MPLA: Difference between revisions

People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola

*Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola*
People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola
Abbreviation	MPLA
Chairman	João Lourenço
Secretary-General	Paulo Pombolo
Founders	Agostinho Neto; Viriato da Cruz
Founded	10 December 1956; 68 years ago
Merger of	PLUAA; PCA
Headquarters	Luanda, Luanda Province
Newspaper	Jornal de Angola
Youth wing	Youth of MPLA
Women's wing	Organization of Angolan Women
Paramilitary wing	People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (1956–1993)
Membership (2022)	3,000,000
Ideology	Angolan nationalism; Social democracy; Democratic socialism; 1976–1990: ; Communism; Marxism-Leninism; Left-wing nationalism;
Political position	Centre-left to left-wing; 1976–1990:; Left-wing to far-left;
International affiliation	Socialist International (since 2006)
African affiliation	FLMSA; CONCP;
Colours	Red
Slogan	• "Peace, Work and Liberty"; • "MPLA e os Novos Desafios";
National Assembly	124 / 220
SADC PF	0 / 5
Pan-African Parliament	0 / 5
Election symbol
Party flag
Website
	mpla.ao
	Politics of Angola; Political parties; Elections;

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The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola, abbr. MPLA), from 1977–1990 called the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola – Labour Party (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola – Partido do Trabalho), is an Angolan social democratic political party. The MPLA fought against the Portuguese Army in the Angolan War of Independence from 1961 to 1974, and defeated the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) in the Angolan Civil War. The party has ruled Angola since the country's independence from Portugal in 1975, being the de facto government throughout the civil war and continuing to rule afterwards.

Formation

On 10 December 1956, in Estado Novo-ruled Portuguese Angola, the underground Angolan Communist Party (PCA) merged with the Party of the United Struggle for Africans in Angola (PLUAA) to form the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, with Viriato da Cruz, the president of the PCA, as secretary general.^[21]^[22] Other groups later merged into MPLA, such as the Movement for the National Independence of Angola (MINA) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Angola (FDLA).^[23]

The MPLA's core base includes the Ambundu ethnic group and the educated intelligentsia of the capital city, Luanda. The party formerly had links to European and Soviet communist parties, but today is a full-member of the Socialist International grouping of social democratic parties. The armed wing of MPLA was the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA). The FAPLA later (1975–1991) became the national armed forces of the country when the MPLA took control of the government.

In 1961, the MPLA joined the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), its fraternal party in Guinea-Bissau and Cabo Verde, in direct combat against the Portuguese empire in Africa. The following year, the expanded umbrella group Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies (CONCP) replaced FRAIN, adding FRELIMO of Mozambique and the CLSTP, forerunner of the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP).

In the early 1970s, the MPLA's guerrilla activities were reduced, due to the fierce counter-insurgency campaigns of the Portuguese military. At the same time, internal conflicts caused the movement to temporarily split into three factions (Ala Presidencialista or Presidentialist Wing, Revolta Activa or Active Revolt, and Revolta do Leste or Eastern Revolt). By 1974/75, this situation had been overcome with renewed cooperation, but it scarred the party.^[24]

Independence and civil war

The Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, Portugal in 1974 established a military government. It promptly ceased anti-independence fighting in Angola and agreed to transfer power to a coalition of three pro-independence Angolan movements.

The coalition quickly broke down and the newly independent Angola broke into a state of civil war. Maintaining control over Luanda and the lucrative oil fields of the Atlantic coastline, Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the Portuguese Overseas Province of Angola as the People's Republic of Angola on 11 November 1975, in accordance with the Alvor Accords.^[25]

UNITA and FNLA together declared Angolan independence in Huambo. These differences reignited civil war between UNITA & FNLA and the MPLA, with the latter winning the upper hand. Agostinho Neto became the first president upon independence. He was succeeded after his death in 1979 by José Eduardo dos Santos.

MPLA poster. The slogan translates as "Victory is certain".

