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{{Short description|Alternative medicine practice}}
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{{Infobox alternative interventions
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Image = Aromatas.JPG |
| Name = Aromatherapy
| Image = Aromatas.JPG
Caption = A diffuser and a bottle of essential oil. |
| Caption = A stylized [[Aroma lamp|diffuser]] and a bottle of [[essential oil]]
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MeshID = D019341 |
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{{Alternative medicine sidebar|fringe}}
'''Aromatherapy''' is a form of [[alternative medicine]] that uses volatile plant materials, known as [[essential oils]], and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a person's mind, [[mood (psychology)|mood]], [[cognitive function]] or health.
'''Aromatherapy''' is a practice based on the use of [[odor|aromatic materials]], including [[essential oils]] and other [[aroma compound]]s, with claims for improving psychological [[well-being]].<ref name="farrar">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farrar AJ, Farrar FC |title=Clinical Aromatherapy |journal=The Nursing Clinics of North America |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=489–504 |date=December 2020 |pmid=33131627 |pmc=7520654 |doi=10.1016/j.cnur.2020.06.015}}</ref><ref name="pdq">{{Cite web|author=Editorial Board, PDQ Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies |title=Aromatherapy With Essential Oils|date=13 January 2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK65874/ |access-date=2024-04-21 |place=Bethesda (MD) |publisher=National Cancer Institute, US National Institutes of Health |pmid=26389313}}</ref><ref name="fda">{{cite web |title=Aromatherapy |url=https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-products/aromatherapy |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=21 April 2024 |date=28 September 2023}}</ref> It is used as a [[complementary therapy]] or as a form of [[alternative medicine]], and typically is used via inhalation and not by ingestion.<ref name=pdq/>


Fragrances used in aromatherapy are not approved as [[prescription drug]]s in the United States.<ref name=fda/> Although there is insufficient [[evidence-based medicine|medical evidence]] that aromatherapy can prevent, treat or cure any disease,<ref name=farrar/><ref name=pdq/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Myeong Soo|last2=Choi|first2=Jiae|last3=Posadzki|first3=Paul|last4=Ernst|first4=Edzard|date=March 2012|title=Aromatherapy for health care: An overview of systematic reviews|journal=Maturitas|volume=71|issue=3|pages=257–260|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.12.018 |pmid=22285469}}</ref> aromatherapy is used by some people with diseases, such as cancer, to provide general well-being and relief from pain, nausea or stress.<ref name=farrar/><ref name=pdq/>
Some essential oils such as tea tree<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Carson CF, Hammer KA, Riley TV |title=Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Oil: a Review of Antimicrobial and Other Medicinal Properties |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=50–62 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16418522 |pmc=1360273 |doi=10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006}}</ref> have demonstrated anti-microbial effects, but there is still a lack of clinical evidence demonstrating efficacy against bacterial, fungal, or viral infections. Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions remains poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=van der Watt G, Janca A |title=Aromatherapy in nursing and mental health care |journal=Contemporary Nurse |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=19072192 |doi=10.5555/conu.673.30.1.69}}</ref> but some evidence exists that essential oils may have therapeutic potential.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Edris AE |title=Pharmaceutical and therapeutic potentials of essential oils and their individual volatile constituents: a review |journal=Phytotherapy Research |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=308–23 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17199238 |doi=10.1002/ptr.2072}}</ref>
People may use blends of essential oils as a [[topical medication|topical application]], massage, inhalation, or water immersion.<ref name=farrar/><ref name=pdq/><ref name="mayo">{{cite web|title= Home remedies: What are the benefits of aromatherapy?|url=https://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/home-remedies-what-are-the-benefits-of-aromatherapy/|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=29 July 2023|date=8 May 2019}}</ref> Due to the low quality of research evidence, it is uncertain if aromatherapy provides any benefit to people experiencing [[nausea]] after surgery.<ref name=Hines2018>
{{cite journal |vauthors=Hines S, Steels E, Chang A, Gibbons K |title=Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2018 |pages=CD007598 |date=March 2018 |issue=3 |pmid=29523018 |pmc=6494172 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007598.pub3 }}</ref>


Essential oils comprise hundreds to thousands of aromatic constituents, like [[Terpenoid|terpinoids]] and [[Phenylpropanoid|phenylpropanoids]], and to sufficiently research the [[Pharmacology|pharmacological]] effects of essential oil constituents, each isolated constituent in the selected essential oil would have to be studied.<ref name=pdq/><ref name=fda/>
==History==
Aromatherapy may have origins in antiquity with the use of infused aromatic oils, made by macerating dried plant material in fatty oil, heating and then filtering. Many such oils are described by [[Dioscorides]], along with beliefs of the time regarding their healing properties, in his ''[[De Materia Medica]]'', written in the first century.<ref>Gunther, R.T. (ed.) (1959). ''The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides'' (translated by John Goodyer in 1655). New York: Hafner Publishing. {{OCLC|3570794}}</ref> Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the invention of [[distillation]] in the eleventh century,<ref>Forbes R.J. (1970). ''A short history of the art of distillation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. {{OCLC|2559231}}</ref> when [[Avicenna]] isolated essential oils using [[steam distillation]].<ref name=Marlene>{{Cite book|first=Marlene |last=Ericksen |title=Healing With Aromatherapy |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |year=2000 |page=9 |isbn=0-658-00382-8}}</ref>


== History ==
The concept of aromatherapy was first mooted by a small number of European scientists and doctors, in about{{Weasel-inline|date=February 2010}} 1907. In 1937, the word first appeared in print in a French book on the subject: ''Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales'' by [[:fr:René-Maurice Gattefossé|René-Maurice Gattefossé]], a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.<ref>Gattefossé, R.-M., & Tisserand, R. (1993). ''Gattefossé's aromatherapy''. Saffron Walden: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 0-85207-236-8</ref> In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly which he claimed to have treated with lavendar oil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/aromatherapy-000347.htm|title=Aromatherapy|publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center|accessdate=24 October 2010}}</ref>
<!--[[History of aromatherapy]] redirects here-->


