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{{Short description|Species of snake}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
| name = Red spitting cobra
| name = Red spitting cobra
| image = Red-Spitting-Cobra-1.jpg
| image = Naja pallida, Boston.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| genus = Naja
| parent = Naja (Afronaja)
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| species = pallida
| classis = [[Reptilia]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Beraduccii, J. |author2=Spawls, S. |author3=Malonza, P. |date=2021 |title=''Naja pallida'' |volume=2021 |page=e.T20878782A20878789 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T20878782A20878789.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| subordo = [[Serpentes]]
| authority = [[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1896
| familia = [[Elapidae]]
⚫
| synonyms = ''Naia nigricollis'' Var. PALLIDA <small>[[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1896</small>
| genus = ''[[Naja]]''
| genus_authority = [[Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti|Laurenti]], 1768
| species = '''''N. pallida'''''
| binomial = ''Naja pallida''
| binomial_authority = [[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1896<ref name=database>{{cite web|last=Uetz|first=Peter|title=Naja pallida BOULENGER, 1896|url=http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Naja&species=pallida|work=The Reptile Database|publisher=http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz|accessdate=3 March 2012}}</ref><ref name=itis>{{cite web|title=Naja pallida|url=http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=700636|work=ITIS Standard Report Page|publisher=ITIS.gov|accessdate=3 March 2012}}</ref>
| range_map =
| range_map_width =
| range_map_caption =
| synonyms_ref=<ref name=database/>
| synonyms =
⚫
*''Naja nigricollis var. pallida'' <br /><small>Boulenger, 1896</small>
*''Naja nigricollis pallida'' <br /><small>Bogert, 1942</small>
*''Naja nigricollis pallida'' <br /><small>Loveridge, 1957</small>
*''Naja mossambica pallida'' <br /><small>Broadley, 1968</small>
*''Naja mossambica pallida'' <br /><small>Harding & Welch, 1980</small>
*''Naja mossambica pallida'' <br /><small>Trutnau, 1984</small>
*''Naja pallida'' <br /><small>Hughes, 1983</small>
*''Naja pallida'' <br /><small>Golay, 1985</small>
*''Naja pallida'' <br /><small>Welch, 1994</small>
*''Naja (Afronaja) pallida'' <br /><small>Wallach, 2009</small>
}}
}}


The '''red spitting cobra''' (''Naja pallida''), is a species of [[spitting cobra]] native to [[Africa]].
The '''red spitting cobra''' ('''''Naja pallida''''') is a species of [[spitting cobra]] native to [[Africa]].


==Description==
==Description==
[[Image:Naja pallida.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Juvenile ''N. pallida'': note the black throat band, in contrast to adult coloration.]]
[[File:Naja pallida.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Juvenile ''N. pallida'': note the black throat band, in contrast to adult coloration]]
This is a relatively small sized cobra that attains lengths between {{convert|0.7|and|1.2|m|ft|sp=us}} on average, but may grow to a maximum length of around {{convert|1.5|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=Spawls>{{cite book|last=Spawls|last2 =Branch|first=Stephen|first2= Bill|title=Dangerous Snakes of Africa|year=1995|publisher=Blandford Press|location=London, UK|isbn=0713723947|pages=76-77}}</ref> It is often thought of as an attractive species; it is usually bright salmon-red contrasted with a broad black throat band and subocular teardrop markings.<ref name=Oshea/> However, the colour of this species does have variation, which usually depends on where in Africa a particular specimen is found. For example, specimens from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania have an orange-red colour, with a broad, dark blue or black throat band. Some specimens may have two or three throat bands, but this is uncommon for specimens from [[East Africa]] and much more common in specimens from Egypt and Chad. The ventral side is also reddish in colour, sometimes the throat area may be a creamy white. Specimens from other areas can be yellow, pinkish, pink-grey, pale red or steel grey. Most specimens will have a throat band, but it will fade or even sometimes disappear in larger adults. The true red specimens will become reddish-brown in colour as they age and grow in size.<ref name=Spawls/> The body of this snake is slightly depressed, tapered and moderately slender with a medium-length tail. It is slightly compressed dorsoventrally and subcylindrical posteriorly. The head is broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The canthus is distinct and the snout is rounded. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique.<ref name=wch/>
This medium-sized cobra attains lengths between {{convert|0.7|and|1.2|m|ft|sp=us}},<ref name=Oshea/><ref name=Devenomized/> but may grow to a maximum length of around {{convert|1.5|m|ft|sp=us}} in very rare cases.<ref name=Devenomized/><ref name=wch/> It is often thought of as an attractive species; it is usually bright salmon-red contrasted with a broad black throat band and subocular teardrop markings.<ref name=Oshea/> However, the color of this species does have variation, which usually depends on where in Africa a particular specimen is found. For example, specimens from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania have an orange-red colour, with a broad, dark blue or black throat band. Some specimens may have two or three throat bands, but this is uncommon for specimens from [[East Africa]]. The ventral side is also reddish in colour, sometimes the throat area may be a creamy white. Specimens from other areas can be yellow, pinkish, pink-grey, pale red or steel grey. Most specimens will have a throat band, but it will fade or even sometimes disappear in larger adults. The true red specimens will become reddish-brown in colour as they age and grow in size.<ref name=Devenomized/> The body of this snake is slightly depressed, tapered and moderately slender with a medium-length tail. It is slightly compressed dorsoventrally and [[subcylindrical]] posteriorly. The head is broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The canthus is distinct and the snout is rounded. The eyes are medium to large in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique.<ref name=wch/>