In 1974–1976, South Africa and Zaire intervened militarily in favor of FNLA and UNITA. The United States strongly aided the two groups. Cuba in turn intervened in 1975 to aid the MPLA against South African intervention, and the Soviet Union aided both Cuba and the MPLA government during the war.

In November 1980, the MPLA had all but pushed UNITA into the bush, and the South African forces withdrew. ^{[citation needed]} The United States Congress barred further U.S. military involvement in the country, against the wishes of President Ronald Reagan, as the representatives feared getting into a situation similar to the Vietnam War. In 1976 the FNLA withdrew its troops to their bases in Zaire. Part of them joined the 32 Battalion, formed by South Africa in order to receive anti-MPLA Angolans.

At its first congress in 1977, the MPLA adopted Marxism–Leninism as the party ideology. It added Partido do Trabalho (Labour Party) to its name.^[6]

After Nito Alves's attempted coup in 1977, Neto ordered the killing of suspected followers and sympathisers of "orthodox communism" inside and outside the party. During the coup, Cuban forces stationed in Angola sided with the MPLA leadership against the coup organizers.^[26] Estimates for the number of Alves' followers killed by Cuban and MPLA troops in the aftermath range from 2,000 — 70,000 dead, with some placing the death toll at 18,000.^[27]^[28]^[29]

After the violent internal conflict called Fractionism, the MPLA declared that it would follow the socialist, not the communist, model. But it did maintain close ties with the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc, establishing socialist economic policies and a one-party state^{[citation needed]}. Several thousand Cuban troops remained in the country to combat UNITA fighters and bolster the regime's security.

When the Cold War ended and the Soviet Union fell, the MPLA abandoned its Marxist–Leninist ideology. On its third congress in December 1990, it declared social democracy to be its official ideology.^[6]

The MPLA emerged victorious in Angola's 1992 general election, but eight opposition parties rejected the election as rigged. UNITA sent negotiators to Luanda, where they were killed. As a consequence, hostilities erupted in the city, and immediately spread to other parts of the country. Tens of thousands of UNITA and FNLA sympathizers were subsequently killed nationwide by MPLA forces, in what is known as the Halloween Massacre. The civil war resumed.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]

The war continued until 2002, when UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi was killed. The two parties agreed to a ceasefire, and a plan was laid out for UNITA to demobilize and become a political party. More than 500,000 civilians were killed during the civil war.^[34] Human rights observers have accused the MPLA of "genocidal atrocities," "systematic extermination," "war crimes" and "crimes against humanity during the civil war."^[35] Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated that the MPLA were responsible for between 100,000 and 200,000 deaths in democide from 1975 to 1987.^[36]

Human rights record

The MPLA government of Angola has been accused of human rights violations such as arbitrary arrest and detention and torture^[37] by international organisations, including Amnesty International^[38] and Human Rights Watch.^[39] The MPLA government hired Samuels International Associates Inc in 2008 to help improve Angola's global image and "'facilitate' its meetings with senior U.S. officials".^[40]

Party organizations

At present, major mass organizations of the MPLA-PT include the Angolan Women's Organization (Organização da Mulher Angolana or O.M.A.), National Union of Angolan Workers (União Nacional dos Trabalhadores Angolanos or U.N.T.A.), Agostinho Neto Pioneer Organization (Organização de Pioneiros de Agostinho Neto or O.P.A.), and the Youth of MPLA (Juventude do MPLA or J.M.P.L.A.).

Foreign support

During both the Portuguese Colonial War and the Angolan Civil War, the MPLA received military and humanitarian support primarily from the governments of Algeria, Brazil,^[41] the Bulgarian People's Republic, East Germany,^[42] Cape Verde, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic,^[43] the Congo, Cuba, Guinea-Bissau, Mexico, Morocco, the Mozambican People's Republic, Nigeria, North Korea, the Polish People's Republic, China, the Romanian Socialist Republic, São Tomé and Príncipe, Somalia,^[44] the Soviet Union, Sudan,^[43] Tanzania,^[45] Libya^[46] and SFR Yugoslavia. While China did briefly support the MPLA,^[47] it also actively supported the MPLA's enemies, the FNLA and later UNITA, during the war for independence and the civil war. The switch was the result of tensions between China and the Soviet Union for dominance of the communist bloc, which almost led to war.^[48]^[49]