The use of [[essential oil]]s for therapeutic, spiritual, hygienic and ritualistic purposes goes back to ancient civilizations including the [[Indian people|Indians]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Egyptians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Roman people|Romans]] who used them in cosmetics, perfumes and drugs. Oils were used for aesthetic pleasure and in the beauty industry. They were a luxury item and a means of payment. It was believed that essential oils increased the shelf life of wine and improved the taste of food.
A French surgeon, [[:fr:Jean Valnet|Jean Valnet]], pioneered the medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during [[World War II]].<ref>Valnet, J., & Tisserand, R. (1990). ''The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties''. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0-89281-398-9</ref>


Oils and the belief that they had healing properties, along with other beliefs of the time, are described by [[Dioscorides]] in his ''[[De Materia Medica]]'', written in the 1st century A.D.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gunther |editor1-first=R.T. |year=1959 |title=The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides |first1=Pedanius |last1=Dioscorides |author-link1=Pedanius Dioscorides |first2=John (trans.) |last2=Goodyer |location=New York |publisher=Hafner Publishing|page=34|oclc=3570794}}</ref> Distilled cedarwood oil was used by the ancient Egyptians, and the process of [[steam distillation|distilling]] essential oils like rose essence was refined by the 11th century Persian scholar [[Ibn Sina]]. [[Hildegard of Bingen]] used distilled lavender oil for medicinal treatments in the 12th century, and by the 15th century, oils were commonly distilled from various plant sources.<ref>{{cite book|title=Complementary Medicine for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses|page=204|year=2011|last=Scanlan|first=Nancy|isbn=978-0470958896|publisher=Wiley}}</ref>
==Modes of application==
The modes of application of aromatherapy include:
* ''Aerial diffusion'': for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
* ''Direct inhalation'': for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects
* ''Topical applications'': for general [[massage]], [[bath salts|baths]], compresses, therapeutic skin care<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.plaisirsboutique.com/brand-john-masters-organics.irc|title=Organic Bath Oil|publisher=Plaisirs|accessdate=11 October 2011}}</ref>


In the era of modern medicine, the name "aromatherapy" first appeared in print in 1937 in a French book on the subject: {{Lang|fr|Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales}} by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gattefossé |first1=R.-M. |last2=Tisserand |first2=R. |year=1993 |title=Gattefossé's aromatherapy |location=Saffron Walden |publisher=C.W. Daniel |isbn=0-85207-236-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/gattefossesaroma00rene }}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}</ref>
==Materials==
Some of the materials employed include:
* ''[[Absolute (substance)|Absolutes]]'': Fragrant oils extracted primarily from flowers or delicate plant tissues through [[solvent]] or [[supercritical fluid]] extraction (e.g., [[rose]] absolute). The term is also used to describe oils extracted from fragrant butters, concretes, and enfleurage pommades using [[ethanol]].
* ''[[Carrier oil]]s'': Typically oily plant base [[triacylglyceride]]s that dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g., [[almond|sweet almond]] oil).
* ''[[Essential oil]]s'': Fragrant oils extracted from plants chiefly through steam [[distillation]] (e.g., [[eucalyptus]] oil) or expression ([[grapefruit]] oil). However, the term is also occasionally used to describe fragrant oils extracted from plant material by any [[solvent extraction]].
* ''[[Herbal distillate]]s'' or hydrosols: The aqueous [[by-product]]s of the distillation process (e.g., [[rosewater]]). There are many herbs that make herbal distillates and they have culinary uses, medicinal uses and skin care uses{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}. Common herbal distillates are [[chamomile]], [[rose]], and [[lemon balm]].
* ''[[Infusion]]s'': Aqueous extracts of various plant material (e.g., infusion of [[chamomile]]).
* ''[[Phytoncide]]s'': Various [[volatile organic compound]]s from plants that kill [[microbe]]s{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}. Many [[terpene]]-based fragrant oils and [[sulfur]]ic compounds from plants in the genus "''[[Allium]]''" are phytoncides{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}, though the latter are likely less commonly used in aromatherapy due to their disagreeable [[odor]]s.
* ''[[Vaporizer (cannabis)|Vaporizer]] (Volatized) Raw Herbs'': Typically higher oil content plant based materials dried, crushed, and heated to extract and inhale the aromatic oil vapors in a direct inhalation modality.


Jean Valnet, a French surgeon, pioneered the supposed medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as [[antiseptic]]s in the treatment of wounded soldiers during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Valnet |first1=J. |last2=Tisserand |first2=R. |year=1990 |title=The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties |location=Rochester, VT |publisher=Healing Arts Press |isbn=0-89281-398-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/practiceofaromat00valn_0 }}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}</ref>
==Theory==
Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of [[essential oils]]. Other stated uses include pain and anxiety reduction, enhancement of energy and short-term memory, relaxation, hair loss prevention, and reduction of eczema-induced itching.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jennifer A. Kingston|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/fashion/29skin.html|title=Nostrums: Aromatherapy Rarely Stands Up to Testing|publisher=The New York Times (Style)|date=28 July 2010|accessdate=29 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Eric Nagourney|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/health/research/11nost.html|title=Skin Deep: In Competition for your Nose|publisher=The New York Times (Health)|date=11 March 2008|accessdate=29 December 2010}}</ref>


