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{{Short description|Facility for atmospheric research and prediction}}
[[Image:Mildura Airport Weatherstation.jpg|right|thumb|Weather station at [[Mildura Airport]], [[Victoria, Australia]].]]
{{for|the Canadian folk-rock band|The Weather Station}}
A '''weather station''' is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for observing [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] conditions to provide information for [[weather forecasting|weather forecasts]] and to study the [[weather]] and [[climate]]. The measurements taken include [[temperature]], [[barometric pressure]], [[humidity]], [[wind speed]], [[wind direction]], and [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] amounts. Wind measurements are taken as free of other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or [[insolation]]. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated observations are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as [[sea surface temperature]], wave height, and wave period. Drifting [[weather buoy]]s outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount.
[[Image:Mildura Airport Weatherstation.jpg|right|thumb|Weather station at [[Mildura Airport|Mildura Airport, Victoria]], Australia.]]

A '''weather station''' is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring [[atmosphere of Earth|atmospheric]] conditions to provide information for [[weather forecasting|weather forecasts]] and to study the [[weather]] and [[climate]]. The measurements taken include [[temperature]], [[atmospheric pressure]], [[humidity]], [[wind speed]], [[wind direction]], and [[precipitation]] amounts. [[Wind]] measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or [[insolation]]. Manual [[observations]] are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as [[sea surface temperature]] (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting [[weather buoy]]s outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount.

==Weather instruments==
[[File:NOAA weather station at Wake Island harbor.jpg|thumb|The [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] weather station at [[Wake Island]] harbor measures and transmits data on [[wind speed]], [[atmospheric pressure]], [[temperature|air temperature]] and [[tide]]s.]]
{{main|Weather instrumentation}}
{{further|List of weather instruments}}
A weather instrument is any device that measures weather related conditions. Since there are a variety of different weather conditions, there are a variety of different weather instruments.


==Instruments==
Typical weather stations have the following instruments:
Typical weather stations have the following instruments:
*[[Thermometer]] for measuring air and sea surface temperature
*[[Barometer]] for measuring [[atmospheric pressure]]
*[[Hygrometer]] for measuring humidity
*[[Anemometer]] for measuring [[wind speed]]
*[[Rain gauge]] for measuring liquid precipitation over a set period of time.


* [[Thermometer]] for measuring air and sea surface temperature
In addition, at certain with [[Automated airport weather station]]s, additional instruments may be employed, including:
* [[Barometer]] for measuring [[atmospheric pressure]]
*Present Weather/Precipitation Identification Sensor for identifying falling precipitation
*[[Disdrometer]] for measuring drop size distribution
* [[Hygrometer]] for measuring humidity
*[[Transmissometer]] for measuring visibility
* [[Anemometer]] for measuring wind speed
*[[Ceiling projector]] for measuring cloud ceiling
* [[Pyranometer]] for measuring [[solar radiation]]
* [[Rain gauge]] for measuring liquid precipitation over a set period of time.
* [[Wind sock]] for measuring general wind speed and wind direction
* [[Wind vane]], also called a weather vane or a weathercock: it shows which way the wind is blowing.
* [[Pan evaporation|Evaporation pan]] for measuring evaporation.


In addition, at certain [[automated airport weather station]]s, additional instruments may be employed, including:
More sophisticated stations may also measure the [[ultraviolet index]], [[solar radiation]], [[leaf wetness]], [[soil moisture]], soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data.

* [[Present weather sensor]] for identifying falling precipitation
* [[Disdrometer]] for measuring [[Raindrop size distribution|drop size distribution]]
* [[Transmissometer]] for measuring visibility
* [[Ceilometer]] for measuring cloud ceiling

More sophisticated stations may also measure the [[ultraviolet index]], [[leaf wetness]], [[soil moisture]], soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data.


===Exposure===
===Exposure===
[[File:2008-07-01 Elko ASOS viewed from the south cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Automated Surface Observing Station|Automated Surface Observing Stations]] are the source of the most commonly cited weather reports in the United States, located at airports in all major cities and most smaller ones]]
Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements ([[anemometer]], [[rain gauge]]), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, usually a [[Stevenson screen]], to keep direct sunlight off the [[thermometer]] and wind off the [[hygrometer]]. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a format such as [[METAR]], is also desirable as many weather station's data is required for [[weather forecasting]].
Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements (anemometer, rain gauge), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, usually a [[Stevenson screen]], to keep direct sunlight off the thermometer and wind off the hygrometer. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording, otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a format such as [[METAR]], is also desirable as many weather station's data is required for weather forecasting.