Electoral history

In the 1992 election, MPLA-PT won 53.74% of the votes and 129 out of 227 seats in parliament; however, eight opposition parties rejected the 1992 elections as rigged.^[50] In the next election, delayed until 2008 due to the civil war, the MPLA won 81.64% of the vote and 191 out of 220 parliamentary seats.^[51] In the 2012 legislative election, the party won 71.84% of the vote and 175 of 220 parliamentary seats.^[52]

In the 2022 general election, MPLA won 124 parliamentary seats and about 51% of the vote. The largest opposition party, UNITA, secured 44% of the vote and 90 parliamentary seats. The tight race was the MPLA's worst showing at the polls in 30 years. However, nearly all opposition parties considered the result to be a fake.^[53]

Presidential elections

Election	Party candidate	Votes	%	Result
1992	José Eduardo dos Santos	1,953,335	49.57%	Elected Y
2012	José Eduardo dos Santos	4,135,503	71.85%	Elected Y
2017	João Lourenço	4,907,057	61.08%	Elected Y
2022	João Lourenço	3,209,429	51.17%	Elected Y

National Assembly elections

Election	Party leader	Votes	%	Seats	+/–	Position	Result
1980	José Eduardo dos Santos	Indirect election		229 / 229	New	1st	Sole legal party
1986		Indirect election		173 / 290	56	1st	Sole legal party
1992		2,124,126	53.74%	129 / 220	44	1st	Majority government
2008		5,266,216	81.64%	191 / 220	62	1st	Supermajority government
2012		4,135,503	71.85%	175 / 220	16	1st	Supermajority government
2017	João Lourenço	4,907,057	61.08%	150 / 220	25	1st	Supermajority government
2022	João Lourenço	3,209,429	51.17%	124 / 220	26	1st	Majority government

In popular culture

In 1976, reggae singer Tapper Zukie dedicated the song and album titled "M.P.L.A" to the movement.^[54]
Pablo Moses dedicated the song "We Should be in Angola" (which appeared on his album Revolutionary Dream) to the MPLA.^[55]
The Sex Pistols singer John Lydon referred to the MPLA in the lyrics of "Anarchy in the U.K.".^[56]
The reggae band The Revolutionaries devoted an extended dub mix record to the movement entitled "MPLA", recorded at Channel One, engineered by King Tubby and released on the "Well Charge" label. The bass line and rhythm was based on "Freedom Blues" by Little Richard. The Revolutionaries also released an extended discomix entitled "Angola". Both tracks were later released on the Revolutionary Sounds album featuring Sly and Robbie.^[57]
The video game Call of Duty: Black Ops 2 features a level in which the player fought alongside the UNITA and Jonas Savimbi against the MPLA.^[58]
The video game Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain sets Missions 13-29 within the environs of the Angola-Zaire border region. Several references to the MPLA, CFA, and UNITA are made--with the in-universe mercenary group Diamond Dogs (led by player character Venom Snake) clashing with or aiding them in different missions.^[59]