==Choice and purchase==
Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the [[limbic system]] through the [[olfactory system]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1887 |title=The Power of Smell|publisher=Serendip| accessdate=24 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101010004654/http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1887| archivedate= 10 October 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the [[essential oils]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Prabuseenivasan S, Jayakumar M, Ignacimuthu S |title=In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils |journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=6|pages=39 |year=2006 |pmid=17134518 |pmc=1693916 |doi=10.1186/1472-6882-6-39}}</ref> While precise knowledge of the [[synergy]] between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains unproven. However, some preliminary clinical studies of aromatherapy in combination with other techniques show positive effects. Aromatherapy does not cure conditions, but helps the body to find a natural way to cure itself and improve immune response.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kim HJ |title=[Effect of aromatherapy massage on abdominal fat and body image in post-menopausal women] |language=Korean |journal=Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=603–12 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17615482 |url=http://www.kan.or.kr/new/kor/sub3/sub3_1.php?start=view&year=2007&issue=4&volume=37&spage=603}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Rho KH, Han SH, Kim KS, Lee MS |title=Effects of aromatherapy massage on anxiety and self-esteem in korean elderly women: a pilot study |journal=The International Journal of Neuroscience |volume=116 |issue=12 |pages=1447–55 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17145679 |doi=10.1080/00207450500514268}}</ref>
Aromatherapy products, and essential oils in particular, may be regulated differently depending on their intended use.<ref name=fda/> Products that are marketed with a therapeutic use in the US are regulated by the [[Food and Drug Administration|US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)]]; products with a cosmetic use must meet safety requirements, regardless of their source.<ref name=fda/> The US [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) regulates any aromatherapy advertising claims.<ref name=fda/>


There are no standards for determining the quality of essential oils in the United States; while the term "therapeutic grade" is in use, it does not have a regulatory meaning.<ref name=fda/><ref>{{cite web | title=The Quality of Essential Oils | website=New York Institute of Aromatic Studies | date=2013-12-01 | url=https://aromaticstudies.com/the-quality-of-essential-oils/ | ref={{sfnref | New York Institute of Aromatic Studies | 2013}} | access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref>
In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage {{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded{{by whom|date=December 2010}} as a complementary modality at best and a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] fraud at worst.<ref>Barrett, Stephen. [http://www.srmhp.org/archives/aromatherapy.html "Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents"], ''Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health''. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (SRMHP). Retrieved on 2009-08-10.</ref>


Analysis using [[gas chromatography]] and [[mass spectrometry]] has been used to identify bioactive compounds in essential oils.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Song | first1=Shen | last2=Yao | first2=Wei-Feng | last3=Cui | first3=Xiao-bin | last4=Liu | first4=Xiao | last5=Qiu | first5=Rong-Li | title=Spectrum-effect relationship analysis by binary chromatographic fingerprint to identify components responsible for the antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Curcumae wenyujin | journal=International Journal of Food Properties | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=1 | year=2018 | issn=1094-2912 | doi=10.1080/10942912.2018.1453836 | pages=546–556 | doi-access=free }}</ref> These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Robert P. |date=2007 |title=Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry}}</ref> This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been "improved" by the addition of synthetic [[Aroma compound|aromachemicals]], but the latter is often signalled by the minor impurities present.
==Choice and purchase==
Oils with standardized content of components (marked FCC, for Food Chemical Codex) are required to contain a specified amount of certain aroma chemicals that normally occur in the oil{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}. But there is no law that the chemicals cannot be added in synthetic form in order to meet the criteria established by the FCC for that oil{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}. For instance, [[lemongrass]] essential oil must contain 75% [[aldehyde]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} to meet the FCC profile for that oil, but that aldehyde can come from a chemical refinery instead of from lemongrass. To say that FCC oils are "food grade", then, makes them seem natural when, in fact, they are not necessarily so.


== Effectiveness ==
Undiluted essential oils suitable for aromatherapy are termed ''therapeutic grade'', but there are no established and agreed standards for this supposed category. The market for essential oils is dominated by the food, perfume, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, so aromatherapists have little choice but to buy the best of whatever oils are available.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}
There is no [[evidence-based medicine|clinical evidence]] that aromatherapy can prevent or cure any disease,<ref name=farrar/><ref name=Hines2018/><ref name="Barrett">{{cite web |last1=Barrett |first1=S |title=Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents |url=http://www.srmhp.org/archives/aromatherapy.html |access-date=21 February 2013 |work=Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health |publisher=Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice}}</ref> although it may be useful for managing symptoms.<ref name=pdq/><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lakhan SE, Sheafer H, Tepper D |date=2016 |title=The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Reducing Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Pain Research and Treatment |volume=2016 |page=13 |doi=10.1155/2016/8158693 |pmc=5192342 |pmid=28070420 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions is poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology.<ref name=farrar/><ref name=pdq/><ref name=Hines2018/> In 2015, the [[Department of Health (Australia)|Australian Government's Department of Health]] published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by [[health insurance]]; aromatherapy was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.<ref name="aus17">{{cite web |author=Baggoley C |year=2015 |title=Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626024750/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2016 |access-date=12 December 2015 |publisher=Australian Government – Department of Health}}
Analysis using [[gas liquid chromatography]] (GLC) and [[mass spectrometry]] (MS) is used to establish the quality of essential oils. These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion. This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been 'improved' by the addition of synthetic aromachemicals, but the latter is often signalled by the minor impurities present. For example, linalool made in plants will be accompanied by a small amount of hydro-linalool, whilst synthetic linalool is contaminated with traces of dihydro-linalool.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}