===Scalation===
===Scalation===
Dorsal scales on the midbody are in 21–27, ventrals are in 197–228, and subcaudals are in 61–72 rows, subscales are paired, and the anal scale is single. There are seven upper labials, one upper labial enters the eye; two preoculars, three postoculars, and the lower labials are usually eight in number (range 7-9).<ref name=Devenomized>{{cite web|last=Mastenbroek|first=Richard|title=Captive Care of the Red Spitting Cobra (''Naja pallida'')|url=http://devenomized.com/libraries/elapids/Red_Spitting.pdf|work=Devenomized|publisher=www.devenomized.com|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref>
Dorsal scales on the midbody are in 21–27, ventrals are in 197–228, and subcaudals are in 61–72 rows, subscales are paired, and the anal scale is single. There are seven upper labials, one upper labial enters the eye; two preoculars, three postoculars, and the lower labials are usually eight in number (range 7-9).<ref name=Devenomized>{{cite web|last=Mastenbroek|first=Richard|title=Captive Care of the Red Spitting Cobra (''Naja pallida'')|url=http://devenomized.com/libraries/elapids/Red_Spitting.pdf|work=Devenomized|publisher=www.devenomized.com|accessdate=13 January 2012}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


==Distribution and habitat==
==Distribution and habitat==
The red spitting cobra is mainly found in [[East Africa]], including [[Djibouti]], northern [[Tanzania]] through east and northern [[Kenya]] (not found on the coast), southern and eastern [[Ethiopia]], [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]], thence northwest to northern [[Sudan]] and southern [[Egypt]]. Isolated (possibly relict) populations are found in the [[Ennedi Plateau]] in [[Chad]] and [[Aïr Mountains|Aïr of Niger]]. A possible record comes from northern [[Cameroon]]. Its range in Sudan is poorly known, but may be more widespread than thought.<ref name=Spawls/>
The red spitting cobra is mainly found in [[East Africa]], including [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], southern [[Egypt]], northern and eastern [[Ethiopia]], and northern [[Tanzania]] and northern [[Sudan]]. It is also widespread in the dry country of eastern, southern and northern [[Kenya]]. It primarily inhabits dry savanna and semidesert areas of East Africa up to an elevation of about {{convert|1200|m|ft}} above sea level. They can usually be found near water holes.<ref name=Devenomized/><ref name=wch>{{cite web|title=Naja pallida - General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0187|work=WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref>


⚫
==Behavior==
⚫
Red spitting cobras are terrestrial, fast and alert snakes. Adult specimens of this species are nocturnal, while juveniles are more active during the day. Adults like to hide in termite mounds, old logs, holes, brush piles or any other ground cover during the day.<ref name=wch/> <!-- conflicts with below They are often found near water holes, where they hunt pythons, which is their preferred prey. ---> They are also known to be [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]]; this could be the reason juveniles and smaller specimens are [[Diurnality|diurnal]], while adults are nocturnal.<ref name=Devenomized/>