==Personal weather station==
==Personal weather station==
[[File:Davis VantagePro.jpg|right|thumb|Roof-mounted weather station instruments]]
[[File:Davis VantagePro.jpg|right|thumb|Roof-mounted weather station instruments]]
A personal weather station is a set of [[weather]] measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association, or even business (where obtaining and distributing weather data is not a part of the entity's business operation). The quality and number of instruments can vary widely, and placement of the instruments, so important to obtaining accurate, meaningful, and comparable data, can also be very variable.


A personal weather station is a set of weather measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association, or business (where obtaining and distributing weather data is not a part of the entity's business operation). Personal weather stations have become more advanced and can include many different sensors to measure weather conditions. These sensors can vary between models but most measure wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity, barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation. Other available sensors can measure soil moisture, soil temperature, and leaf wetness. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, and comparable data difficult. There are a comprehensive number of [[retail weather stations]] available.
Today's personal weather stations also typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a [[personal computer]] where data can be displayed, stored, and uploaded to Web sites or data ingestion/distribution systems.


Personal weather stations typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a personal computer where data can be displayed, stored, and uploaded to websites or data ingestion/distribution systems. [[open-source hardware|Open-source]] weather stations are available that are designed to be fully customizable by users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://circuitmaker.com/Projects/Details/Yannick-Verbelen/WeatherStation-3|title=WeatherStation 3|last=Verbelen|first=Yannick|date=2016|website=CircuitMaker|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416130000/https://circuitmaker.com/Projects/Details/Yannick-Verbelen/WeatherStation-3|archive-date=2017-04-16|url-status=dead|access-date=16 April 2017|quote=The firmware is under active development, and users are encouraged to contribute to it by forking the repository on Github. An initiative to further develop the hardware and make it commercially available is ongoing as spin-off project OpenObservatory.}}</ref>
Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, but many personal weather station operators also share their data with others, either by manually compiling data and distributing it, or through use of the Internet or [[amateur radio]]. The [[Citizen Weather Observer Program]] (CWOP) is one such, and the data submitted through use of software, a personal computer, and internet connection (or amateur radio) are utilized by the National Weather Service when generating forecast models, and by many other entities as well. Each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]] Internet site is another popular destination for the submittal and sharing of data with others around the world. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to The Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data.

Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, while some owners share their results with others. They do this by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the Internet, or sharing data via [[amateur radio]]. The [[Citizen Weather Observer Program]] (CWOP) is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from personal weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, and internet connection (or amateur radio) and are utilized by groups such as the [[National Weather Service]] (NWS) when generating [[Numerical weather prediction|forecast models]]. Each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]] Internet site is another popular destination for the submittal and sharing of data with others around the world. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data. The UK [[Met Office]]'s Weather Observations Website (WOW) also allows such data to be shared and displayed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/releases/archive/2011/wow-website-to-launch|title=WOW - A new weather website for everyone|date=2011-02-11|publisher=[[Met Office]]}}</ref>


== Dedicated ships ==
== Dedicated ships ==
{{Main|Weather ship}}
[[Image:Polarfront.jpg|thumb|right|The weather ship [[MS Polarfront|M/S ''Polarfront'']] at sea.]]

{{Main article|Weather ship}}
[[Image:Polarfront.jpg|thumb|right|The weather ship {{MS|Polarfront}} at sea.]]
A [[weather ship]] was a [[ship]] stationed in the [[ocean]] as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in [[weather forecasting]]. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.<ref name="pop"/><ref name="cg">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T5A9LCujs08C&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129&dq=weather+ship+book&source=bl&ots=G7-lIok3VQ&sig=kzpixxcNE3S7GxswCW8-YOwooIM&hl=en&ei=ybk1TaXBDcfTgQfUleyqCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20book&f=false|pages=127–130|author=Malcolm Francis Willoughby|title=The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II|publisher=|date=|ISBN=|accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref> The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during [[World War II]] that the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) established a global network of 13 weather ships in 1948.<ref name="pop">{{cite journal|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=weather+ship+book&source=bl&ots=OmpRml_kBT&sig=G7QIzrcG4dh7nOf-S7BHtVuI7EI&hl=en&ei=dbU1TfnWLIeSgQe7qeiXCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&sqi=2&ved=0CEwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20book&f=false|journal=Popular Mechanics|date=June 1948|accessdate=2011-01-18|title=Britain's First Weather Ship|page=136}}</ref> Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern [[Atlantic ocean]] while three were located in the northern [[Pacific ocean]]. The agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8sHp9ml7G6YC&pg=PA371&lpg=PA371&dq=weather+ship+book&source=bl&ots=H7OPU6yWbr&sig=p3qEkpMqecWnmK78eSM4Z78B2kU&hl=en&ei=Y7c1Tfm_B8P3gAfT8oGDCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBkQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20book&f=false|pages=369–371|title=Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction|author=Stanislaw R. Massel|year=1996|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=9789810221096|accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref> The last weather ship was [[MS Polarfront|MS ''Polarfront'']], known as weather station M ("Mike") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the [[Norwegian Meteorological Institute]]. MS ''Polarfront'' was removed from service January 1, 2010. Since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by [[satellite]]s, long range [[aircraft]] and [[weather buoy]]s. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation.

