Freshwater snail: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Non-marine snail}} |
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[[File:Bithynia tentaculata.jpg|thumb|''[[Bithynia tentaculata]]'', a small freshwater gastropod in the family [[Bithyniidae]]]] |
[[File:Bithynia tentaculata.jpg|thumb|''[[Bithynia tentaculata]]'', a small freshwater gastropod in the family [[Bithyniidae]]]] |
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[[File:Pomacea insularum 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Pomacea insularum]]'', an apple snail]] |
[[File:Pomacea insularum 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Pomacea insularum]]'', an apple snail]] |
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[[File:Planorbella trivolvis.jpg|thumb|''[[Planorbella trivolvis]]'' an air-breathing ramshorn snail]] |
[[File:Planorbella trivolvis.jpg|thumb|''[[Planorbella trivolvis]]'', an air-breathing ramshorn snail]] |
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'''Freshwater snails''' are [[gastropod]] [[mollusk]]s that live in [[fresh water]]. There are many different families. They are found throughout the world in various habitats, ranging from ephemeral pools to the largest lakes, and from small seeps and springs to major rivers. The great majority of freshwater gastropods have a [[gastropod shell|shell]], with very few exceptions. Some groups of snails that live in freshwater [[Respiratory system|respire]] using [[gill]]s, whereas [[Pulmonata|other groups]] need to reach the surface to breathe air. In addition, some are amphibious and have both gills and a [[lung]] (e.g. ''[[Ampullariidae]]''). Most feed on algae, but many are [[detritivore]]s and some are [[Filter feeding|filter feeders]]. |
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Freshwater snails are indirectly among the deadliest animals to humans, as they carry parasitic worms that cause [[schistosomiasis]], a disease estimated to kill between 10,000 and 200,000 people annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pflanzer |first=Lydia Ramsey |date=September 8, 2016 |title=These are the world's deadliest animals |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/worlds-deadliest-animals-2016-9 |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Learish |first=Jessica |date=October 15, 2016 |title=The 24 deadliest animals on Earth, ranked |url=https://www.cnet.com/pictures/the-24-deadliest-animals-on-earth-ranked/18/ |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref> |
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According to present classification efforts, there are about 4,000 species of freshwater gastropods (3,795-3,972).<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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There are thousands of known species, and at least 33–38 independent [[Lineage (evolution)|lineages]] of gastropods have successfully colonized freshwater environments.<ref name="Strong 2011" /> It is not possible to quantify the exact number of these lineages yet, because they have yet to be clarified within the [[Cerithioidea]].<ref name="Strong 2011" /> From six to eight of these independent lineages occur in [[North America]].<ref name="Dillon R. T.">Dillon R. T. (2006). ''Chapter 21. Freshwater Gastropoda''. pages 251–259. In: Sturm C. F., Pearce T. A. & Valdés A. (eds.) (2006). ''The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation''. American Malacological Society, 445 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-58112-930-4}}.</ref> |
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== Taxonomy == |
== Taxonomy == |
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According to a 2008 review of the taxonomy, there are about 4,000 species of freshwater gastropods (3,795–3,972).<ref name="Strong 2008" /> As of 2023, there are 5182 known species of fossil freshwater gastropods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neubauer |first=Thomas A. |date=2023-09-12 |title=The fossil record of freshwater Gastropoda – a global review |journal=Biological Reviews |language=en |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=177–199 |doi=10.1111/brv.13016 |issn=1464-7931 |pmid=37698140 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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=== 2005 taxonomy === |
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The following [[cladogram]] is an overview of the main clades of gastropods based on the [[Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)|taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi]] (2005),<ref name="Bouchet 2005">{{Bouchet 2005}}</ref> with families that contain freshwater species marked in '''[[boldface]]''':<ref name="Strong 2008"/> (Some of the highlighted families consist entirely of freshwater species, but some of them also contain, or even mainly consist of, marine species.The Lombard Empire will overtake the universe.)#troll face |
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The following [[cladogram]] is an overview of the main clades of gastropods based on the [[Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)|taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi]] (2005),<ref name="Bouchet 2005">{{Bouchet 2005}}</ref> modified after Jörger et al. (2010)<ref name="Jörger 2010">Jörger K. M., Stöger I., Kano Y., Fukuda H., Knebelsberger T. & Schrödl M. (2010). "On the origin of Acochlidia and other enigmatic euthyneuran gastropods, with implications for the systematics of Heterobranchia". ''[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]]'' '''10''': 323. {{doi|10.1186/1471-2148-10-323}}.</ref> and simplified with families that contain freshwater species marked in '''[[boldface]]''':<ref name="Strong 2008" /> (Marine gastropods (Siphonarioidea, Sacoglossa, Amphiboloidea, Pyramidelloidea) are not depicted within Panpulmonata for simplification. Some of these highlighted families consist entirely of freshwater species, but some of them also contain, or even mainly consist of, marine species.) |
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{{cladogram2|title= |
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|caption= |
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|align=left |
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|left=1 |
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|clades={{clade| |
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|label1= |
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|1={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= † Paleozoic molluscs of uncertain systematic position |
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|label2= |
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|2= † Basal taxa that are certainly Gastropoda |
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|label3= |
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|3= [[Patellogastropoda]] |
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|label4= |
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|4= [[Vetigastropoda]] |
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|label5= |