* {{lay source|template=cite web|author=Gavura, S.|date=19 November 2015|title=Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies|url=https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/australian-review-finds-no-benefit-to-17-natural-therapies|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>
==Popular uses==
* Lemon oil is uplifting and anti-stress/[[anti-depressant]]. In a Japanese study, lemon [[essential oil]] in vapour form has been found to reduce [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] in [[mouse|mice]].<ref name="aromatherapy">{{Cite web
| coauthors = Komiya M, Takeuchi T, Harada E
| title = Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice.
| publisher = PubMed.gov
| date= 15 June 2006
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16780969&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum
| accessdate = 2007-04-26 }}</ref> Research at The Ohio State University indicates that Lemon oil aroma may enhance one's mood, and help with relaxation.<ref>[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/aromathe.htm Ohio State University Research, 3 March 2008] Study is published in the March 2008 issue of the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology</ref>
* [[Thyme]] oil<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16690225&query_hl=14&itool=pubmed_docsum Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils].</ref>
* [[Peppermint]] oil is often used to deter ants, by applying a few drops on their trail.<ref>http://www.experience-essential-oils.com/natural-ant-killer.html</ref>
* Both [[lavender]] and [[Melaleuca alternifolia|tea tree]] oil are used as antiseptics, sometimes in lotions or soaps. Lavender oil is said to help heal wounds and burns.<ref>[[Tea tree oil]]</ref><ref>[[Lavender]]</ref>
* [[Lavender]], [[Jasmine]] and [[Peppermint]] are used for anti-stress, anti-anxiety and as an anti-depressant.


A number of [[systematic review]]s have studied the clinical effectiveness of aromatherapy in respect to pain management in labor,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith CA, Collins CT, Crowther CA |title=Aromatherapy for pain management in labour |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=7 |pages=CD009215 |date=2011 |pmid=21735438 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009215 }}</ref> the treatment of [[post-operative nausea and vomiting]],<ref name="Hines2018" /> managing challenging behaviors in people suffering from [[dementia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ball|first1=Emily L.|last2=Owen-Booth|first2=Bethan|last3=Gray|first3=Amy|last4=Shenkin|first4=Susan D.|last5=Hewitt|first5=Jonathan|last6=McCleery|first6=Jenny|date=19 August 2020|title=Aromatherapy for dementia|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2020|issue=8 |page=CD003150|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003150.pub3|issn=1469-493X|pmc=7437395|pmid=32813272}}</ref> and symptom relief in [[cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin ES, Seo KH, Lee SH, Jang JE, Jung YM, Kim MJ, Yeon JY |title=Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=6 |page=CD009873 |date=2016 |volume=2016 |pmid=27258432 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009873.pub3 |pmc=10406396 }}</ref>
== Efficacy ==
Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the [[placebo effect]] rather than from any actual physiological effect. The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient evidence to support the claims made for aromatherapy.<ref>http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/aromatherapy/HealthProfessional/page3 cancer.gov – Aromatherapy and Essential Oils</ref> Scientific research on the cause and effects of aromatherapy is limited, although [[in vitro]] testing has revealed some [[antibacterial]] and [[Antiviral drug|antiviral]] effects.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| authorlink = Kalemba D, Kunicka A.
| title = Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils
| journal = Curr Med Chem.
| volume = 10
| issue = 10
| pages = 813–29
| year = 2003| month= May
| url =
| doi =10.2174/0929867033457719
| pmid = 12678685
| last1 =Kalemba
| first1 =D
| last2 =Kunicka
| first2 =A }}
</ref><ref>
{{Cite journal
| authorlink = Reichling J, Schnitzler P, Suschke U, Saller R.
| title = Essential oils of aromatic plants with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and cytotoxic properties—an overview
| journal = Forsch Komplementmed.
| volume = 2
| issue =2
| pages = 79–90
| date = April 2009;16. Epub 3 April 2009.
| url =
| doi =10.1159/000207196
| pmid = 19420953
| last1 =Reichling
| first1 =J
| last2 =Schnitzler
| first2 =P
| last3 =Suschke
| first3 =U
| last4 =Saller
| first4 =R }}
</ref>
There is no evidence of any long-term results from an aromatherapy massage other than the [[pleasure]] achieved from a pleasant-smelling massage.<ref>http://pmj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/18/2/87 A randomized controlled trial of aromatherapy massage in a hospice setting</ref>
A few double blind studies in the field of clinical psychology relating to the treatment of severe dementia have been published.<ref>{{Cite journal
| quotes =
| author = Ballard CG, O'Brien JT, Reichelt K, Perry EK
| year= 2002
| month = July
| title = Aromatherapy as a safe and effective treatment for the management of agitation in severe dementia: the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Melissa
| journal = J Clin Psychiatry
| volume = 63
| issue = 7
| pages = 553–8
| pmid = 12143909
| doi =10.4088/JCP.v63n0703
| id =
| url =
| laysummary =
| laysource =
| laydate =
| quote =
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| quotes =
| author = Holmes C, Hopkins V, Hensford C, MacLaughlin V, Wilkinson D, Rosenvinge H.
| year = 2002
| month = April
| title = Lavender oil as a treatment for agitated behaviour in severe dementia: a placebo controlled study
| journal = Int J Geriatr Psychiatry
| volume = 17
| issue = 4
| pages = 305–8.
| pmid = 11994882
| doi = 10.1002/gps.593
| id =
| url =
| laysummary =
| laysource =
| laydate =
| quote =
}}</ref> Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products.<ref>{{Cite journal
| authorlink = Stoeken JE, Paraskevas S, van der Weijden GA.
| title = The long-term effect of a mouthrinse containing essential oils on dental plaque and gingivitis: a systematic review
| journal = Periodontol.
| volume = 78
| issue = 7
| pages = 1218–28
| date = July 2007
| url =
| doi =10.1902/jop.2007.060269
| pmid = 17608576
| last1 =Stoeken
| first1 =JE
| last2 =Paraskevas
| first2 =S
| last3 =Van Der Weijden
| first3 =GA }}</ref>


According to the [[National Cancer Institute]], no studies of aromatherapy in cancer treatment have been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Results are mixed for other studies. Some showed improved sleep,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Her | first=Jihoo | last2=Cho | first2=Mi-Kyoung | title=Effect of aromatherapy on sleep quality of adults and elderly people: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis | journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=60 | year=2021 | issn=0965-2299 | doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102739 | page=102739 |pmid=34166869| doi-access=free }}</ref> anxiety, mood, nausea, and pain,<ref name=":0" /> while others showed no change in symptoms.<ref name="Aromatherapy With Essential Oils">{{cite web |last1=PDQ |title=Aromatherapy With Essential Oils |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/aromatherapy-pdq?redirect=true |website=National Cancer Institute |date=9 March 2007 }}</ref>
Mainstream literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the [[anecdotal evidence]] of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatherapy practitioners go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed.