A [[weather ship]] was a [[ship]] stationed in the [[ocean]] as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological measurements for use in weather forecasting. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.<ref name="pop"/><ref name="cg">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5A9LCujs08C&pg=PA129|pages=127–130|author=Malcolm Francis Willoughby|title=The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II|publisher=Arno Press|date=1980|isbn=978-0-405-13081-6}}</ref> The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during [[World War II]] that the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) established a global network of 13 weather ships in 1948.<ref name="pop">{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA136|journal=Popular Mechanics|date=June 1948|title=Britain's First Weather Ship|page=136}}</ref> Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]] while three were located in the northern [[Pacific Ocean]]. The agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8sHp9ml7G6YC&q=weather+ship+book&pg=PA371|pages=369–371|title=Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction|author=Stanislaw R. Massel|year=1996|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-2109-6|access-date=2011-01-18}}</ref> The last weather ship was {{MS|Polarfront}}, known as weather station M ("jilindras") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the [[Norwegian Meteorological Institute]]. MS ''Polarfront'' was removed from service January 1, 2010. Since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by [[satellite]]s, long range [[aircraft]] and [[weather buoy]]s. Weather observations from ships continue from thousands of [[Voluntary observing ship program|voluntary merchant vessels]] in routine commercial operation; the [[Old Weather]] [[crowdsourcing]] project transcribes naval logs from before the era of dedicated ships.

[[Image:NOAA-NDBC-discus-buoy.jpg|thumb|Weather buoy operated by the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] National Data Buoy Center]]


==Dedicated buoys==
==Dedicated buoys==
{{Main article|Weather buoy}}
{{Main|Weather buoy}}