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|5= [[Cocculiniformia]] |
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|label6= [[Neritimorpha]] |
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|6={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= † Paleozoic Neritimorpha of uncertain systematic position |
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|label2= |
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|2= † [[Cyrtoneritimorpha]] |
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|label3= |
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|3= [[Cycloneritimorpha]]: '''[[Neritiliidae]]''' and '''[[Neritidae]]''' |
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}} |
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|label7= [[Caenogastropoda]] |
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|7={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= Caenogastropoda of uncertain systematic position |
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|label2= |
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|2= [[Architaenioglossa]]: '''[[Ampullariidae]]''' and '''[[Viviparidae]]''' |
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|label3= |
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|3= [[Sorbeoconcha]]: '''[[Melanopsidae]]''', '''[[Pachychilidae]]''', '''[[Paludomidae]]''', '''[[Pleuroceridae]]''', '''[[Semisulcospiridae]]''' and '''[[Thiaridae]]''' |
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|label4= [[Hypsogastropoda]] |
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|4={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= [[Littorinimorpha]]: '''[[Littorinidae]]''', '''[[Amnicolidae]]''', '''[[Assimineidae]]''', '''[[Bithyniidae]]''', '''[[Cochliopidae]]''', '''[[Helicostoidae]]''', '''[[Hydrobiidae]]''', '''[[Lithoglyphidae]]''', '''[[Moitessieriidae]]''', '''[[Pomatiopsidae]]''' and '''[[Stenothyridae]]''' |
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|label2= |
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|2=[[Ptenoglossa]] |
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|label3= |
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|3= [[Neogastropoda]]: '''[[Buccinidae]]''' and '''[[Marginellidae]]''' |
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}} |
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}} |
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|label8= [[Heterobranchia]] |
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|8={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= [[Lower Heterobranchia]]: '''[[Glacidorbidae]]''' and '''[[Valvatidae]]''' |
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|label2= [[Opisthobranchia]] |
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|2={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= [[Cephalaspidea]] |
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|label2= |
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|2= [[Thecosomata]] |
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|label3= |
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|3= [[Gymnosomata]] |
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|label4= |
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|4= [[Aplysiomorpha]] |
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|label5= |
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|5= [[Acochlidiacea]]: '''[[Acochlidiidae]]''', '''[[Tantulidae]]''' and '''[[Strubelliidae]]''' |
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|label6= |
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|6= [[Sacoglossa]] |
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|label7= |
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|7= [[Cylindrobullida]] |
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|label8= |
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|8= [[Umbraculida]] |
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|label9= |
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|9=[[Nudipleura]] |
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}} |
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|label8= [[Pulmonata]] |
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|8={{clade |
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|label1= |
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|1= [[Basommatophora]]: '''[[Chilinidae]]''', '''[[Latiidae]]''', '''[[Acroloxidae]]''', '''[[Lymnaeidae]]'''. '''[[Planorbidae]]''' [[Planorbidae#2007 taxonomy|►]] and '''[[Physidae]]''' - all these six families together form the clade [[Hygrophila (Gastropoda)|Hygrophila]] |
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|label2= |
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|2=[[Eupulmonata]] |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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=== 2010 taxonomy === |
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The following [[cladogram]] is an overview of the main clades of gastropods based on the [[Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)|taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi]] (2005),<ref name="Bouchet 2005"/> modified after Jörger et al. (2010)<ref name="Jörger 2010">Jörger K. M., Stöger I., Kano Y., Fukuda H., Knebelsberger T. & Schrödl M. (2010). "On the origin of Acochlidia and other enigmatic euthyneuran gastropods, with implications for the systematics of Heterobranchia". ''[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]]'' '''10''': 323. [[doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-323]].</ref> and simplified with families that contain freshwater species marked in '''[[boldface]]''':<ref name="Strong 2008"/> (Marine gastropods (Siphonarioidea, Sacoglossa, Amphiboloidea, Pyramidelloidea) are not depicted within Panpulmonata for simplification. Some of these highlighted families consist entirely of freshwater species, but some of them also contain, or even mainly consist of, marine species.) |
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{{clade |
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{{cladogram2|title= |
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|caption= |
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|align=left |
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|left=1 |
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|clades={{clade| |
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|label1= |
|label1= |
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|1={{clade |
|1={{clade |
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| Line 138: | Line 52: | ||
|2=[[Ptenoglossa]] |
|2=[[Ptenoglossa]] |
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|label3= |
|label3= |
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|3= [[Neogastropoda]]: '''[[ |
|3= [[Neogastropoda]]: '''[[Nassariidae]]''' and '''[[Marginellidae]]''' |
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}} |
}} |
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}} |
}} |
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| Line 166: | Line 80: | ||
}} |
}} |
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}} |
}} |
