 196 | url = http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/SFC196.pdf | publisher = New Zealand Department of Conservation }}</ref> They have been noted as having the potential to carry pathogens in hospital environments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fowler HG, Bueno OC, Sadatsune T, Montelli AC | title = Ants as potential vectors of pathogens in hospitals in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. | journal = International Journal of Tropical Insect Science | date = June 1993 | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 367–70 | doi=10.1017/s1742758400014879| bibcode = 1993IJTIS..14..367F | s2cid = 86582422 }}</ref>


The [[Pharaoh ant]], ''Monomorium pharaonis'' is found around the world. It is not known for its sting, but has been involved in respiratory allergies.<ref>Kim CW, Choi SY, Park JW, Hong CS. (2005) Respiratory allergy to the indoor ant (Monomorium pharaonis) not related to sting allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 94: 301-6</ref>
The [[pharaoh ant]], ''Monomorium pharaonis'' is found around the world. It is not known for its sting, but has been involved in respiratory allergies<ref name="pmid15765749">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim CW, Choi SY, Park JW, Hong CS | title = Respiratory allergy to the indoor ant (Monomorium pharaonis) not related to sting allergy | journal = Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 301–6 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15765749 | doi = 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61312-9 }}</ref>


[[Image:Red bull ant.jpg|thumb|left|Red Bulldog Ant]]
[[Image:Red bull ant.jpg|thumb|left|Red bulldog ant]]
[[Bulldog ant]]s, genus ''Myrmecia'' are found in Australia and belong to the ant subfamily [[Myrmeciinae]], and are among the most primitive extant ants. All but one of the sixty or so species are found in Australia. This species is known to cause some fatalities in sensitive humans.<ref>Forbes McGain and Kenneth D. Winkel (2002) Ant sting mortality in Australia Toxicon. 40(8):1095-1100</ref>
[[Bulldog ant]]s, from the genus ''Myrmecia'', are native to Australia, with all but one of the ninety or so species found on the continent. Belonging to the ant subfamily [[Myrmeciinae]], they are among the most primitive extant ants in the world. This species is known to cause some fatalities in sensitive humans.<ref name="pmid12165310">{{cite journal | vauthors = McGain F, Winkel KD | title = Ant sting mortality in Australia | journal = Toxicon | volume = 40 | issue = 8 | pages = 1095–100 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12165310 | doi = 10.1016/s0041-0101(02)00097-1| bibcode = 2002Txcn...40.1095M }}</ref>


[[Image:Paraponera clavata|thumb|[[Bullet Ant]]]]
[[Image:Paraponera clavata MHNT.jpg|thumb|[[Bullet ant]]]]
[[Bullet ant]]s, genus ''Paraponera'' found from [[Nicaragua]] southward to the [[Amazon Basin]] and their close relatives of the genus ''[[Dinoponera]]'' are New World [[Ponerinae|ponerines]] known for their painful stings.<ref>Haddad Junior Vidal, Cardoso João Luiz Costa, Moraes Roberto Henrique Pinto. (2005) Description of an injury in a human caused by a false tocandira (Dinoponera gigantea, Perty, 1833) with a revision on folkloric, pharmacological and clinical aspects of the giant ants of the genera Paraponera and Dinoponera (sub-family Ponerinae). Rev. Inst. Med. trop. S. Paulo 47(4): 235-238. {{doi|10.1590/S0036-46652005000400012}}</ref>
[[Bullet ant]]s, from the genus ''Paraponera'', are found from [[Nicaragua]] southward to the [[Amazon Basin]]. They are and close relatives of the genus ''[[Dinoponera]]'', which are New World [[Ponerinae|ponerines]] known for their painful stings.<ref name="pmid16138209">{{cite journal | vauthors = Haddad Junior V, Cardoso JL, Moraes RH | title = Description of an injury in a human caused by a false tocandira (Dinoponera gigantea, Perty, 1833) with a revision on folkloric, pharmacological and clinical aspects of the giant ants of the genera Paraponera and Dinoponera (sub-family Ponerinae) | journal = Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 235–8 | date = 2005 | pmid = 16138209 | doi = 10.1590/S0036-46652005000400012 | doi-access = free | hdl = 11449/30504 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>


[[Image:Safari ants.jpg|thumb|Driver Ants]]
[[Image:Safari ants.jpg|thumb|Driver ants]]
[[Driver ant]]s, genus [[Dorylus]] are found in the Old world, esp. West Africa and the [[Congo Basin]]. Unlike the army ants of the New World, Old World army ants have a functional sting, but rarely use it; this is more than compensated for by their razor-sharp, falcate mandibles. ''[[Dorylus]]'' spp. colonies also reach larger sizes than ''[[Eciton]]''. The [[Siafu|Siafu ants]] on Mount Meru in Tanzania were implicated in the death of a missing tourist to the Congo.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
[[Driver ant]]s, from the genus ''[[Dorylus]]'', are found in the Old World, especially West Africa and the [[Congo Basin]]. Unlike the army ants of the New World, Old World army ants have a functional sting but rarely use it, preferring their razor-sharp, falcate mandibles for defense instead. ''[[Dorylus]]'' spp. colonies also reach larger sizes than ''[[Eciton]]''.