[[Image:NOAA-NDBC-discus-buoy.jpg|thumb|Weather buoy operated by the [[NOAA]] National Data Buoy Center]]
Weather buoys are instruments which collect [[weather]] and [[ocean]] data within the worlds oceans. Moored buoys have been in use since 1951,<ref>{{cite journal|title=NOMAD buoys: an overview of forty years of use|author=G. L. Timpe and N. Van de Voorde|journal=OCEANS '95. MTS/IEEE. Challenges of Our Changing Global Environment. Conference Proceedings|pages=309–315|volume=1|doi=10.1109/OCEANS.1995.526788|date=October 1995}}</ref> while drifting buoys have been used since the late 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oceanmotion.org/html/gatheringdata/buoysanddrifers.htm|author=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|title=Ocean Motion and Surface Currents|date=2009-04-15|accessdate=2011-01-28|authorlink=NASA}}</ref> Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains, [[nylon]], or buoyant [[polypropylene]].<ref name="NDBC">{{cite web|url=http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/mooredbuoy.shtml|title=Moored Buoy Program|author=[[National Data Buoy Center]]|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=2008-02-04|accessdate=2011-01-29}}</ref> With the decline of the [[weather ship]], they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40&dq=weather+ship+network+book&hl=en&ei=TA82TaODHYO0lQfD_rn5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20network%20book&f=false|page=40|author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction|title=The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council|year=1974|accessdate=2011-01-18|publisher=National Academies}}</ref> During the 1980s and 1990s, a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean helped study the [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DO5K1NK_ZewC&pg=PA62&dq=1990+TOGA+ocean+buoy+network+Pacific+ocean+book&hl=en&ei=L-EpTfDFDMKAlAf934CrAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Global energy and water cycles|author=K. A. Browning, Robert J. Gurney|page=62|accessdate=2011-01-09|year=1999|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|ISBN=9780521560573}}</ref> Moored weather buoys range from {{convert|1.5|m|ft}} to {{convert|12|m|ft}} in diameter,<ref name="NDBC"/> while drifting buoys are smaller, with diameters of {{convert|30|cm|in}} to {{convert|40|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/gdp_drifter.php|publisher=The Global Drifter Program|author=R. Lumpkin and M. Pazos|title=What's a Drifter?|date=2010-06-08|accessdate=2011-01-29}}</ref> Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number, with 1250 located worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oceanmotion.org/html/gatheringdata/buoysanddrifers.htm|author=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|title=Ocean Motion and Surface Currents|date=2009-04-15|accessdate=2011-01-28|authorlink=NASA}}</ref> [[Wind]] data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships.<ref>{{cite journal|url=ftp://ftp.wmo.int/Documents/PublicWeb/amp/mmop/documents/JCOMM-TR/J-TR-13-Marine-Climatology/REV1/joc1176.pdf|journal=International Journal of Climatology|volume=25|pages=979–995|doi=10.1002/joc.1176|year=2005|accessdate=2011-01-29|author=Bridget R. Thomas, Elizabeth C. Kent, and Val R. Swail|title=Methods to Homogenize Wind Speeds From Ships and Buoys|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|bibcode = 2005IJCli..25..979T }}</ref> There are differences in the values of [[sea surface temperature]] measurements between the two platforms as well, relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A6ew-bJDIDIC&pg=PA24&dq=measurement+of+sea+surface+temperature+bucket+of+water+book&hl=en&ei=8dspTe7QH4H6lwe33bnOAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=measurement%20of%20sea%20surface%20temperature%20bucket%20of%20water%20book&f=false|pages=24–25|title=Data analysis methods in physical oceanography|author=William J. Emery, Richard E. Thomson|year=2001|accessdate=2011-01-09|ISBN=9780444507570|publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing}}</ref>
Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and [[oceanography]] data within the world's oceans and lakes.<ref name=grlks>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bigbaywx.com/buoy.php/ |title=Great Lakes buoys |access-date=2012-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618193247/http://www.bigbaywx.com/buoy.php |archive-date=2012-06-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=mskgn>[http://www.gvsu.edu/wri/buoy/ Muskegon Lake buoy]</ref><ref name=craterlake>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/weather/oclb.html/ |title=Crater Lake weather buoy |access-date=2012-06-16 |archive-date=2012-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221023027/http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/weather/oclb.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Moored buoys have been in use since 1951,<ref>{{cite book|author1=G. L. Timpe |author2=N. Van de Voorde |title='Challenges of Our Changing Global Environment'. Conference Proceedings. OCEANS '95 MTS/IEEE |chapter=NOMAD buoys: An overview of forty years of use |name-list-style=amp |pages=309–315|volume=1|doi=10.1109/OCEANS.1995.526788|date=October 1995|isbn=0-933957-14-9 |s2cid=111274406 }}</ref> while drifting buoys have been used since the late 1970s.<ref name="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">{{cite web|url=http://oceanmotion.org/html/gatheringdata/buoysanddrifers.htm|author=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|title=Ocean Motion and Surface Currents|date=2009-04-15|access-date=2011-01-28|author-link=NASA}}</ref> Moored buoys are connected with the seabed using either chains, [[nylon]], or buoyant [[polypropylene]].<ref name="NDBC">{{cite web|url=http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/mooredbuoy.shtml|title=Moored Buoy Program|author=National Data Buoy Center|author-link=National Data Buoy Center|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=2008-02-04|access-date=2011-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103084317/http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/mooredbuoy.shtml|archive-date=2011-01-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> With the decline of the [[weather ship]], they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40|page=40|author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction|title=The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council|year=1974|publisher=National Academies}}</ref> During the 1980s and 1990s, a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean helped study the [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DO5K1NK_ZewC&pg=PA62|title=Global energy and water cycles|author1=K. A. Browning |author2=Robert J. Gurney |page=62|year=1999|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-56057-3}}</ref> Moored weather buoys range from {{convert|1.5|-|12|m|ft|sigfig=1}} in diameter,<ref name="NDBC"/> while drifting buoys are smaller, with diameters of {{convert|30|-|40|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/gdp_drifter.php|publisher=The Global Drifter Program|author1=R. Lumpkin |author2=M. Pazos |name-list-style=amp |title=What's a Drifter?|date=2010-06-08|access-date=2011-01-29}}</ref> Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number, with 1250 located worldwide.<ref name="National Aeronautics and Space Administration"/> Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships.<ref>{{cite journal|url=ftp://ftp.wmo.int/Documents/PublicWeb/amp/mmop/documents/JCOMM-TR/J-TR-13-Marine-Climatology/REV1/joc1176.pdf|journal=International Journal of Climatology|volume=25|pages=979–995|doi=10.1002/joc.1176|year=2005|access-date=2011-01-29|author1=Bridget R. Thomas|author2=Elizabeth C. Kent|author3=Val R. Swail|name-list-style=amp|title=Methods to Homogenize Wind Speeds From Ships and Buoys|issue=7|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|bibcode=2005IJCli..25..979T|s2cid=128839496 }}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well, relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ew-bJDIDIC&pg=PA24|pages=24–25|title=Data analysis methods in physical oceanography|author1=William J. Emery |author2=Richard E. Thomson |year=2001|isbn=978-0-444-50757-0|publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing}}</ref>

==Synoptic weather station==
[[File:PULSONIC - PULSIA - Station Synoptique.png|thumb|right|A [[Synoptic scale meteorology|Synoptic]] automatic weather station]]

[[Synoptic scale meteorology|Synoptic]] weather stations are instruments which collect meteorological information at synoptic time 00h00, 06h00, 12h00, 18h00 ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]) and at intermediate synoptic hours 03h00, 09h00, 15h00, 21h00 (UTC). Every weather station has assigned station unique code by WMO for identification.