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}} |
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== Neritimorpha == |
== Neritimorpha == |
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The [[Neritimorpha]] are a group of primitive "[[prosobranch]]" gilled snails which have a shelly [[operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. |
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*[[Neritiliidae]] |
*[[Neritiliidae]] - 5 extant freshwater species<ref name="Strong 2008">Strong E. E., Gargominy O., [[Winston Ponder|Ponder W. F.]] & Bouchet P. (2008). "Global Diversity of Gastropods (Gastropoda; Mollusca) in Freshwater". ''[[Hydrobiologia]]'' 595: 149–166. [http://hdl.handle.net/10088/7390 hdl.handle.net] {{doi|10.1007/s10750-007-9012-6}}.</ref> |
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*[[Neritidae]] |
*[[Neritidae]] - largely confined to the tropics, also the rivers of Europe, family includes the marine "nerites".<ref name="Banarescu 1990">Banarescu P. (1990). ''Zoogeography of Fresh Waters, Vol. 1, General Distribution and Dispersal of Freshwater Animals''. AULA - Verlag, Weisbaden.</ref> There are about 110 extant freshwater species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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File:Theodoxus fluviatilis.jpg|Family [[Neritidae]], shells of ''[[Theodoxus fluviatilis]]''. |
File:Theodoxus fluviatilis.jpg|Family [[Neritidae]], shells of ''[[Theodoxus fluviatilis]]''. |
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File:Vittina |
File:Vittina natalensis.jpg|Family [[Neritidae]], ''[[Vittina natalensis]]'' |
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File:Red racer nerite, Vittina waigiensis from the Philippines 02.jpg|Family [[Neritidae]], ''[[Vittina waigiensis]]'' |
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File:Clithon corona, Horned nerite snail from the Philippines 01.jpg|Family [[Neritidae]], ''[[Clithon corona]]'' |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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== Caenogastropoda == |
== Caenogastropoda == |
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The [[Caenogastropoda]] are a large group of gilled operculate snails, which are largely marine. In freshwater habitats there are ten major families of caenogastropods, as well as several other families of lesser importance: |
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;Architaenioglossa |
;Architaenioglossa |
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*[[Ampullariidae]] |
*[[Ampullariidae]] - an exclusively freshwater family that is largely tropical and includes the large "apple snails" kept in aquaria.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 105–170 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Viviparidae]] |
*[[Viviparidae]] - medium to large snails, live-bearing, commonly referred to as "mystery snails". Worldwide except South America, and everywhere confined to fresh waters.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 125–150 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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| Line 192: | Line 107: | ||
;Sorbeoconcha |
;Sorbeoconcha |
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*[[Melanopsidae]] |
*[[Melanopsidae]] - family native to rivers draining to the Mediterranean, also Middle East, and some South Pacific islands.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 25–50 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Pachychilidae]] - |
*[[Pachychilidae]] - 165–225 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> native to South and Central America. Formerly included with the Pleuroceridae by many authors. |
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*[[Paludomidae]] - about 100 species in south Asia, diverse in African Lakes, and Sri Lanka.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> Formerly classified with the Pleuroceridae by some authors. |
*[[Paludomidae]] - about 100 species in south Asia, diverse in African Lakes, and Sri Lanka.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> Formerly classified with the Pleuroceridae by some authors. |
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*[[Pleuroceridae]] |
*[[Pleuroceridae]] - abundant and diverse in eastern North America, largely high-spired snails of small to large size.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 150 species.<ref name="Strong 2011"/> |
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*[[Semisulcospiridae]] |
*[[Semisulcospiridae]] - primarily eastern Asia, Japan, also the ''Juga'' snails of northwestern North America. Formerly included with the Pleuroceridae. About 50 species.<ref name="Strong 2011">Strong E. E., Colgan D. J., Healy J. M., Lydeard C., Ponder W. F. & Glaubrecht M. (2011). "Phylogeny of the gastropod superfamily Cerithioidea using morphology and molecules". ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' '''162'''(1): 43–89. {{doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00670.x}}.</ref> |
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*[[Thiaridae]] |
*[[Thiaridae]] - high-spired parthenogenic snails of the tropics, includes those referred to as "trumpet snails" in aquaria.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 110 species.<ref name="Strong 2011"/> |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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File:Melanopsis praemorsa buccinoidea A MRKVICKA.JPG|Family [[Melanopsidae]], ''[[Melanopsis praemorsa]]'' |
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File:Io fluvialis.jpg|Family [[Pleuroceridae]], ''[[Io fluvialis]]''. |
File:Io fluvialis.jpg|Family [[Pleuroceridae]], ''[[Io fluvialis]]''. |
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File:Semisulcospira kurodai2.jpg|Family [[Semisulcospiridae]], ''[[Semisulcospira kurodai]]''. |
File:Semisulcospira kurodai2.jpg|Family [[Semisulcospiridae]], ''[[Semisulcospira kurodai]]''. |
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;Littorinimorpha |
;Littorinimorpha |
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*[[Littorinidae]] - |
*[[Littorinidae]] - 9 species in the genus ''[[Cremnoconchus]]'' are freshwater living in streams and waterfalls.<ref name="Reid 2013">Reid D. G., Aravind N. A., & Madhyastha N. A. (2013). "A unique radiation of marine littorinid snails in the freshwater streams of the Western Ghats of India: the genus ''Cremnoconchus'' W.T. Blanford, 1869 (Gastropoda: Littorinidae)". ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' '''167'''(1): 93–135. {{doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00875.x}}.</ref> Other species are marine. |
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*[[Amnicolidae]] - about 200 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Amnicolidae]] - about 200 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Assimineidae]] - about 20 freshwater species,<ref name="Strong 2008"/> other are marine |
*[[Assimineidae]] - about 20 freshwater species,<ref name="Strong 2008"/> other are marine |
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*[[Bithyniidae]] |