Some proponents{{Who|date=March 2010}} of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "[[Vitalism|life force]]" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by "purging negative vibrations" from the body's "energy field"{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}. Arguing that there is no [[scientific method|scientific evidence]] that healing can be achieved or that the claimed "energies" even exist, many [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] reject this form of aromatherapy as [[pseudoscience]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}


==Safety concerns==
==Safety concerns==
{{further|Alternative medicine#Criticism, legitimacy and effects}}
<!-- please consider updating the essential oil article's section on safety/danger when you update this. -->
<!-- please consider updating the essential oil article's section on safety/danger when you update this. -->


Aromatherapy carries a number of risks of [[adverse effects]]; combined with the lack of evidence of its therapeutic benefit, the practice is of questionable worth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E |title=Adverse effects of aromatherapy: a systematic review of case reports and case series |journal=Int J Risk Saf Med |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=147–161 |date=2012 |pmid=22936057 |doi=10.3233/JRS-2012-0568}}</ref>
In addition, there are potential [[Alternative medicine#Criticism|safety concerns]].
Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form.<ref>J Grassman and E F Elstner, article "Essential Oils", in
Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition 2nd ed., edited by Benjamin Caballero, Luiz
C Trugo, Paul M Finglas, Academic Press, 1973, ISBN 0-12-227055-X</ref> Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application, such as [[jojoba oil]], [[olive oil]], or [[coconut oil]]. [[phototoxicity|Phototoxic]] reactions may occur with [[citrus]] peel oils such as lemon or [[Lime (fruit)|lime]].<ref>http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1312240 Hyperpigmented macules and streaks</ref> Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are [[Stimulus (physiology)|sensitisers]] (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some of the chemical allergies could even be caused by [[pesticide]]s, if the original plants are cultivated.<ref name=iufh>{{Cite journal
| last = Edwards
| first = J.
| title = Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia
| journal = Australasian Plant Pathology
| volume = 28
| issue = 3
| pages = 212–224
| year = 1999
| url =
| doi = 10.1071/AP99036
| id =
| last2 = Bienvenu
| first2 = F.E.}}</ref><ref name=vhet>{{Cite web
| last = Adamovic
| first = D.S. ''et al.''
| title = Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)
| url = http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm
| accessdate = 6 June 2009
}}</ref> Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.<ref>[http://www.thelavendercat.com/3201/index.html The Lavender Cat – Cats and Essential Oil Safety<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| url=http://www.vet-task-force.com/Abstract-tea-tree-oil.htm
| title=Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in three purebred cats
| journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation
| author=K. Bischoff, F. Guale
| volume=10
| issue=108
| year=1998
| accessdate=2006-10-17
| format=–<sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AAustralian+tea+tree+%28Melaleuca+alternifolia%29+Oil+Poisoning+in+three+purebred+cats&as_publication=Journal+of+Veterinary+Diagnostic+Investigation&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061015234207/http://www.vet-task-force.com/Abstract-tea-tree-oil.htm| archivedate = 15 October 2006}} {{Dead link|date=June 2008}}</ref>


Many studies have explored the concerns that essential oils are highly concentrated and can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form, often referred to as neat application.<ref name=fda/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manion, Widder |first1=Chelsea, Rebecca |title=Essentials of essential oils |journal=American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy |date=May 2017 |volume=74 |issue= 9|pages=e153–e162 |doi=10.2146/ajhp151043 |pmid=28438819 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=J |last1=Grassman |first2=E F |last2=Elstner |chapter=Essential Oils |title=Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition |edition=2nd |editor1-first=Benjamin |editor1-last=Caballero |editor2-first=Luiz C |editor2-last=Trugo |editor3-first=Paul M |editor3-last=Finglas |publisher=Academic Press |year=1973 |isbn=0-12-227055-X}}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}</ref> Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application such as [[jojoba oil]], [[olive oil]], [[sweet almond oil]] or [[coconut oil]]. [[phototoxicity|Phototoxic]] reactions may occur with many cold-pressed [[citrus]] peel oils such as lemon or [[Lime (fruit)|lime]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=16389350 |year=2000 |last1=Cather |first1=JC |last2=MacKnet |first2=MR |last3=Menter |first3=MA |title=Hyperpigmented macules and streaks |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=405–406 |pmc=1312240 |journal=Proceedings |publisher=Baylor University Medical Center|doi=10.1080/08998280.2000.11927714 }}</ref>
Two common oils, [[lavender]] and [[Melaleuca alternifolia|tea tree]], have been implicated in causing [[gynaecomastia]], an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys (and so is not a scientific study), and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia.<ref>{{Cite journal
|title=Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils
|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/356/5/479
|journal=New England Journal of Medicine
|volume=356
|issue=5
|pages=479–85
|year=2007
|pmid=17267908
|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725
|author=Henley, D. V.
|last2=Lipson
|first2=N
|last3=Korach
|first3=KS
|last4=Bloch
|first4=CA}}</ref>
A child hormone specialist at the [[University of Cambridge]] claimed "... these oils can mimic [[estrogen]]s" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products."<ref>{{Cite news
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6318043.stm
|work=BBC News
| location = London
| date= 1 February 2007
| accessdate=2007-09-09
| title=Oils make male breasts develop| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070829142021/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6318043.stm| archivedate= 29 August 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
The study has been criticised on many different levels by many authorities. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK has issued a rebuttal<ref>[http://www.a-t-c.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowPage&sec=6&page=189 'NEITHER LAVENDER OIL NOR TEA TREE OIL CAN BE LINKED TO BREAST GROWTH IN YOUNG BOYS']</ref>
The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the New England Journal of Medicine for a retraction (ATTIA).<ref>[http://www.teatree.org.au/read_more.php?id=2 'ATTIA refutes gynecomastia link'], Article Date: 21 February 2007</ref>
The New England Journal of Medicine has so far not replied and has not retracted the study.