The common instruments of measure are anemometer, wind vane, pressure sensor, thermometer, hygrometer, and rain gauge.

The weather measures are formatted in special format and transmit to WMO to help the weather forecast model.


==Networks==
==Networks==
A variety of land-based weather station networks have been set up globally. Some of these are basic to analyzing [[weather fronts]] and pressure systems, such as the synoptic observation network, while others are more regional in nature.
A variety of land-based weather station networks have been set up globally. Some of these are basic to analyzing [[weather front]]s and pressure systems, such as the synoptic observation network, while others are more regional in nature, known as [[mesonet]]s.

===Global===
===Global===
* [[Global Climate Observing System]]
*[[Citizen Weather Observer Program]]<ref>Russ Chadwick. [http://wxqa.com/ Citizen Weather Observer Program.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Weather Underground Personal Weather Stations<ref>Weather Underground. [http://www.wunderground.com/weatherstation/index.asp Personal Weather Station.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* [[Citizen Weather Observer Program]] (CWOP)<ref>Russ Chadwick. [http://wxqa.com/ Citizen Weather Observer Program.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Weather Underground Personal Weather Stations<ref>Weather Underground. [http://www.wunderground.com/weatherstation/index.asp Personal Weather Station.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>


===United States===
=== Japan ===

*Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET)<ref>[http://ag.arizona.edu/AZMET/ Arizona Meteorological Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* [[Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System]] (AMeDAS)（アメダス）
*Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network<ref>Pennsylvania State Climatologist. [http://climate.met.psu.edu/data/volunteer.php Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>

*Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN)<ref>[[University of Florida]]. [http://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu/ Florida Automated Weather Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
===United States of America===
*Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network (GAEMN)<ref>[[University of Georgia]]. [http://www.griffin.uga.edu/aemn/ Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network.] Retrieved on 2010-09-01.</ref>
*Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS)<ref>[[NCAR]].[http://data.eol.ucar.edu/codiac/dss/id=85.033 Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS).] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET)<ref>[http://ag.arizona.edu/AZMET/ Arizona Meteorological Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network<ref>Pennsylvania State Climatologist. [http://climate.met.psu.edu/data/volunteer.php Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526211213/http://climate.met.psu.edu/data/volunteer.php |date=2008-05-26 }} Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Iowa Environmental Mesonet (IEM)<ref>[[Iowa State University]] Department of Agronomy. [http://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/ Iowa Environmental Mesonet.] Retrieved on 2009-11-12.</ref>
*MesoWest<ref>[[University of Utah]]. [http://www.met.utah.edu/mesowest/ MesoWest.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN)<ref>[[University of Florida]]. [http://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu/ Florida Automated Weather Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN)<ref>[[Michigan State University]]. [http://www.agweather.geo.msu.edu/mawn/ Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN).] Retrieved on 2008-12-01.</ref>
* Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network (GAEMN)<ref>[[University of Georgia]]. [http://www.griffin.uga.edu/aemn/ Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609210048/http://www.griffin.uga.edu/aemn/ |date=2010-06-09 }} Retrieved on 2010-09-01.</ref>
*Missouri Weather Stations<ref>[[University of Missouri]] Agricultural Electronic Bulletin Board. [http://agebb.missouri.edu/weather/stations/ Missouri Weather Stations.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS)<ref>[[NCAR]].[http://data.eol.ucar.edu/codiac/dss/id=85.033 Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS).] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*[[National Weather Service]] Cooperative Observer Program<ref>[[National Weather Service]]. [http://www.weather.gov/om/coop/ Cooperative Observer Program.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Iowa Environmental [[Mesonet]] (IEM)<ref>[[Iowa State University]] Department of Agronomy. [http://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/ Iowa Environmental Mesonet.] Retrieved on 2009-11-12.</ref>
*Oklahoma Mesonet<ref>[[University of Oklahoma]]. [http://www.mesonet.org/ Oklahoma Mesonet.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* [[MesoWest]]<ref>[[University of Utah]]. [http://www.met.utah.edu/mesowest/ MesoWest.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network<ref>[http://www.usbr.gov/pn/agrimet/aginfo/station_params.html AgriMet: The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-05.</ref>
* Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN)<ref>[[Michigan State University]]. [http://www.agweather.geo.msu.edu/mawn/ Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN).] Retrieved on 2008-12-01.</ref>
* Missouri Weather Stations<ref>[[University of Missouri]] Agricultural Electronic Bulletin Board. [http://agebb.missouri.edu/weather/stations/ Missouri Weather Stations.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* National Weather Service [[Cooperative Observer]] (COOP) program<ref>[[National Weather Service]]. [http://www.weather.gov/om/coop/ Cooperative Observer Program.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* New York State Mesonet<ref>[[University of Albany]]. [http://nysmesonet.org/ NYS Mesonet.] Retrieved on 2017-05-21.</ref>
* [[Oklahoma Mesonet]]<ref>[[University of Oklahoma]]. [http://www.mesonet.org/ Oklahoma Mesonet.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network<ref>[http://www.usbr.gov/pn/agrimet/aginfo/station_params.html AgriMet: The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-05.</ref>