The ''[[Pogonomyrmex maricopa]]'', found in Western US, are bright red myrmicine ants whose venom is the most potent of any ant species.<ref>{{cite book | title = University of Florida Book of Insect Records | chapter = Chapter 23: Most Toxic Insect Venom | vauthors = Meyer WL | publisher = University of Florida | location = Gainesville, Florida | date = May 1996 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155649/http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chap23.htm | archive-date = 2009-02-08 | chapter-url = http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chap23.htm }}</ref>
[[Red harvester ant]], ''Pogonomyrmex barbatus'' found in Western USA are bright red myrmicine ants whose venom is the most potent of any ants species.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
⚫
<!--[[Legionnaire ant]] (''[[Polyergus]]'' spp.) are interesting southern boreal obligate [[dulosis|dulotes]] of the [[Formicinae]] subfamily. Their host is, like a similar convergent species, ''[[Formica sanguinea]]'', ants of the ''[[Formica fusca]]'' group. Although absent from the [[British Isles]], ''[[Polyergus rufescens]]'' is present on the continent, and many observations of its behaviour were made by [[Auguste-Henri Forel]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

⚫
<!--[[Legionnaire ant]] (''[[Polyergus]]'' spp.) are are interesting southern boreal obligate [[dulosis|dulotes]] of the [[Formicinae]] subfamily. Their host is, like a similar convergent species, ''[[Formica sanguinea]]'', ants of the ''[[Formica fusca]]'' group. Although absent from the [[British Isles]], ''[[Polyergus rufescens]]'' is present on the continent, and many observations of its behaviour were made by [[Auguste-Henri Forel]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}


Like the unrelated British-found [[parasite]] to ''[[Tetramorium caespitum]]'', ''[[Strongylodus testaceus]]'' (first discovered in Britain by [[Horace Donisthorpe]]), the legionnaire ants display greatly adapted, strongly falcate mandibles, which they use for piercing the heads of ''F. fusca'' et al. during raids.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}
Like the unrelated British-found [[parasite]] to ''[[Tetramorium caespitum]]'', ''[[Strongylodus testaceus]]'' (first discovered in Britain by [[Horace Donisthorpe]]), the legionnaire ants display greatly adapted, strongly falcate mandibles, which they use for piercing the heads of ''F. fusca'' et al. during raids.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}
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==References==
== See also ==
⚫
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Killer bee]]
* [[Killer bee]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
⚫
{{reflist}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Ants Of Medical Importance}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ants Of Medical Importance}}

Latest revision as of 01:54, 31 October 2024

Most ants are capable of biting, stinging, and spraying irritant chemicals.[1] However, only relatively few species can harm humans; among which some can cause significant injury or, in rare cases, death. Like wasps, individual ants are capable of stinging multiple times as they do not lose their stingers.[2]

Fire ants

[edit]
Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta

The fire ants are a group of 20 species of New World ants which are reputed after their aggressiveness and painful stings. Four species are considered of relevant medical importance: Solenopsis invicta, Solenopsis richteri, Solenopsis geminata, and Solenopsis saevissima. The Red Imported Fire Ant S. invicta is the best studied among them, and reputed as the most dangerous species. S. invicta is expanding in range around the world and thus it is most often involved in medical emergencies. A person typically encounters problems with fire ants by inadvertently stepping onto one of their mounds, which causes the ants to swarm up the person's legs, attacking en masse. The ants quickly respond to alarm pheromones that are released by the first disturbed ants, causing a swarm followed by aggressive stinging. Fire ant stings are typically accompanied by burning and urticaria, followed by a welt formation. The welts often develop into white pustules that should not be scratched, as to avoid secondary infections. A few individuals are sensitive to the venom, and can, on rare occasions, die of anaphylaxis.[3] In a survey of 29,300 physicians in the United States of America (in 1989), reports of 83 fatalities were obtained.[4] Some fire ant attacks on humans confined to beds have also been noted; in some locations, fire ants can be a particular threat in medical facilities since they can have nesting colonies inside human habitations.[5]

It has been demonstrated that, whilst the burning sensation and pustule formation is an effect of the sting injecting insoluble venom alkaloids, the more serious allergic reactions are caused by venom protein allergens.[6]

Other species

[edit]
Argentine ant

Apart from Solenopsis invicta and Solenopsis richteri, serious allergic reactions are known from ants belonging to 6 different subfamilies (Formicinae, Myrmeciinae, Ponerinae, Ectatomminae, Myrmicinae, and Pseudomyrmecinae) and 10 genera (Solenopsis, Formica, Myrmecia, Tetramorium, Pogonomyrmex, Pachycondyla, Odontomachus, Rhytidoponera, Pseudomyrmex, and Hypoponera).[7]