When threatened, this cobra rears up and displays a typical cobra hood. It may also hiss loudly. If the intruder does not retreat, it may spray jets of venom to the face of the intruder. In very rare cases, it can even spray its venom without rearing up and displaying its hood. Venom in the eyes can cause burning pain and blindness. Even so, this snake seldom causes fatalities in humans.<ref name=Oshea/> Juvenile red spitting cobras spit more venom (relative to their body size) than adult cobras do.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Westhoff |first=Guido |last2=Boetig |first2=Melissa |last3=Bleckmann |first3=Horst |last4=Young |first4=Bruce A. |date=2010-06-01 |title=Target tracking during venom ‘spitting’ by cobras |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.037135 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=213 |issue=11 |pages=1797–1802 |doi=10.1242/jeb.037135 |issn=1477-9145|pmc=2871007 }}</ref>
It primarily inhabits dry savanna and semi-desert areas of East Africa up to an elevation of about {{convert|1200|m|ft}} above sea level. They can usually be found near water holes.<ref name=wch>{{cite web|title=Naja pallida - General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0187|work=WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> This is not a desert snake. The Egyptian populations occur along the [[Nile river]] where there is vegetation. Probably more widespread in the Sahara during recent times, when much of the area that is now desert was semi-desert or dry grassland, the remaining populations become isolated in areas that still have vegetation, such as [[oasis]] and hill areas.<ref name=Spawls/>

⚫
==Behavior==
⚫
Red spitting cobras are terrestrial, but may climb into bushes and low trees. Fast and alert snakes, adults specimens of this species are nocturnal, while juveniles are more active during the day. Adults like to hide in termite mounds, old logs, holes, brush piles or any other ground cover during the day.<ref name=wch/><ref name=Spawls/> When threatened, this cobra rears up and displays a long narrow hood. It may also hiss loudly. If the intruder does not retreat, it may sprays twin jets of venom to the face of the intruder. Venom that gets into the eyes can cause burning pain and blindness. Even so, this snake seldom causes fatalities in humans.<ref name=Oshea/>


==Diet==
==Diet==
This species has a wide range of prey, oddly enough they prefer [[amphibians]] such as toads and frogs (odd for being a semi-desert snake), if and when they are available. However, they will also prey on [[rodent]]s, [[birds]] and probably others [[snake]]s. They are known to raid chicken runs in the region.<ref name=wch/><ref name=Spawls/> They are also known to be [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]]; this could be the reason why juveniles and smaller specimens are more active during the day while adults are completely nocturnal.<ref name=Devenomized/>
This species has a wide range of prey, but they prefer amphibians such as toads and frogs, if and when they are available. However, they will prey on rodents, birds<ref name=Oshea/> and probably other snakes. They are known to raid chickens in the region.<ref name=wch/>


==Reproduction==
==Reproduction==
The red spitting cobra is [[Oviparity|oviparous]]. The female will lay six to 15 eggs.<ref name=Oshea>{{cite book|last=O'Shea|first=Mark|title=Venomous Snakes of the World|year=2008|publisher=New Holland Publishers Ltd|location=United Kingdom|isbn=1847730868|pages=73}}</ref>
The red spitting cobra is [[Oviparity|oviparous]]. The female will lay 6 to 21 eggs.<ref name=Oshea>{{cite book|last=O'Shea|first=Mark|title=Venomous Snakes of the World|year=2008|publisher=New Holland Publishers Ltd|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1-84773-086-2|pages=73}}</ref>


==Venom==
==Venom==
The venom of this species, like most spitting cobras, contains a mixture of [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxins]] and [[Cytotoxicity|cytotoxins]]. Bite symptoms include slight pain around the wound and numbness of lips and tongue. Although it rarely causes human fatalities, survivors are usually disfigured.<ref name=Oshea/> The [[Mouse|murine]] [[Intraperitoneal injection|IP]] {{LD50}} value for this snake is 2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=vendoc>{{cite web|last=Fry|first=Dr. Bryan Grieg|title=Intraperitoneal LD-50s|url=http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html|work=Australian Venom Research Unit|publisher=University of Queensland|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref>
The venom of this species, like most spitting cobras, contains a mixture of [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxins]] and [[Cytotoxicity|cytotoxins]]. Bite symptoms include slight pain around the wound and numbness of the lips, fingers and tongue. Although it rarely causes human fatalities, survivors are usually disfigured.<ref name=Oshea/> The [[Mouse|murine]] [[Intraperitoneal injection|IP]] {{LD50}} value for this snake is 2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=vendoc>{{cite web|last=Fry|first=Dr. Bryan Grieg|title=Intraperitoneal LD-50s|url=http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html|work=Australian Venom Research Unit|publisher=University of Queensland|accessdate=13 January 2012|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413182323/http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html|archivedate=13 April 2012}}</ref>