References

^ "MPLA: João Lourenço diz que teve a coragem de lutar contra a corrupção". Observador (in Portuguese). 18 August 2022. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022.
^ ^a ^b Andresen Guimarães, Fernando (2001). The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict, 1961–76. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-0-230-59826-3 (inactive 2 November 2024).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
^ Péclard, Didier (31 August 2021). "Nationalism, Liberation, and Decolonization in Angola". Oxford Academic – African History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.640. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4.
^ ^[2]^[3]
^ ^a ^b C. Docherty, James; Lamb, Peter (2006). Historical Dictionary of Socialism. Scarecrow Press. p. 276.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Poddar, Prem; S. Patke, Rajeev; Jensen, Lars, eds. (2008). A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental Europe and its Empires. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 480–481.
^ ^[5]^[6]
^ "Estatuto do MPLA". MPLA.ao. MPLA. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
^ ^[5]^[8]
^ ^a ^b Szajkowski, Bogdan, ed. (1981). Marxist Governments: A World Survey. Macmillan Publishers. pp. 72–76. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-04329-3. ISBN 978-1-349-04331-6.
^ ^a ^b Hodges, Tony (2001). Angola: From Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Indiana University Press.
^ Ball, Jeremy (20 November 2017). "The History of Angola". Oxford Academic – African History. Oxford University Press: 20. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.180. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. The MPLA adopted Marxism in 1976, which strengthened its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union.
^ ^[10]^[2]^[11]^[12]
^ ^[10]^[6]^[11]
^ Drew, Allison, ed. (1 May 2013). "16". The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism. Oxford Academic. pp. 285–302. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.013.003.
^ ^[15]
^ Vanaik, Achin (13 December 2021). "Humanitarian Intervention Is a Cloak for Military Aggression". Jacobin. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022.
^ ^[17]
^ Lamb, Peter; Docherty, James C. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Socialism (Second ed.). The Scarecrow Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-8108-5560-1. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
^ "Comité central do MPLA alargado para 497 membros" [MPLA central committee enlarged to 497 members]. Jornal de Angola (in Portuguese). 15 June 2019. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. O conclave, o primeiro convocado pelo presidente do partido e chefe de Estado, João Lourenço, decorreu sob o lema "MPLA e os Novos Desafios" [The conclave, the first called by the party's president and head of state, João Lourenço, took place under the slogan "MPLA and the New Challenges".]
^ Africa Year Book and Who's who. 1977. p. 238.
^ Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. pp. 29.
^ John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. I, The Anatomy of an Explosion (1950–1962), Cambridge/Mass. & London, MIT Press, 1969.
^ Benjamin Almeida (2011). Angola: O Conflito na Frente Leste. Lisbon: Âncora. ISBN 978 972 780 3156.
^ Rothchild, Donald S. (1997). Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-8157-7593-8.
^ Georges A. Fauriol and Eva Loser. Cuba: The International Dimension, 1990, p. 164.
^ Sulc, Lawrence. "Communists coming clean about their past atrocities", Human Events (13 October 1990): 12.
^ Ramaer, J. C. Soviet Communism: The Essentials. Second Edition. Translated by G. E. Luton. Stichting Vrijheid, Vrede, Verdediging (Belgium), 1986.
^ Pawson, Lara (30 April 2014). In the Name of the People: Angola's Forgotten Massacre. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781780769059.
^ Historical Dictionary of Angola by W. Martin James, Susan Herlin Broadhead on Google Books
^ National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000.
^ John Matthew, Letters, The Times, UK, 6 November 1992 (election observer).
^ Angola: Resumption of the civil war Archived 2 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine EISA
^ Madsen, Wayne (17 May 2002). "Report Alleges US Role in Angola Arms-for-Oil Scandal". CorpWatch. Archived from the original on 5 January 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2008.
^ National Society for Human Rights, Press Releases, 12 September 2000, 16 May 2001.
^ "Power Kills", Hawaii.edu
^ "UN reports Angola 'torture' abuse". BBC News. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2007.
^ Angola. Amnesty USA.
^ Angola. Human Rights Watch.
^ "How a U.S. agency cleaned up Rwanda's genocide-stained image", The Globe and Mail.
^ "KWACHA UNITA PRESS THE NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA UNITA STANDING COMMITTEE OF THE POLITICAL COMMISSION 1999 – Year of Generalised Popular Resistance – COMMUNIQUE NO. 39/CPP/99". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 5 August 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
^ Howe, Herbert M (2004). Ambiguous Order: Military Forces In African States. p. 81.
^ ^a ^b Wright, George (1997). The Destruction of a Nation: United States Policy Towards Angola Since 1945. pp. 9–10.
^ Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges; Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (1986). The Crisis in Zaire. pp. 193–194.
^ "Angola-Ascendancy of the MPLA". www.mongabay.com. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
^ Gebril, Mahmoud (1988), Imagery and Ideology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya 1969–1982, p. 70
^ China Study Centre (India) (1964). China Report. p. 25.
^ Walker, John Frederick (2004). A Certain Curve of Horn: The Hundred-Year Quest for the Giant Sable Antelope of Angola. p. 146.
^ Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges; Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (1986). The Crisis in Zaire. p. 194.
^ National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000
^ "Angolan ruling party gains about 82% of votes in legislative race". Xinhua. 17 September 2008.
^ "Eleicoes Gerais 2012: Resultados". Comissao Nacional Eleitoral Angola. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ "Angola after the election: No rest for the opposition – DW – 09/16/2022". dw.com.
^ "Man Ah Warrior: The Tappa Zukie Story". 4 May 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
^ "Pablo Moses – Revolutionary Dream". Discogs. 1975. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
^ "Sex Pistols – Anarchy in the UK lyrics". Genius. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
^ "Revolutionaries – Revolutionary Sounds". Discogs. 1976. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
^ Stuart, Keith (14 January 2016). "Call of Duty publisher sued by family of Angolan rebel". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
^ "Mission 13 Pitch Dark". Metal Gear Solid 5: The Phantom Pain Wiki Guide. IGN. September 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2023.