===Southern Hemisphere===
===Southern Hemisphere===
*Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project<ref>Automatic Weather Stations Project. [http://amrc.ssec.wisc.edu/aws.html Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project<ref>Automatic Weather Stations Project. [http://amrc.ssec.wisc.edu/aws.html Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Australia/Bureau of Meteorology AWS network.<ref>[[Bureau of Meteorology]]. [http://www.bom.gov.au/inside/services_policy/pub_ag/aws/aws.shtml Automatic Weather Stations for Agricultural and Other Applications.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Australia: [[Bureau of Meteorology]] AWS network.<ref>[[Bureau of Meteorology]]. [http://www.bom.gov.au/inside/services_policy/pub_ag/aws/aws.shtml Automatic Weather Stations for Agricultural and Other Applications.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Australia/Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia<ref>Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia. [http://agspsrv34.agric.wa.gov.au/climate/livedata/sumpages.htm Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia Weather Stations.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia<ref>Department of Agriculture and Food [[Western Australia]]. [http://agspsrv34.agric.wa.gov.au/climate/livedata/sumpages.htm Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia Weather Stations.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819031510/http://agspsrv34.agric.wa.gov.au/climate/livedata/sumpages.htm |date=2008-08-19 }} Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
*Australia/Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network<ref>Lower Murray Water Resources. [http://www.lmw.vic.gov.au/LMWAWS.htm Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network.] Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>
* Australia: Lower [[Murray River|Murray]] Water Automatic Weather Station Network<ref>Lower Murray Water Resources. [http://www.lmw.vic.gov.au/LMWAWS.htm Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720234317/http://www.lmw.vic.gov.au/LMWAWS.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} Retrieved on 2008-06-11.</ref>


==See also==
== See also ==
*[[Global Telecommunications System]]
* [[Global Telecommunications System]]
*[[Weather satellite]]
* [[Lightning detection]]
* [[Surface weather observation]] and [[surface weather analysis]]
* [[Weather radar]]
* [[Weather satellite]]
* [[Wind profiler]]


== Further reading ==
==References==

{{Reflist|2}}
* Naylor, Simon (2024). ''The Observatory Experiment: Meteorology in Britain and Its Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons cat|Weather stations}}
{{commons category|Weather stations}}
*[http://www.aawo.net Association of American Weather Observers]
* [http://www.wxqa.com/ Citizen Weather Observer Program]
* [http://www.wmo.ch/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-81/IOM-81-UrbanMetObs.pdf Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations at Urban Sites, by Tim R. Oke]
*[http://www.wxqa.com/ Citizen Weather Observer Program]
*[http://mywebpages.comcast.net/dshelms/CWOP_Guide.pdf CWOP Weather Station Siting, Performance, and Data Quality Guide]
* [http://www.weathergraphics.com/dl/obsman.pdf International Weather Watchers Observer Handbook]
* [http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/ NWS Cooperative Observer Program]
*[http://www.wmo.ch/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-81/IOM-81-UrbanMetObs.pdf Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations at Urban Sites, by Tim R. Oke]
* [http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/Publications/coophandbook2.pdf NWS Observing Handbook No. 2: Cooperative Station Observations]
*[http://www.weathergraphics.com/dl/obsman.pdf International Weather Watchers Observer Handbook]

*[http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/ NWS Cooperative Observer Program]
{{Authority control}}
*[http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/Publications/coophandbook2.pdf NWS Observing Handbook No. 2: Cooperative Station Observations]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Weather Station}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Weather Station}}
[[Category:Meteorological stations| ]]
[[Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment]]
[[Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment]]
[[Category:Meteorological stations]]