In September 2011, a snake keeper from the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]] died shortly after a red spitting cobra sprayed venom into his face whilst he and a friend were photographing the snake. Some of the venom was believed to have entered his nasal passages and led to [[anaphylactic shock]]. His being asthmatic is believed to have contributed to his fatal reaction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Snake-snapping owner killed by pet Cobra|url=http://m.news24.com/news24/SouthAfrica/News/Snake-snapping-owner-killed-by-pet-Cobra-20110919|publisher=News24|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref>
In September 2011, a snake keeper from the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]] died shortly after a red spitting cobra sprayed venom into his face while he and a friend were photographing the snake. Some of the venom was believed to have entered his nasal passages and led to [[anaphylactic shock]]. His asthma is believed to have contributed to the fatal reaction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Snake-snapping owner killed by pet Cobra|url=http://m.news24.com/news24/SouthAfrica/News/Snake-snapping-owner-killed-by-pet-Cobra-20110919|publisher=News24|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> An autopsy done on him by the Eastern Cape provincial pathologist revealed no biting or damage either in his nasal cavities, throat or lungs.


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
This species was formerly considered to be a subspecies, ''Naja mossambica pallida'', of ''[[Naja mossambica]]'', but is now categorized as a separate species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Naja pallida|url=http://kingsnake.com/wiki/species.php?id=690|work=Reptile & Amphibian Encylopedia|publisher=www.kingsnake.com|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> Indeed ''N. mossambica'' is more closely related to ''[[Naja nigricollis|N. nigricollis]]'' than to this species. The red spitting cobra is closely related and forms a [[sister taxon]] with the [[Nubian spitting cobra]] (''Naja nubiae'') of northeastern Africa, which was originally considered a northern population of ''N, m. pallida'' before being recognized as a distinct species in 2003.<ref name=Devenomized/>
This species was formerly considered to be a subspecies of ''[[Naja mossambica]]'', ''N. m. pallida'', but is now categorized as a separate species.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Naja pallida|url=http://kingsnake.com/wiki/species.php?id=690|encyclopedia=Reptile & Amphibian Encyclopedia|publisher=www.kingsnake.com|accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> Indeed, ''N. mossambica'' is more closely related to ''[[Naja nigricollis|N. nigricollis]]'' than to this species. The red spitting cobra is closely related and forms a [[sister taxon]] with the [[Nubian spitting cobra]] (''Naja nubiae'') of northeastern Africa, which was originally considered a northern population of ''N. m. pallida'' before being recognized as a distinct species in 2003.<ref name=Devenomized/>

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== References ==
{{reflist}}

⚫
{{Commons|Naja pallida|Red spitting cobra}}


⚫
==References==
{{Naja species}}
⚫
{{Commons|Naja pallida}}
{{Reflist}}


{{Taxonbar|from=Q1469485}}
⚫
[[Category:Elapidae]]
[[Category:Elapidae by common name]]
⚫
[[Category:Reptiles of Africa]]
[[Category:Venomous snakes]]


⚫
[[Category:Naja]]
[[cs:Kobra červená]]
[[de:Rote Speikobra]]
[[Category:Snakes of Africa]]
⚫
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1896]]
[[es:Naja pallida]]
[[fr:Cobra cracheur rouge]]
[[it:Naja pallida]]
[[pl:Naja pallida]]
[[pt:Naja pallida]]
[[sk:Kobra červenkastá]]
[[fi:Sylkeväpunakobra]]
[[zh:紅射毒眼鏡蛇]]

Latest revision as of 11:19, 4 May 2024

Red spitting cobra
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Naja
Subgenus: Afronaja
Species:
N. pallida
Binomial name
Naja pallida
Boulenger, 1896
Synonyms

Naia nigricollis Var. PALLIDA Boulenger, 1896

The red spitting cobra (Naja pallida) is a species of spitting cobra native to Africa.

Description

[edit]
Juvenile N. pallida: note the black throat band, in contrast to adult coloration

This medium-sized cobra attains lengths between 0.7 and 1.2 meters (2.3 and 3.9 ft),[2][3] but may grow to a maximum length of around 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) in very rare cases.[3][4] It is often thought of as an attractive species; it is usually bright salmon-red contrasted with a broad black throat band and subocular teardrop markings.[2] However, the color of this species does have variation, which usually depends on where in Africa a particular specimen is found. For example, specimens from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania have an orange-red colour, with a broad, dark blue or black throat band. Some specimens may have two or three throat bands, but this is uncommon for specimens from East Africa. The ventral side is also reddish in colour, sometimes the throat area may be a creamy white. Specimens from other areas can be yellow, pinkish, pink-grey, pale red or steel grey. Most specimens will have a throat band, but it will fade or even sometimes disappear in larger adults. The true red specimens will become reddish-brown in colour as they age and grow in size.[3] The body of this snake is slightly depressed, tapered and moderately slender with a medium-length tail. It is slightly compressed dorsoventrally and subcylindrical posteriorly. The head is broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The canthus is distinct and the snout is rounded. The eyes are medium to large in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique.[4]