*[[Bithyniidae]] - small snails, native to Eastern Hemisphere.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 130 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Cochliopidae]] - 246 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Cochliopidae]] - about 246 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Helicostoidae]] |
*[[Helicostoidae]] - the only species ''[[Helicostoa sinensis]]'' lives in China.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Hydrobiidae]] |
*[[Hydrobiidae]] - small to very small snails found worldwide.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 1250 freshwater species<ref name="Strong 2008"/> other are marine. |
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[[File:Clea helena.png|thumb|right|180px|''[[Clea helena]]'', family [[Buccinidae]].]] |
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*[[Lithoglyphidae]] - about 100 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Lithoglyphidae]] - about 100 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Moitessieriidae]] - 55 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Moitessieriidae]] - about 55 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Pomatiopsidae]] |
*[[Pomatiopsidae]] - small amphibious snails scattered worldwide, most diverse in eastern and Southeast Asia.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 170 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Stenothyridae]] - about 60 freshwater species,<ref name="Strong 2008"/> others are marine. |
*[[Stenothyridae]] - about 60 freshwater species,<ref name="Strong 2008"/> others are marine. |
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<gallery> |
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File:Bithynia tentaculata A MRKVICKA.JPG|Family [[Bithyniidae]], ''[[Bithynia tentaculata]]''. |
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File:Antrobia culveri.jpg|Family [[Cochliopidae]], ''[[Antrobia culveri]]''. |
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File:Helicostoa sinensis shell.jpg|Family [[Helicostoidae]], ''[[Helicostoa sinensis]]'' shells. |
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File:Sadleriana fluminensis2 A MRKVICKA.JPG|Family [[Hydrobiidae]], ''[[Sadleriana fluminensis]]'' |
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File:Lithoglyphus naticoides.jpg|Family [[Lithoglyphidae]], ''[[Lithoglyphus naticoides]]''. |
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File:Oncomelania hupensis nosophora.png|Family [[Pomatiopsidae]], ''[[Oncomelania hupensis]]''. |
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</gallery> |
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[[File:Clea helena.png|thumb|right|''[[Anentome helena]]'', family [[Nassariidae]].]] |
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;Neogastropoda |
;Neogastropoda |
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*[[ |
*[[Nassariidae]] - 8–10 freshwater species in the genus ''[[Anentome]]'' and ''[[Clea (gastropod)|Clea]]'',<ref name="Strong 2008"/> native to Southeast Asia. Other Nassariidae are marine. |
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*[[Marginellidae]] - 2 freshwater species in the genus ''[[Rivomarginella]]'',<ref name="Strong 2008"/> native to Southeast Asia. |
*[[Marginellidae]] - 2 freshwater species in the genus ''[[Rivomarginella]]'',<ref name="Strong 2008"/> native to Southeast Asia. Other Marginellidae are marine. |
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== Heterobranchia == |
== Heterobranchia == |
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[[File:Valvata |
[[File:Valvata piscinalis.png|thumb|Family [[Valvatidae]], ''[[Valvata piscinalis]]''.]] |
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[[File:Acochlidium fijiiensis.png |
[[File:Acochlidium fijiiensis.png|right|thumb|''[[Acochlidium fijiiensis]]'' is one of very few freshwater gastropods without a shell.]] |
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;Lower Heterobranchia |
;Lower Heterobranchia |
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*[[Glacidorbidae]] - 20 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Glacidorbidae]] - 20 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Valvatidae]] |
*[[Valvatidae]] - small low-spired snails referred to as "valve snails". 71 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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;[[Acochlidiacea]] |
;[[Acochlidiacea]] |
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*[[Acochlidiidae]] (including synonym Strubelliidae) - 5 shell-less species:<ref name="Strong 2008"/> ''[[Acochlidium amboinense]]'', ''[[Acochlidium bayerfehlmanni]]'', ''[[Acochlidium fijiiensis]]'', ''[[Palliohedyle sutteri |
*[[Acochlidiidae]] (including synonym Strubelliidae) - 5 shell-less species:<ref name="Strong 2008"/> ''[[Acochlidium amboinense]]'', ''[[Acochlidium bayerfehlmanni]]'', ''[[Acochlidium fijiiensis]]'', ''[[Palliohedyle sutteri]]'' and ''[[Strubellia paradoxa]]''<ref name="Schrödl 2010">Schrödl M. & Neusser T. P. (2010). "Towards a phylogeny and evolution of Acochlidia (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia)". ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' '''158''': 124–154. {{doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00544.x}}.</ref> |
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*[[Tantulidae]] - there is only one species<ref name="Strong 2008"/> which is shell-less ''[[Tantulum elegans]]''. |
*[[Tantulidae]] - there is only one species<ref name="Strong 2008"/> which is shell-less ''[[Tantulum elegans]]''. |
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;Pulmonata, Basommatophora |
;Pulmonata, Basommatophora |
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[[Basommatophora |
[[Basommatophora]]ns are pulmonate or air-breathing aquatic snails, characterized by having their eyes located at the base of their tentacles, rather than at the tips, as in the true land snails [[Stylommatophora]]. The majority of basommatophorans have shells that are thin, translucent, and relatively colorless, and all five freshwater basommatophoran families lack an operculum. |
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*[[Chilinidae]] |
*[[Chilinidae]] - small to medium-sized snails confined to temperate and cold South America.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 15 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Latiidae]] |
*[[Latiidae]] - small limpet-like snails confined to New Zealand.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> One<ref name="Strong 2008"/> or three species. |
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*[[Acroloxidae]] - about 40 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
*[[Acroloxidae]] - about 40 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Lymnaeidae]] |
*[[Lymnaeidae]] - found worldwide, but are most numerous in temperate and northern regions.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> These are the dextral (right-handed) pond snails. About 100 species. |
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*[[Planorbidae]] |