[[ca:Estació meteorològica]]
[[cs:Meteorologická stanice]]
[[de:Wetterstation]]
[[et:Ilmajaam]]
[[el:Μετεωρολογικός σταθμός]]
[[es:Estación meteorológica]]
[[fr:Station météorologique]]
[[gl:Estación meteorolóxica]]
[[ko:기상관측소]]
[[is:Veðurathugunarstöð]]
[[it:Stazione meteorologica]]
[[kk:Метеорологиялық станция]]
[[la:Statio meteorologica]]
[[lv:Meteostacija]]
[[lt:Meteorologinė stotis]]
[[nl:Weerstation]]
[[ja:気象台]]
[[no:Meteorologisk stasjon]]
[[nn:Meteorologisk stasjon]]
[[pl:Stacja meteorologiczna]]
[[pt:Estação meteorológica]]
[[ru:Метеостанция]]
[[simple:Weather station]]
[[sk:Meteorologická stanica]]
[[fi:Sääasema]]
[[sv:Väderstation]]
[[uk:Метеорологічна станція]]
[[zh:气象站]]

Latest revision as of 07:54, 3 November 2024

For the Canadian folk-rock band, see The Weather Station.
Weather station at Mildura Airport, Victoria, Australia.

A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount.

Weather instruments

[edit]
The NOAA weather station at Wake Island harbor measures and transmits data on wind speed, atmospheric pressure, air temperature and tides.
Main article: Weather instrumentation
Further information: List of weather instruments

A weather instrument is any device that measures weather related conditions. Since there are a variety of different weather conditions, there are a variety of different weather instruments.

Typical weather stations have the following instruments:

In addition, at certain automated airport weather stations, additional instruments may be employed, including:

More sophisticated stations may also measure the ultraviolet index, leaf wetness, soil moisture, soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data.

Exposure

[edit]
Automated Surface Observing Stations are the source of the most commonly cited weather reports in the United States, located at airports in all major cities and most smaller ones

Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements (anemometer, rain gauge), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, usually a Stevenson screen, to keep direct sunlight off the thermometer and wind off the hygrometer. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording, otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a format such as METAR, is also desirable as many weather station's data is required for weather forecasting.

Personal weather station

[edit]
Roof-mounted weather station instruments

A personal weather station is a set of weather measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association, or business (where obtaining and distributing weather data is not a part of the entity's business operation). Personal weather stations have become more advanced and can include many different sensors to measure weather conditions. These sensors can vary between models but most measure wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity, barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation. Other available sensors can measure soil moisture, soil temperature, and leaf wetness. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, and comparable data difficult. There are a comprehensive number of retail weather stations available.

Personal weather stations typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a personal computer where data can be displayed, stored, and uploaded to websites or data ingestion/distribution systems. Open-source weather stations are available that are designed to be fully customizable by users.[1]

Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, while some owners share their results with others. They do this by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the Internet, or sharing data via amateur radio. The Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from personal weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, and internet connection (or amateur radio) and are utilized by groups such as the National Weather Service (NWS) when generating forecast models. Each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The Weather Underground Internet site is another popular destination for the submittal and sharing of data with others around the world. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data. The UK Met Office's Weather Observations Website (WOW) also allows such data to be shared and displayed.[2]

Dedicated ships

[edit]
Main article: Weather ship
The weather ship MS Polarfront at sea.

A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological measurements for use in weather forecasting. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.[3][4] The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of 13 weather ships in 1948.[3] Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern Atlantic Ocean while three were located in the northern Pacific Ocean. The agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource.[5] The last weather ship was MS Polarfront, known as weather station M ("jilindras") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. MS Polarfront was removed from service January 1, 2010. Since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by satellites, long range aircraft and weather buoys. Weather observations from ships continue from thousands of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation; the Old Weather crowdsourcing project transcribes naval logs from before the era of dedicated ships.

Weather buoy operated by the NOAA National Data Buoy Center

Dedicated buoys

[edit]
Main article: Weather buoy

Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and oceanography data within the world's oceans and lakes.[6][7][8] Moored buoys have been in use since 1951,[9] while drifting buoys have been used since the late 1970s.[10] Moored buoys are connected with the seabed using either chains, nylon, or buoyant polypropylene.[11] With the decline of the weather ship, they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s.[12] During the 1980s and 1990s, a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean helped study the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.[13] Moored weather buoys range from 1.5–12 metres (5–40 ft) in diameter,[11] while drifting buoys are smaller, with diameters of 30–40 centimetres (12–16 in).[14] Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number, with 1250 located worldwide.[10] Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships.[15] There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well, relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity.[16]

Synoptic weather station

[edit]
A Synoptic automatic weather station

Synoptic weather stations are instruments which collect meteorological information at synoptic time 00h00, 06h00, 12h00, 18h00 (UTC) and at intermediate synoptic hours 03h00, 09h00, 15h00, 21h00 (UTC). Every weather station has assigned station unique code by WMO for identification.

The common instruments of measure are anemometer, wind vane, pressure sensor, thermometer, hygrometer, and rain gauge.

The weather measures are formatted in special format and transmit to WMO to help the weather forecast model.