Many essential oils have chemical components that are [[Stimulus (physiology)|sensitisers]] (meaning that they will, after a number of uses, cause reactions on the skin and more so in the rest of the body).<ref name=fda/> All cosmetic products and ingredients must meet the same safety requirement, regardless of their source. Chemical composition of essential oils could be affected by [[herbicide]]s if the original plants are cultivated versus wild-harvested.<ref name=iufh>{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/AP99036 |year=1999|title=Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia |last1=Edwards |first1=J |last2=Bienvenu |first2=FE | journal=Australasian Plant Pathology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=212|s2cid=36366606}}</ref><ref name=vhet>{{Cite web |last = Adamovic |first = DS |title = Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.) | url= http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm |access-date = 6 June 2009}}</ref> Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/104063879801000223 |title=Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats |year=1998 |last1=Bischoff |first1=K |last2=Guale |first2=F |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–210 |pmid=9576358|doi-access=free }}</ref>
As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.


Most oils can be toxic to humans as well.<ref>{{cite web |last1=American College of Healthcare Sciences |title=Essential Oil |url=http://info.achs.edu/blog/aromatherapy-safety-basics |website=American College of Healthcare Sciences |date=20 April 2017 |publisher=Accredited Online Holistic Health College |access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref> A report on three different cases documented [[gynecomastia]] in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender and [[tea tree oil]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA |title=Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=356 |issue=5 |pages=479–485 |date=2007 |pmid=17267908 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK issued a rebuttal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.a-t-c.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowPage&sec=6&page=189|title=Lavender & Tea Tree Oil Rebuttle (sic)|access-date=3 October 2010|archive-date=13 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313084655/http://www.a-t-c.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowPage&sec=6&page=189|url-status=dead}}</ref>
While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oils. Some very common oils like [[Eucalyptus]] are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml.<ref>[http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim031.htm#SectionTitle:7.2%20%20Toxicity Eucalyptus oil (PIM 031)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
A few reported cases of toxic reactions like [[liver]] damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar.<ref>{{Cite journal
| quotes =
| author = Millet Y, Jouglard J, Steinmetz MD, Tognetti P, Joanny P, Arditti J.
| year = 1981
| month = December
| title = Toxicity of some essential plant oils. Clinical and experimental study
| journal = Clin Toxicol.
| volume = 18
| issue = 12
| pages = 1485–98
| pmid = 7333081
| doi =10.3109/15563658108990357
| id =
| url =
| laysummary =
| laysource =
| laydate =
| quote =
}}</ref> Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.


Another article published by a different research group also documented three cases of gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender oil.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M |title=Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases |journal=J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=103–107 |date=2016 |pmid=26353172 |doi=10.1515/jpem-2015-0248 |s2cid=19454282 }}</ref> Persistent exposure to lavender products may be associated with premature breast development in girls and "that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential [[endocrine disruptors]] with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – [[estrogen]] and [[androgen]]".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://factor.niehs.nih.gov/2019/9/feature/3-feature-lavender/ |title=Lavender oil linked to early breast growth in girls |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=[[National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences|National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)]] |last=Weaver |first=Janelle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407215103/https://factor.niehs.nih.gov/2019/9/feature/3-feature-lavender/ |archive-date=2022-04-07 |url-status=live |year=2019 |format= |quote=Persistent exposure to lavender products is associated with premature breast development in girls, according to new research by NIEHS scientists. The findings also reveal that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – estrogen and androgen (see sidebar). The study was published Aug. 8 in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.}}</ref>
Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of [[methyl salicylate]] heavy oils like [[Sweet Birch]] and [[Wintergreen]] may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the [[anticoagulant]] [[Warfarin]].


Essential oils can be toxic when ingested or absorbed internally. Doses as low as 2 ml have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of as little as 4 ml.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim031.htm#SectionTitle:7.2%20%20Toxicity |title=Eucalyptus oil |publisher=International Programme on Chemical Safety (UPCS)}}</ref> A few reported cases of toxic reactions like [[liver]] damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja and cedar oils.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3109/15563658108990357 |title=Toxicity of Some Essential Plant Oils. Clinical and Experimental Study |year=1981 |last1=Millet |first1=Y |last2=Jouglard |first2=J |last3=Steinmetz |first3=MD |last4=Tognetti |first4=P |last5=Joanny |first5=P |last6=Arditti |first6=J |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=18 |issue=12 |pages=1485–1498 |pmid=7333081}}</ref> Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. As with any [[Biological activity|bioactive]] substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for [[human pregnancy|pregnant]] and [[human lactation|lactating]] women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dw|first1=Sibbritt|last2=Cj|first2=Catling|last3=J|first3=Adams|last4=Aj|first4=Shaw|last5=Cs|first5=Homer|date=March 2014 |title=The Self-Prescribed Use of Aromatherapy Oils by Pregnant Women|journal=Women and Birth|volume=27|issue=1|pages=41–45|doi=10.1016/j.wombi.2013.09.005|language=en|pmid=24670414|hdl=10453/43623|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.


Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interactions with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of [[methyl salicylate]]–heavy oils like [[wintergreen]] may cause bleeding in users taking the [[anticoagulant]] [[warfarin]].
===Pets===

{{unsourced-section|date=August 2012}}
In late 2021, an aromatherapy spray was recalled after it was found to be contaminated with ''[[Burkholderia pseudomallei]]'', the bacteria that causes [[melioidosis]], which led to four cases of the disease and two deaths.<ref name="RecalledSpray">{{cite web|title=Aromatherapy spray recalled in U.S. following rare tropical disease deaths | url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/aromatherapy-spray-recall-deaths-tropical-disease-melioidosis-1.6222016 | website=CBC News}}</ref>
Be very careful when using essential oil preparations around household pets. [[Cats]] and [[dogs]] have different tolerances, but in general, [[citrus]] oils and tree oils such as [[pine]] and [[fir]] can be toxic to cats; [[lavender]], while mostly harmless overall, can also be toxic to cats. Examples of essential oils that are toxic to dogs include [[cassia]], [[birch]], [[wintergreen]], [[anise]], [[clove]] leaf and bud, [[wormwood]], and [[rue]]. Although many essential oils can be used safely on and around household pets, it is always best to contact a licensed [[aromatherapist]] before doing so.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Aromachologist]]
* [[Aromachologist]]
* [[List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
{{External links|date=July 2011}}
{{Commons category|Aromatherapy}}
{{Commons category|Aromatherapy}}
{{Wikibooks|Complete Guide to Essential Oils}}
{{Wikibooks|Complete Guide to Essential Oils}}
{{alternative medicine|state=collapsed}}
* [http://www.naha.org/ The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy]
{{Naturopathy}}{{Pseudoscience}}{{Authority control}}
* [http://www.ifaroma.org/ International Federation of Aromatherapy]
* [http://takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/therapies/aromatherapy/research What Does the Research Say About Essential Oils?]
* [http://www.aromabar.com/articles/baud55.htm Antiviral and Antimicrobial Properties of Essential Oils]
* [http://www.nature-helps.com/agora/agora.htm The Aromatherapy Global Online Research Archives]
* [http://www.healthyfragrance.com/blog/Natural-Fragrances-vs-Synthetic-Fragrances/ Natural versus Synthetic Fragrances]
;Journals
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=JournalURL&_cdi=6955&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0e4b203f6b02250f9d7888636094345c International Journal of Aromatherapy]
* [http://www.ijca.net/shp/index.php?PHPSESSID=9a4f33ff00026a333339b2d6d7bbca29 International Journal of Clinical Aromatherapy]
;Criticism
* [http://www.cf.ac.uk/biosi/staffinfo/jacob/teaching/sensory/olfact1.html#Aromatherapy Aromatherapy – does it work?] Smell Research by Tim Jacob
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/aroma.html Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents]


[[Category:Aromatherapy| ]]
[[Category:Herbalism]]
[[Category:Herbalism]]
[[Category:Aromatherapy| ]]
[[Category:Mind–body interventions]]
[[Category:Mind-body interventions]]
[[Category:Fringe science]]
[[Category:Fringe science]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

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Latest revision as of 19:14, 27 September 2024

Aromatherapy
A stylized diffuser and a bottle of essential oil
Alternative therapy
MeSHD019341
Part of a series on
Alternative medicine
General information
Fringe medicine and science
Controversies
Classifications
Traditional medicine
Alternative diagnoses

Aromatherapy is a practice based on the use of aromatic materials, including essential oils and other aroma compounds, with claims for improving psychological well-being.[1][2][3] It is used as a complementary therapy or as a form of alternative medicine, and typically is used via inhalation and not by ingestion.[2]

Fragrances used in aromatherapy are not approved as prescription drugs in the United States.[3] Although there is insufficient medical evidence that aromatherapy can prevent, treat or cure any disease,[1][2][4] aromatherapy is used by some people with diseases, such as cancer, to provide general well-being and relief from pain, nausea or stress.[1][2] People may use blends of essential oils as a topical application, massage, inhalation, or water immersion.[1][2][5] Due to the low quality of research evidence, it is uncertain if aromatherapy provides any benefit to people experiencing nausea after surgery.[6]

Essential oils comprise hundreds to thousands of aromatic constituents, like terpinoids and phenylpropanoids, and to sufficiently research the pharmacological effects of essential oil constituents, each isolated constituent in the selected essential oil would have to be studied.[2][3]

History

[edit]

The use of essential oils for therapeutic, spiritual, hygienic and ritualistic purposes goes back to ancient civilizations including the Indians, Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans who used them in cosmetics, perfumes and drugs. Oils were used for aesthetic pleasure and in the beauty industry. They were a luxury item and a means of payment. It was believed that essential oils increased the shelf life of wine and improved the taste of food.

Oils and the belief that they had healing properties, along with other beliefs of the time, are described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica, written in the 1st century A.D.[7] Distilled cedarwood oil was used by the ancient Egyptians, and the process of distilling essential oils like rose essence was refined by the 11th century Persian scholar Ibn Sina. Hildegard of Bingen used distilled lavender oil for medicinal treatments in the 12th century, and by the 15th century, oils were commonly distilled from various plant sources.[8]

In the era of modern medicine, the name "aromatherapy" first appeared in print in 1937 in a French book on the subject: Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.[9]

Jean Valnet, a French surgeon, pioneered the supposed medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.[10]

Choice and purchase

[edit]

Aromatherapy products, and essential oils in particular, may be regulated differently depending on their intended use.[3] Products that are marketed with a therapeutic use in the US are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA); products with a cosmetic use must meet safety requirements, regardless of their source.[3] The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates any aromatherapy advertising claims.[3]

There are no standards for determining the quality of essential oils in the United States; while the term "therapeutic grade" is in use, it does not have a regulatory meaning.[3][11]

Analysis using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry has been used to identify bioactive compounds in essential oils.[12] These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion.[13] This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been "improved" by the addition of synthetic aromachemicals, but the latter is often signalled by the minor impurities present.