*[[Planorbidae]] - "rams horn" snails, with a worldwide distribution.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 250 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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*[[Physidae]] |
*[[Physidae]] - left-handed (sinistral) "pouch snails", native to Europe, Asia, North America.<ref name="Banarescu 1990"/> About 80 species.<ref name="Strong 2008"/> |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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File:Acroloxus lacustris A MRKVICKA.JPG|Family [[Acroloxidae]], ''[[Acroloxus lacustris]]''. |
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File:Water snail Rex 2.jpg|Family [[Lymnaeidae]], ''[[Lymnaea stagnalis]]''. |
File:Water snail Rex 2.jpg|Family [[Lymnaeidae]], ''[[Lymnaea stagnalis]]''. |
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File:Physa acuta 001.JPG|Family [[Physidae]], ''[[Physella acuta]]''. |
File:Physa acuta 001.JPG|Family [[Physidae]], ''[[Physella acuta]]''. |
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File:Posthornschnecke1.jpg|Family [[Planorbidae]], ''[[Planorbarius corneus]]''. |
File:Posthornschnecke1.jpg|Family [[Planorbidae]], ''[[Planorbarius corneus]]''. |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==Sexual reproduction and self-fertilization== |
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The freshwater snail ''[[Physella acuta|Physa acuta]]'' is in the subclass Heterobranchia and the family Physidae. ''P. acuta'' is a [[autogamy|self-fertile]] snail that can undergo either sexual reproduction or self-fertilization. Noel et al.<ref name="Noel2018">Noël E, Fruitet E, Lelaurin D, Bonel N, Ségard A, Sarda V, Jarne P, David P. Sexual selection and inbreeding: Two efficient ways to limit the accumulation of deleterious mutations. Evol Lett. 2018 Dec 10;3(1):80-92. doi: 10.1002/evl3.93. PMID 30788144; PMCID: PMC6369961</ref> experimentally tested whether accumulation of deleterious [[mutation]]s is avoided either by [[inbreeding]] populations of the snail (undergoing self-fertilization), or in [[outcrossing|outbreeding]] populations undergoing [[sexual reproduction]]. Inbreeding promotes the [[zygosity|homozygous]] expression of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny that then exposes these mutations to selective elimination because of their deleterious affects on progeny. Outbreeding sexual reproduction allows females to choose male mating partners with smaller mutation loads that then also leads to a reduction of deleterious mutations in progeny. On the basis of their findings, Noel et al.<ref name = Noel2018/> concluded that both outbred and inbred populations of ''P. acuta'' can efficiently eliminate deleterious mutations. |
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== As human food == |
== As human food == |
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Several different freshwater snail species are eaten in [[Asian cuisine]]. |
Several different freshwater snail species are eaten in [[Asian cuisine]]. |
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Archaeological investigations in [[Guatemala]] have revealed that the diet of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Classic Period]] (AD |
Archaeological investigations in [[Guatemala]] have revealed that the diet of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Classic Period]] (AD 250–900) included freshwater snails.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Foias A. E. |year=2000 |title=Entre la política y economía: Resultados preliminares de las primeras temporadas del Proyecto Arqueológico Motul de San José |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/60.99_-_Foias.pdf |format=PDF online publication |journal=XIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1999 (Edited by J.P. Laporte, H. Escobedo, B. Arroyo and A.C. De Suasnávar) |pages=771–799 |access-date=2009-03-01 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318030422/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/60.99_-_Foias.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-18 }}, page 777.</ref> |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
||
File: |
File:A plate of cooked river snails.jpg|A dish of cooked freshwater snails, [[Ampullariidae|ampullariids]] and [[Viviparidae|viviparids]] from [[Poipet]], [[Cambodia]] |
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File: |
File:Gugli chorchori 2017-01-22 122613.jpg|A Bengali dish of stir-fried freshwater snails with onion and garlic paste and other spices, from [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]] |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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== Aquarium snails == |
== Aquarium snails == |
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Freshwater snails are commonly found in aquaria along with tropical fish. Species available vary in different parts of the world. In the United States, commonly available species include [[ramshorn snail]]s such as ''[[Planorbella duryi]]'', [[apple snail]]s such as ''[[Pomacea bridgesii]]'', the high-spired thiarid [[Malaysian trumpet snail]], ''Melanoides tuberculata'', and several ''[[Neritina]]'' species. |
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== Parasitology == |
== Parasitology == |
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[[File:Opisthorchis LifeCycle.gif|thumb|right| Life cycle of two [[liver fluke]] species which have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts]] |
[[File:Opisthorchis LifeCycle.gif|thumb|right| Life cycle of two [[liver fluke]] species which have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts]] |
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Freshwater snails are widely known to be hosts in the lifecycles of a variety of human and animal [[parasitism|parasites]], particularly [[trematodes]] or "flukes". Some of these relations for prosobranch snails include ''[[Oncomelania]]'' in the family [[Pomatiopsidae]] as hosts of ''[[Schistosoma]]'', and ''[[Bithynia (gastropod)|Bithynia]]'', ''[[Parafossarulus]]'' and ''[[Amnicola]]'' as hosts of ''[[Opisthorchis]]''.<ref name="Chandler 1961"/> '' |