Networks

[edit]

A variety of land-based weather station networks have been set up globally. Some of these are basic to analyzing weather fronts and pressure systems, such as the synoptic observation network, while others are more regional in nature, known as mesonets.

Global

[edit]

Japan

[edit]

United States of America

[edit]
  • Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET)[19]
  • Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network[20]
  • Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN)[21]
  • Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network (GAEMN)[22]
  • Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS)[23]
  • Iowa Environmental Mesonet (IEM)[24]
  • MesoWest[25]
  • Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN)[26]
  • Missouri Weather Stations[27]
  • National Weather Service Cooperative Observer (COOP) program[28]
  • New York State Mesonet[29]
  • Oklahoma Mesonet[30]
  • The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network[31]

Southern Hemisphere

[edit]
  • Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project[32]
  • Australia: Bureau of Meteorology AWS network.[33]
  • Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia[34]
  • Australia: Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network[35]

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Naylor, Simon (2024). The Observatory Experiment: Meteorology in Britain and Its Empire. Cambridge University Press.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Verbelen, Yannick (2016). "WeatherStation 3". CircuitMaker. Archived from the original on 2017-04-16. Retrieved 16 April 2017. The firmware is under active development, and users are encouraged to contribute to it by forking the repository on Github. An initiative to further develop the hardware and make it commercially available is ongoing as spin-off project OpenObservatory.
  2. ^ "WOW - A new weather website for everyone". Met Office. 2011-02-11.
  3. ^ a b "Britain's First Weather Ship". Popular Mechanics: 136. June 1948.
  4. ^ Malcolm Francis Willoughby (1980). The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II. Arno Press. pp. 127–130. ISBN 978-0-405-13081-6.
  5. ^ Stanislaw R. Massel (1996). Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction. World Scientific. pp. 369–371. ISBN 978-981-02-2109-6. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  6. ^ "Great Lakes buoys". Archived from the original on 2012-06-18. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
  7. ^ Muskegon Lake buoy
  8. ^ "Crater Lake weather buoy". Archived from the original on 2012-12-21. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
  9. ^ G. L. Timpe & N. Van de Voorde (October 1995). "NOMAD buoys: An overview of forty years of use". 'Challenges of Our Changing Global Environment'. Conference Proceedings. OCEANS '95 MTS/IEEE. Vol. 1. pp. 309–315. doi:10.1109/OCEANS.1995.526788. ISBN 0-933957-14-9. S2CID 111274406.
  10. ^ a b National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2009-04-15). "Ocean Motion and Surface Currents". Retrieved 2011-01-28.
  11. ^ a b National Data Buoy Center (2008-02-04). "Moored Buoy Program". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2011-01-03. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
  12. ^ National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction (1974). The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council. National Academies. p. 40.
  13. ^ K. A. Browning; Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global energy and water cycles. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-521-56057-3.
  14. ^ R. Lumpkin & M. Pazos (2010-06-08). "What's a Drifter?". The Global Drifter Program. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
  15. ^ Bridget R. Thomas; Elizabeth C. Kent & Val R. Swail (2005). "Methods to Homogenize Wind Speeds From Ships and Buoys" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology. 25 (7). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 979–995. Bibcode:2005IJCli..25..979T. doi:10.1002/joc.1176. S2CID 128839496. Retrieved 2011-01-29.[permanent dead link‍]
  16. ^ William J. Emery; Richard E. Thomson (2001). Data analysis methods in physical oceanography. Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-444-50757-0.
  17. ^ Russ Chadwick. Citizen Weather Observer Program. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  18. ^ Weather Underground. Personal Weather Station. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  19. ^ Arizona Meteorological Network. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  20. ^ Pennsylvania State Climatologist. Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network. Archived 2008-05-26 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  21. ^ University of Florida. Florida Automated Weather Network. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  22. ^ University of Georgia. Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network. Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2010-09-01.
  23. ^ NCAR.Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS). Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  24. ^ Iowa State University Department of Agronomy. Iowa Environmental Mesonet. Retrieved on 2009-11-12.
  25. ^ University of Utah. MesoWest. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  26. ^ Michigan State University. Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN). Retrieved on 2008-12-01.
  27. ^ University of Missouri Agricultural Electronic Bulletin Board. Missouri Weather Stations. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  28. ^ National Weather Service. Cooperative Observer Program. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  29. ^ University of Albany. NYS Mesonet. Retrieved on 2017-05-21.
  30. ^ University of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Mesonet. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  31. ^ AgriMet: The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network. Retrieved on 2008-06-05.
  32. ^ Automatic Weather Stations Project. Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  33. ^ Bureau of Meteorology. Automatic Weather Stations for Agricultural and Other Applications. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  34. ^ Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia Weather Stations. Archived 2008-08-19 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
  35. ^ Lower Murray Water Resources. Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network. Archived 2008-07-20 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
[edit]
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