The Argentine ant, Linepithema humile is found in Argentina, Southern Europe, Southern US and California. They are small and are found in human habitations. They often kill other ant species.[8] They have been noted as having the potential to carry pathogens in hospital environments.[9]

The pharaoh ant, Monomorium pharaonis is found around the world. It is not known for its sting, but has been involved in respiratory allergies[10]

Red bulldog ant

Bulldog ants, from the genus Myrmecia, are native to Australia, with all but one of the ninety or so species found on the continent. Belonging to the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae, they are among the most primitive extant ants in the world. This species is known to cause some fatalities in sensitive humans.[11]

Bullet ant

Bullet ants, from the genus Paraponera, are found from Nicaragua southward to the Amazon Basin. They are and close relatives of the genus Dinoponera, which are New World ponerines known for their painful stings.[12]

Driver ants

Driver ants, from the genus Dorylus, are found in the Old World, especially West Africa and the Congo Basin. Unlike the army ants of the New World, Old World army ants have a functional sting but rarely use it, preferring their razor-sharp, falcate mandibles for defense instead. Dorylus spp. colonies also reach larger sizes than Eciton.

The Pogonomyrmex maricopa, found in Western US, are bright red myrmicine ants whose venom is the most potent of any ant species.[13]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Touchard A, Aili SR, Fox EG, Escoubas P, Orivel J, Nicholson GM, Dejean A (January 2016). "The Biochemical Toxin Arsenal from Ant Venoms". Toxins. 8 (1): 30. doi:10.3390/toxins8010030. PMC 4728552. PMID 26805882.
  2. ^ O'Rourke FJ (1956). "The medical and veterinary importance of the formicidae". Insectes Sociaux. 3 (1): 107–118. doi:10.1007/BF02230671. S2CID 27064350.
  3. ^ Rupp MR, deShazo RD, Rupp MR, deShazo RD (March 2006). "Indoor fire ant sting attacks: a risk for frail elders". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 331 (3): 134–8. doi:10.1097/00000441-200603000-00005. PMID 16538074. S2CID 3005745.
  4. ^ Rhoades RB, Stafford CT, James FK (August 1989). "Survey of fatal anaphylactic reactions to imported fire ant stings. Report of the Fire Ant Subcommittee of the American Academy of Allergy and Immunology". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 84 (2): 159–62. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(89)90319-9. PMID 2760357.
  5. ^ deShazo RD, Kemp SF, deShazo MD, Goddard J (June 2004). "Fire ant attacks on patients in nursing homes: an increasing problem". The American Journal of Medicine. 116 (12): 843–6. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.02.026. PMID 15178500.
  6. ^ Zamith-Miranda D, Fox EG, Monteiro AP, Gama D, Poublan LE, de Araujo AF, Araujo MF, Atella GC, Machado EA, Diaz BL (September 2018). "The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 14427. Bibcode:2018NatSR...814427Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32327-z. PMC 6158280. PMID 30258210.
  7. ^ Klotz JH, deShazo RD, Pinnas JL, Frishman AM, Schmidt JO, Suiter DR, Price GW, Klotz SA (November 2005). "Adverse reactions to ants other than imported fire ants". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 95 (5): 418–25. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61165-9. PMID 16312163.
  8. ^ Harris RJ (2002). "Potential impact of the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) in New Zealand and options for its control" (PDF). Science for Conservation. 196. New Zealand Department of Conservation.
  9. ^ Fowler HG, Bueno OC, Sadatsune T, Montelli AC (June 1993). "Ants as potential vectors of pathogens in hospitals in the state of São Paulo, Brazil". International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 14 (3): 367–70. Bibcode:1993IJTIS..14..367F. doi:10.1017/s1742758400014879. S2CID 86582422.
  10. ^ Kim CW, Choi SY, Park JW, Hong CS (February 2005). "Respiratory allergy to the indoor ant (Monomorium pharaonis) not related to sting allergy". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 94 (2): 301–6. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61312-9. PMID 15765749.
  11. ^ McGain F, Winkel KD (August 2002). "Ant sting mortality in Australia". Toxicon. 40 (8): 1095–100. Bibcode:2002Txcn...40.1095M. doi:10.1016/s0041-0101(02)00097-1. PMID 12165310.
  12. ^ Haddad Junior V, Cardoso JL, Moraes RH (2005). "Description of an injury in a human caused by a false tocandira (Dinoponera gigantea, Perty, 1833) with a revision on folkloric, pharmacological and clinical aspects of the giant ants of the genera Paraponera and Dinoponera (sub-family Ponerinae)". Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo. 47 (4): 235–8. doi:10.1590/S0036-46652005000400012. hdl:11449/30504. PMID 16138209.
  13. ^ Meyer WL (May 1996). "Chapter 23: Most Toxic Insect Venom". University of Florida Book of Insect Records. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida. Archived from the original on 2009-02-08.
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