Freshwater snails are widely known to be hosts in the lifecycles of a variety of human and animal [[parasitism|parasites]], particularly [[trematodes]] (or "flukes"). Some of these relations for prosobranch snails include ''[[Oncomelania]]'' in the family [[Pomatiopsidae]] as hosts of ''[[Schistosoma]]'', and ''[[Bithynia (gastropod)|Bithynia]]'', ''[[Parafossarulus]]'' and ''[[Amnicola]]'' as hosts of ''[[Opisthorchis]]''.<ref name="Chandler 1961"/> ''[[Thiara]]'' and ''[[Semisulcospira]]'' may host ''[[Paragonimus]]''.<ref name="Chandler 1961"/> ''[[Juga plicifera]]'' may host ''[[Nanophyetus salmincola]]''.<ref name="Adams 2006">Adams A. M. (2006). ''Foodborne trematodes''. In: Ortega I. R. (ed.) (2006). ''Foodborne parasites''. {{ISBN|0-387-30068-6}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=92pNSYcQl8sC&dq=Oxytrema+silicula+synonym&pg=PA178 page 178].</ref> Basommatophoran snails are even more widely infected, with many ''[[Biomphalaria]]'' ([[Planorbidae]]) serving as hosts for ''[[Schistosoma mansoni]]'', ''[[Fasciolopsis]]'' and other parasitic groups.<ref name="Chandler 1961"/> The tiny ''[[Bulinus]]'' snails are hosts for ''[[Schistosoma haematobium]]''.<ref name="Chandler 1961"/> Lymnaeid snails ([[Lymnaeidae]]) serve as hosts for ''[[Fasciola]]'' and the cerceriae causing [[swimmer's itch]].<ref name="Chandler 1961">Chandler A. C. & Read C P. (1961). ''Introduction to Parasitology''. [[John Wiley and Sons]], New York. 822 pp.</ref> The term "[[neglected tropical diseases]]" applies to all snail-borne infections, including [[schistosomiasis]], [[fascioliasis]], [[fasciolopsiasis]], [[paragonimiasis]], [[opisthorchiasis]], [[clonorchiasis]], and [[angiostrongyliasis]].<ref name="Adema 2012">Adema C. M., Bayne C. J., Bridger J. M., Knight M., Loker E. S., Yoshino T. P. & Zhang S.-M. (2012). "Will All Scientists Working on Snails and the Diseases They Transmit Please Stand Up?". ''[[PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases]]'' '''6'''(12): e1835. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pntd.0001835}}.</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Terrestrial molluscs]] |
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* [[Land snail]] |
* [[Land snail]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Land slug]] |
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* [[Sea snail]] |
* [[Sea snail]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Sea slug]] |
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== References == |
== References == |
||
This article incorporates CC-BY-2.5 text from the reference<ref name="Adema 2012"/> |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
||
* [http://www.limnology-journal.org/articles/limn/abs/1981/02/limn1981172p143/limn1981172p143.html J. Mouthon, ''Typology of molluscs of flowing water; biotypological organisations; socioecological groupings''; Annls Limnol. Volume 17, Number 2, 1981] |
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* Haynes A. (2000). "The distribution of freshwater gastropods on four Vanuatu islands: Espiritu Santo, Pentecost, Éfate and Tanna (South Pacific)". ''[[Annales de Limnologie]]'' '''36'''(2): 101-111. [[doi:10.1051/limn/2000006]], [http://www.limnology-journal.org/articles/limn/pdf/2000/02/limno20002p101.pdf PDF]. |
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* Haynes A. (2000). "The distribution of freshwater gastropods on four Vanuatu islands: Espiritu Santo, Pentecost, Éfate and Tanna (South Pacific)". ''[[Annales de Limnologie]]'' '''36'''(2): 101–111. {{doi|10.1051/limn/2000006}}, [http://www.limnology-journal.org/articles/limn/pdf/2000/02/limno20002p101.pdf PDF]. |
|||
* Vermeij J. & Wesselingh F. P. (2002). "Neogastropod molluscs from the Miocene of western Amazonia, with comments on marine to freshwater transitions in molluscs". ''[[Journal of Paleontology]]'' '''76'''(2): 265-270. {{doi|10.1666/0022-3360(2002)076<0265:NMFTMO>2.0.CO;2}}. |
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* Vermeij J. & Wesselingh F. P. (2002). "Neogastropod molluscs from the Miocene of western Amazonia, with comments on marine to freshwater transitions in molluscs". ''[[Journal of Paleontology]]'' '''76'''(2): 265–270. {{doi|10.1666/0022-3360(2002)076<0265:NMFTMO>2.0.CO;2}}. |
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* [http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/10004R98.PDF J.B. Burch, ''Freshwater snails of North America''; 1982 - nepis.epa.gov]. |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Freshwater snails| ]] |
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[[Category:Mollusc common names]] |
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Latest revision as of 15:31, 25 September 2024
Freshwater snails are gastropod mollusks that live in fresh water. There are many different families. They are found throughout the world in various habitats, ranging from ephemeral pools to the largest lakes, and from small seeps and springs to major rivers. The great majority of freshwater gastropods have a shell, with very few exceptions. Some groups of snails that live in freshwater respire using gills, whereas other groups need to reach the surface to breathe air. In addition, some are amphibious and have both gills and a lung (e.g. Ampullariidae). Most feed on algae, but many are detritivores and some are filter feeders.
Freshwater snails are indirectly among the deadliest animals to humans, as they carry parasitic worms that cause schistosomiasis, a disease estimated to kill between 10,000 and 200,000 people annually.[1][2]
There are thousands of known species, and at least 33–38 independent lineages of gastropods have successfully colonized freshwater environments.[3] It is not possible to quantify the exact number of these lineages yet, because they have yet to be clarified within the Cerithioidea.[3] From six to eight of these independent lineages occur in North America.[4]
Taxonomy
[edit]According to a 2008 review of the taxonomy, there are about 4,000 species of freshwater gastropods (3,795–3,972).[5] As of 2023, there are 5182 known species of fossil freshwater gastropods.[6]
The following cladogram is an overview of the main clades of gastropods based on the taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi (2005),[7] modified after Jörger et al. (2010)[8] and simplified with families that contain freshwater species marked in boldface:[5] (Marine gastropods (Siphonarioidea, Sacoglossa, Amphiboloidea, Pyramidelloidea) are not depicted within Panpulmonata for simplification. Some of these highlighted families consist entirely of freshwater species, but some of them also contain, or even mainly consist of, marine species.)
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Neritimorpha
[edit]The Neritimorpha are a group of primitive "prosobranch" gilled snails which have a shelly operculum.
- Neritiliidae - 5 extant freshwater species[5]
- Neritidae - largely confined to the tropics, also the rivers of Europe, family includes the marine "nerites".[9] There are about 110 extant freshwater species.[5]
-
Family Neritidae, shells of Theodoxus fluviatilis. -
Family Neritidae, Vittina natalensis -
Family Neritidae, Vittina waigiensis -
Family Neritidae, Clithon corona
Caenogastropoda
[edit]The Caenogastropoda are a large group of gilled operculate snails, which are largely marine. In freshwater habitats there are ten major families of caenogastropods, as well as several other families of lesser importance:
- Architaenioglossa
- Ampullariidae - an exclusively freshwater family that is largely tropical and includes the large "apple snails" kept in aquaria.[9] About 105–170 species.[5]
- Viviparidae - medium to large snails, live-bearing, commonly referred to as "mystery snails". Worldwide except South America, and everywhere confined to fresh waters.[9] About 125–150 species.[5]
-
Family Ampullariidae, Pomacea bridgesii. -
Family Viviparidae, Viviparus viviparus.
- Sorbeoconcha
- Melanopsidae - family native to rivers draining to the Mediterranean, also Middle East, and some South Pacific islands.[9] About 25–50 species.[5]
- Pachychilidae - 165–225 species.[5] native to South and Central America. Formerly included with the Pleuroceridae by many authors.