External links

Official website (in Portuguese)
MPLA campaign site

[1] "MPLA: João Lourenço diz que teve a coragem de lutar contra a corrupção". Observador (in Portuguese). 18 August 2022. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022.

[fernando-2] Andresen Guimarães, Fernando (2001). The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict, 1961–76. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-0-230-59826-3 (inactive 2 November 2024).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)

[3] Péclard, Didier (31 August 2021). "Nationalism, Liberation, and Decolonization in Angola". Oxford Academic – African History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.640. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4.

[4] [2]^[3]

[social-5] C. Docherty, James; Lamb, Peter (2006). Historical Dictionary of Socialism. Scarecrow Press. p. 276.

[poddar-6] Poddar, Prem; S. Patke, Rajeev; Jensen, Lars, eds. (2008). A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental Europe and its Empires. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 480–481.

[7] [5]^[6]

[MPLA-8] "Estatuto do MPLA". MPLA.ao. MPLA. Retrieved 8 June 2022.

[9] [5]^[8]

[bogdan-10] Szajkowski, Bogdan, ed. (1981). Marxist Governments: A World Survey. Macmillan Publishers. pp. 72–76. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-04329-3. ISBN 978-1-349-04331-6.

[afro-11] Hodges, Tony (2001). Angola: From Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Indiana University Press.

[12] Ball, Jeremy (20 November 2017). "The History of Angola". Oxford Academic – African History. Oxford University Press: 20. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.180. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. The MPLA adopted Marxism in 1976, which strengthened its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union.

[13] [10]^[2]^[11]^[12]

[14] [10]^[6]^[11]

[15] Drew, Allison, ed. (1 May 2013). "16". The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism. Oxford Academic. pp. 285–302. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.013.003.

[16] [15]

[17] Vanaik, Achin (13 December 2021). "Humanitarian Intervention Is a Cloak for Military Aggression". Jacobin. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022.

[18] [17]

[19] Lamb, Peter; Docherty, James C. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Socialism (Second ed.). The Scarecrow Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-8108-5560-1. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2017.

[20] "Comité central do MPLA alargado para 497 membros" [MPLA central committee enlarged to 497 members]. Jornal de Angola (in Portuguese). 15 June 2019. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. O conclave, o primeiro convocado pelo presidente do partido e chefe de Estado, João Lourenço, decorreu sob o lema "MPLA e os Novos Desafios" [The conclave, the first called by the party's president and head of state, João Lourenço, took place under the slogan "MPLA and the New Challenges".]

[commparty-21] Africa Year Book and Who's who. 1977. p. 238.

[merger-22] Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. pp. 29.

[23] John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. I, The Anatomy of an Explosion (1950–1962), Cambridge/Mass. & London, MIT Press, 1969.