Scalation

[edit]

Dorsal scales on the midbody are in 21–27, ventrals are in 197–228, and subcaudals are in 61–72 rows, subscales are paired, and the anal scale is single. There are seven upper labials, one upper labial enters the eye; two preoculars, three postoculars, and the lower labials are usually eight in number (range 7-9).[3]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The red spitting cobra is mainly found in East Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, southern Egypt, northern and eastern Ethiopia, and northern Tanzania and northern Sudan. It is also widespread in the dry country of eastern, southern and northern Kenya. It primarily inhabits dry savanna and semidesert areas of East Africa up to an elevation of about 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) above sea level. They can usually be found near water holes.[3][4]

Behavior

[edit]

Red spitting cobras are terrestrial, fast and alert snakes. Adult specimens of this species are nocturnal, while juveniles are more active during the day. Adults like to hide in termite mounds, old logs, holes, brush piles or any other ground cover during the day.[4] They are also known to be cannibalistic; this could be the reason juveniles and smaller specimens are diurnal, while adults are nocturnal.[3]

When threatened, this cobra rears up and displays a typical cobra hood. It may also hiss loudly. If the intruder does not retreat, it may spray jets of venom to the face of the intruder. In very rare cases, it can even spray its venom without rearing up and displaying its hood. Venom in the eyes can cause burning pain and blindness. Even so, this snake seldom causes fatalities in humans.[2] Juvenile red spitting cobras spit more venom (relative to their body size) than adult cobras do.[5]

Diet

[edit]

This species has a wide range of prey, but they prefer amphibians such as toads and frogs, if and when they are available. However, they will prey on rodents, birds[2] and probably other snakes. They are known to raid chickens in the region.[4]

Reproduction

[edit]

The red spitting cobra is oviparous. The female will lay 6 to 21 eggs.[2]

Venom

[edit]

The venom of this species, like most spitting cobras, contains a mixture of neurotoxins and cytotoxins. Bite symptoms include slight pain around the wound and numbness of the lips, fingers and tongue. Although it rarely causes human fatalities, survivors are usually disfigured.[2] The murine IP LD50 value for this snake is 2 mg/kg.[6]

In September 2011, a snake keeper from the Eastern Cape in South Africa died shortly after a red spitting cobra sprayed venom into his face while he and a friend were photographing the snake. Some of the venom was believed to have entered his nasal passages and led to anaphylactic shock. His asthma is believed to have contributed to the fatal reaction.[7] An autopsy done on him by the Eastern Cape provincial pathologist revealed no biting or damage either in his nasal cavities, throat or lungs.

Taxonomy

[edit]

This species was formerly considered to be a subspecies of Naja mossambica, N. m. pallida, but is now categorized as a separate species.[8] Indeed, N. mossambica is more closely related to N. nigricollis than to this species. The red spitting cobra is closely related and forms a sister taxon with the Nubian spitting cobra (Naja nubiae) of northeastern Africa, which was originally considered a northern population of N. m. pallida before being recognized as a distinct species in 2003.[3]

References

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naja pallida.
  1. ^ Beraduccii, J.; Spawls, S.; Malonza, P. (2021). "Naja pallida". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T20878782A20878789. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T20878782A20878789.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e f O'Shea, Mark (2008). Venomous Snakes of the World. United Kingdom: New Holland Publishers Ltd. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-84773-086-2.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Mastenbroek, Richard. "Captive Care of the Red Spitting Cobra (Naja pallida)" (PDF). Devenomized. www.devenomized.com. Retrieved 13 January 2012.[permanent dead link‍]
  4. ^ a b c d e "Naja pallida - General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms". WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  5. ^ Westhoff, Guido; Boetig, Melissa; Bleckmann, Horst; Young, Bruce A. (2010-06-01). "Target tracking during venom 'spitting' by cobras". Journal of Experimental Biology. 213 (11): 1797–1802. doi:10.1242/jeb.037135. ISSN 1477-9145. PMC 2871007.
  6. ^ Fry, Dr. Bryan Grieg. "Intraperitoneal LD-50s". Australian Venom Research Unit. University of Queensland. Archived from the original on 13 April 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  7. ^ "Snake-snapping owner killed by pet Cobra". News24. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  8. ^ "Naja pallida". Reptile & Amphibian Encyclopedia. www.kingsnake.com. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
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