- Paludomidae - about 100 species in south Asia, diverse in African Lakes, and Sri Lanka.[5] Formerly classified with the Pleuroceridae by some authors.
- Pleuroceridae - abundant and diverse in eastern North America, largely high-spired snails of small to large size.[9] About 150 species.[3]
- Semisulcospiridae - primarily eastern Asia, Japan, also the Juga snails of northwestern North America. Formerly included with the Pleuroceridae. About 50 species.[3]
- Thiaridae - high-spired parthenogenic snails of the tropics, includes those referred to as "trumpet snails" in aquaria.[9] About 110 species.[3]
-
Family Melanopsidae, Melanopsis praemorsa -
Family Pleuroceridae, Io fluvialis. -
Family Semisulcospiridae, Semisulcospira kurodai. -
Family Thiaridae, Melanoides tuberculata.
- Littorinimorpha
- Littorinidae - 9 species in the genus Cremnoconchus are freshwater living in streams and waterfalls.[10] Other species are marine.
- Amnicolidae - about 200 species.[5]
- Assimineidae - about 20 freshwater species,[5] other are marine
- Bithyniidae - small snails, native to Eastern Hemisphere.[9] About 130 species.[5]
- Cochliopidae - about 246 species.[5]
- Helicostoidae - the only species Helicostoa sinensis lives in China.[5]
- Hydrobiidae - small to very small snails found worldwide.[9] About 1250 freshwater species[5] other are marine.
- Lithoglyphidae - about 100 species.[5]
- Moitessieriidae - about 55 species.[5]
- Pomatiopsidae - small amphibious snails scattered worldwide, most diverse in eastern and Southeast Asia.[9] About 170 species.[5]
- Stenothyridae - about 60 freshwater species,[5] others are marine.
-
Family Bithyniidae, Bithynia tentaculata. -
Family Cochliopidae, Antrobia culveri. -
Family Helicostoidae, Helicostoa sinensis shells. -
Family Hydrobiidae, Sadleriana fluminensis -
Family Lithoglyphidae, Lithoglyphus naticoides. -
Family Pomatiopsidae, Oncomelania hupensis.
- Neogastropoda
- Nassariidae - 8–10 freshwater species in the genus Anentome and Clea,[5] native to Southeast Asia. Other Nassariidae are marine.
- Marginellidae - 2 freshwater species in the genus Rivomarginella,[5] native to Southeast Asia. Other Marginellidae are marine.
Heterobranchia
[edit]
- Lower Heterobranchia
- Glacidorbidae - 20 species.[5]
- Valvatidae - small low-spired snails referred to as "valve snails". 71 species.[5]
- Acochlidiidae (including synonym Strubelliidae) - 5 shell-less species:[5] Acochlidium amboinense, Acochlidium bayerfehlmanni, Acochlidium fijiiensis, Palliohedyle sutteri and Strubellia paradoxa[11]
- Tantulidae - there is only one species[5] which is shell-less Tantulum elegans.
- Pulmonata, Basommatophora
Basommatophorans are pulmonate or air-breathing aquatic snails, characterized by having their eyes located at the base of their tentacles, rather than at the tips, as in the true land snails Stylommatophora. The majority of basommatophorans have shells that are thin, translucent, and relatively colorless, and all five freshwater basommatophoran families lack an operculum.
- Chilinidae - small to medium-sized snails confined to temperate and cold South America.[9] About 15 species.[5]
- Latiidae - small limpet-like snails confined to New Zealand.[9] One[5] or three species.
- Acroloxidae - about 40 species.[5]
- Lymnaeidae - found worldwide, but are most numerous in temperate and northern regions.[9] These are the dextral (right-handed) pond snails. About 100 species.
- Planorbidae - "rams horn" snails, with a worldwide distribution.[9] About 250 species.[5]
- Physidae - left-handed (sinistral) "pouch snails", native to Europe, Asia, North America.[9] About 80 species.[5]
-
Family Acroloxidae, Acroloxus lacustris. -
Family Lymnaeidae, Lymnaea stagnalis. -
Family Physidae, Physella acuta. -
Family Planorbidae, Planorbarius corneus.
Sexual reproduction and self-fertilization
[edit]The freshwater snail Physa acuta is in the subclass Heterobranchia and the family Physidae. P. acuta is a self-fertile snail that can undergo either sexual reproduction or self-fertilization. Noel et al.[12] experimentally tested whether accumulation of deleterious mutations is avoided either by inbreeding populations of the snail (undergoing self-fertilization), or in outbreeding populations undergoing sexual reproduction. Inbreeding promotes the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny that then exposes these mutations to selective elimination because of their deleterious affects on progeny. Outbreeding sexual reproduction allows females to choose male mating partners with smaller mutation loads that then also leads to a reduction of deleterious mutations in progeny. On the basis of their findings, Noel et al.[12] concluded that both outbred and inbred populations of P. acuta can efficiently eliminate deleterious mutations.
As human food
[edit]Several different freshwater snail species are eaten in Asian cuisine.
Archaeological investigations in Guatemala have revealed that the diet of the Maya of the Classic Period (AD 250–900) included freshwater snails.[13]
-
-
A Bengali dish of stir-fried freshwater snails with onion and garlic paste and other spices, from Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Aquarium snails
[edit]Freshwater snails are commonly found in aquaria along with tropical fish. Species available vary in different parts of the world. In the United States, commonly available species include ramshorn snails such as Planorbella duryi, apple snails such as Pomacea bridgesii, the high-spired thiarid Malaysian trumpet snail, Melanoides tuberculata, and several Neritina species.