[24] Benjamin Almeida (2011). Angola: O Conflito na Frente Leste. Lisbon: Âncora. ISBN 978 972 780 3156.

[beginning-25] Rothchild, Donald S. (1997). Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-8157-7593-8.

[26] Georges A. Fauriol and Eva Loser. Cuba: The International Dimension, 1990, p. 164.

[27] Sulc, Lawrence. "Communists coming clean about their past atrocities", Human Events (13 October 1990): 12.

[28] Ramaer, J. C. Soviet Communism: The Essentials. Second Edition. Translated by G. E. Luton. Stichting Vrijheid, Vrede, Verdediging (Belgium), 1986.

[29] Pawson, Lara (30 April 2014). In the Name of the People: Angola's Forgotten Massacre. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781780769059.

[Dictionary-30] Historical Dictionary of Angola by W. Martin James, Susan Herlin Broadhead on Google Books

[31] National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000.

[32] John Matthew, Letters, The Times, UK, 6 November 1992 (election observer).

[33] Angola: Resumption of the civil war Archived 2 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine EISA

[angolagate-34] Madsen, Wayne (17 May 2002). "Report Alleges US Role in Angola Arms-for-Oil Scandal". CorpWatch. Archived from the original on 5 January 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2008.

[35] National Society for Human Rights, Press Releases, 12 September 2000, 16 May 2001.

[36] "Power Kills", Hawaii.edu

[zerr-37] "UN reports Angola 'torture' abuse". BBC News. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2007.

[38] Angola. Amnesty USA.

[39] Angola. Human Rights Watch.

[40] "How a U.S. agency cleaned up Rwanda's genocide-stained image", The Globe and Mail.

[Brazilian_pilots-41] "KWACHA UNITA PRESS THE NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA UNITA STANDING COMMITTEE OF THE POLITICAL COMMISSION 1999 – Year of Generalised Popular Resistance – COMMUNIQUE NO. 39/CPP/99". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 5 August 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.

[bulgaria-42] Howe, Herbert M (2004). Ambiguous Order: Military Forces In African States. p. 81.

[czech-43] Wright, George (1997). The Destruction of a Nation: United States Policy Towards Angola Since 1945. pp. 9–10.

[romania-44] Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges; Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (1986). The Crisis in Zaire. pp. 193–194.

[45] "Angola-Ascendancy of the MPLA". www.mongabay.com. Retrieved 6 July 2017.

[46] Gebril, Mahmoud (1988), Imagery and Ideology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya 1969–1982, p. 70

[china-47] China Study Centre (India) (1964). China Report. p. 25.

[foreign-48] Walker, John Frederick (2004). A Certain Curve of Horn: The Hundred-Year Quest for the Giant Sable Antelope of Angola. p. 146.

[otherforeign-49] Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges; Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (1986). The Crisis in Zaire. p. 194.

[Multiple1992-50] National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000

[51] "Angolan ruling party gains about 82% of votes in legislative race". Xinhua. 17 September 2008.

[52] "Eleicoes Gerais 2012: Resultados". Comissao Nacional Eleitoral Angola. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[53] "Angola after the election: No rest for the opposition – DW – 09/16/2022". dw.com.

[54] "Man Ah Warrior: The Tappa Zukie Story". 4 May 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2021.

[55] "Pablo Moses – Revolutionary Dream". Discogs. 1975. Retrieved 5 July 2021.

[56] "Sex Pistols – Anarchy in the UK lyrics". Genius. Retrieved 5 July 2021.

[57] "Revolutionaries – Revolutionary Sounds". Discogs. 1976. Retrieved 5 July 2021.

[58] Stuart, Keith (14 January 2016). "Call of Duty publisher sued by family of Angolan rebel". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.

[59] "Mission 13 Pitch Dark". Metal Gear Solid 5: The Phantom Pain Wiki Guide. IGN. September 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2023.

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Authority control databases
International	ISNI VIAF FAST
National	Germany United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Portugal Israel
Academics	CiNii
Other	IdRef