Parasitology
[edit]
Freshwater snails are widely known to be hosts in the lifecycles of a variety of human and animal parasites, particularly trematodes (or "flukes"). Some of these relations for prosobranch snails include Oncomelania in the family Pomatiopsidae as hosts of Schistosoma, and Bithynia, Parafossarulus and Amnicola as hosts of Opisthorchis.[14] Thiara and Semisulcospira may host Paragonimus.[14] Juga plicifera may host Nanophyetus salmincola.[15] Basommatophoran snails are even more widely infected, with many Biomphalaria (Planorbidae) serving as hosts for Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciolopsis and other parasitic groups.[14] The tiny Bulinus snails are hosts for Schistosoma haematobium.[14] Lymnaeid snails (Lymnaeidae) serve as hosts for Fasciola and the cerceriae causing swimmer's itch.[14] The term "neglected tropical diseases" applies to all snail-borne infections, including schistosomiasis, fascioliasis, fasciolopsiasis, paragonimiasis, opisthorchiasis, clonorchiasis, and angiostrongyliasis.[16]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]This article incorporates CC-BY-2.5 text from the reference[16]
- ^ Pflanzer, Lydia Ramsey (September 8, 2016). "These are the world's deadliest animals". Business Insider. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
- ^ Learish, Jessica (October 15, 2016). "The 24 deadliest animals on Earth, ranked". CNET. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
- ^ a b c d e Strong E. E., Colgan D. J., Healy J. M., Lydeard C., Ponder W. F. & Glaubrecht M. (2011). "Phylogeny of the gastropod superfamily Cerithioidea using morphology and molecules". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 162(1): 43–89. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00670.x.
- ^ Dillon R. T. (2006). Chapter 21. Freshwater Gastropoda. pages 251–259. In: Sturm C. F., Pearce T. A. & Valdés A. (eds.) (2006). The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation. American Malacological Society, 445 pp. ISBN 978-1-58112-930-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Strong E. E., Gargominy O., Ponder W. F. & Bouchet P. (2008). "Global Diversity of Gastropods (Gastropoda; Mollusca) in Freshwater". Hydrobiologia 595: 149–166. hdl.handle.net doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9012-6.
- ^ Neubauer, Thomas A. (2023-09-12). "The fossil record of freshwater Gastropoda – a global review". Biological Reviews. 99 (1): 177–199. doi:10.1111/brv.13016. ISSN 1464-7931. PMID 37698140.
- ^ Bouchet, Philippe; Rocroi, Jean-Pierre; Frýda, Jiri; Hausdorf, Bernard; Ponder, Winston; Valdés, Ángel & Warén, Anders (2005). "Classification and nomenclator of gastropod families". Malacologia. 47 (1–2). Hackenheim, Germany: ConchBooks: 1–397. ISBN 3-925919-72-4. ISSN 0076-2997.
- ^ Jörger K. M., Stöger I., Kano Y., Fukuda H., Knebelsberger T. & Schrödl M. (2010). "On the origin of Acochlidia and other enigmatic euthyneuran gastropods, with implications for the systematics of Heterobranchia". BMC Evolutionary Biology 10: 323. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-323.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Banarescu P. (1990). Zoogeography of Fresh Waters, Vol. 1, General Distribution and Dispersal of Freshwater Animals. AULA - Verlag, Weisbaden.
- ^ Reid D. G., Aravind N. A., & Madhyastha N. A. (2013). "A unique radiation of marine littorinid snails in the freshwater streams of the Western Ghats of India: the genus Cremnoconchus W.T. Blanford, 1869 (Gastropoda: Littorinidae)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 167(1): 93–135. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00875.x.
- ^ Schrödl M. & Neusser T. P. (2010). "Towards a phylogeny and evolution of Acochlidia (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 158: 124–154. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00544.x.
- ^ a b Noël E, Fruitet E, Lelaurin D, Bonel N, Ségard A, Sarda V, Jarne P, David P. Sexual selection and inbreeding: Two efficient ways to limit the accumulation of deleterious mutations. Evol Lett. 2018 Dec 10;3(1):80-92. doi: 10.1002/evl3.93. PMID 30788144; PMCID: PMC6369961
- ^ Foias A. E. (2000). "Entre la política y economía: Resultados preliminares de las primeras temporadas del Proyecto Arqueológico Motul de San José" (PDF). XIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1999 (Edited by J.P. Laporte, H. Escobedo, B. Arroyo and A.C. De Suasnávar) (in Spanish): 771–799. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2009-03-18. Retrieved 2009-03-01., page 777.
- ^ a b c d e Chandler A. C. & Read C P. (1961). Introduction to Parasitology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 822 pp.
- ^ Adams A. M. (2006). Foodborne trematodes. In: Ortega I. R. (ed.) (2006). Foodborne parasites. ISBN 0-387-30068-6. page 178.
- ^ a b Adema C. M., Bayne C. J., Bridger J. M., Knight M., Loker E. S., Yoshino T. P. & Zhang S.-M. (2012). "Will All Scientists Working on Snails and the Diseases They Transmit Please Stand Up?". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6(12): e1835. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001835.
Further reading
[edit]- J. Mouthon, Typology of molluscs of flowing water; biotypological organisations; socioecological groupings; Annls Limnol. Volume 17, Number 2, 1981
- Haynes A. (2000). "The distribution of freshwater gastropods on four Vanuatu islands: Espiritu Santo, Pentecost, Éfate and Tanna (South Pacific)". Annales de Limnologie 36(2): 101–111. doi:10.1051/limn/2000006, PDF.
- Vermeij J. & Wesselingh F. P. (2002). "Neogastropod molluscs from the Miocene of western Amazonia, with comments on marine to freshwater transitions in molluscs". Journal of Paleontology 76(2): 265–270. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2002)076<0265:NMFTMO>2.0.CO;2.
- J.B. Burch, Freshwater snails of North America; 1982 - nepis.epa.gov.
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