Effectiveness

[edit]

There is no clinical evidence that aromatherapy can prevent or cure any disease,[1][6][14] although it may be useful for managing symptoms.[2][15]

Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions is poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology.[1][2][6] In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; aromatherapy was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.[16]

A number of systematic reviews have studied the clinical effectiveness of aromatherapy in respect to pain management in labor,[17] the treatment of post-operative nausea and vomiting,[6] managing challenging behaviors in people suffering from dementia,[18] and symptom relief in cancer.[19]

According to the National Cancer Institute, no studies of aromatherapy in cancer treatment have been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Results are mixed for other studies. Some showed improved sleep,[20] anxiety, mood, nausea, and pain,[15] while others showed no change in symptoms.[21]

Safety concerns

[edit]
Further information: Alternative medicine § Criticism, legitimacy and effects

Aromatherapy carries a number of risks of adverse effects; combined with the lack of evidence of its therapeutic benefit, the practice is of questionable worth.[22]

Many studies have explored the concerns that essential oils are highly concentrated and can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form, often referred to as neat application.[3][23][24] Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application such as jojoba oil, olive oil, sweet almond oil or coconut oil. Phototoxic reactions may occur with many cold-pressed citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime.[25]

Many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will, after a number of uses, cause reactions on the skin and more so in the rest of the body).[3] All cosmetic products and ingredients must meet the same safety requirement, regardless of their source. Chemical composition of essential oils could be affected by herbicides if the original plants are cultivated versus wild-harvested.[26][27] Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.[28]

Most oils can be toxic to humans as well.[29] A report on three different cases documented gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender and tea tree oils.[30] The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK issued a rebuttal.[31]

Another article published by a different research group also documented three cases of gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender oil.[32] Persistent exposure to lavender products may be associated with premature breast development in girls and "that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – estrogen and androgen".[33]

Essential oils can be toxic when ingested or absorbed internally. Doses as low as 2 ml have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of as little as 4 ml.[34] A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja and cedar oils.[35] Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.[36]

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interactions with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate–heavy oils like wintergreen may cause bleeding in users taking the anticoagulant warfarin.

In late 2021, an aromatherapy spray was recalled after it was found to be contaminated with Burkholderia pseudomallei, the bacteria that causes melioidosis, which led to four cases of the disease and two deaths.[37]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Farrar AJ, Farrar FC (December 2020). "Clinical Aromatherapy". The Nursing Clinics of North America. 55 (4): 489–504. doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2020.06.015. PMC 7520654. PMID 33131627.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Editorial Board, PDQ Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies (13 January 2023). "Aromatherapy With Essential Oils". Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute, US National Institutes of Health. PMID 26389313. Retrieved 21 April 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Aromatherapy". US Food and Drug Administration. 28 September 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  4. ^ Lee, Myeong Soo; Choi, Jiae; Posadzki, Paul; Ernst, Edzard (March 2012). "Aromatherapy for health care: An overview of systematic reviews". Maturitas. 71 (3): 257–260. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.12.018. PMID 22285469.
  5. ^ "Home remedies: What are the benefits of aromatherapy?". Mayo Clinic. 8 May 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  6. ^ a b c d Hines S, Steels E, Chang A, Gibbons K (March 2018). "Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (3): CD007598. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007598.pub3. PMC 6494172. PMID 29523018.
  7. ^ Dioscorides, Pedanius; Goodyer, John (trans.) (1959). Gunther, R.T. (ed.). The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. New York: Hafner Publishing. p. 34. OCLC 3570794.
  8. ^ Scanlan, Nancy (2011). Complementary Medicine for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses. Wiley. p. 204. ISBN 978-0470958896.
  9. ^ Gattefossé, R.-M.; Tisserand, R. (1993). Gattefossé's aromatherapy. Saffron Walden: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 0-85207-236-8.[page needed]
  10. ^ Valnet, J.; Tisserand, R. (1990). The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0-89281-398-9.[page needed]
  11. ^ "The Quality of Essential Oils". New York Institute of Aromatic Studies. 1 December 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  12. ^ Song, Shen; Yao, Wei-Feng; Cui, Xiao-bin; Liu, Xiao; Qiu, Rong-Li (2018). "Spectrum-effect relationship analysis by binary chromatographic fingerprint to identify components responsible for the antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Curcumae wenyujin". International Journal of Food Properties. 21 (1). Informa UK Limited: 546–556. doi:10.1080/10942912.2018.1453836. ISSN 1094-2912.
  13. ^ Adams, Robert P. (2007). Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry.
  14. ^ Barrett, S. "Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents". Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
  15. ^ a b Lakhan SE, Sheafer H, Tepper D (2016). "The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Reducing Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Pain Research and Treatment. 2016: 13. doi:10.1155/2016/8158693. PMC 5192342. PMID 28070420.
  16. ^ Baggoley C (2015). "Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance" (PDF). Australian Government – Department of Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  17. ^ Smith CA, Collins CT, Crowther CA (2011). "Aromatherapy for pain management in labour". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (7): CD009215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009215. PMID 21735438.
  18. ^ Ball, Emily L.; Owen-Booth, Bethan; Gray, Amy; Shenkin, Susan D.; Hewitt, Jonathan; McCleery, Jenny (19 August 2020). "Aromatherapy for dementia". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (8): CD003150. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003150.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 7437395. PMID 32813272.
  19. ^ Shin ES, Seo KH, Lee SH, Jang JE, Jung YM, Kim MJ, Yeon JY (2016). "Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 (6): CD009873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009873.pub3. PMC 10406396. PMID 27258432.
  20. ^ Her, Jihoo; Cho, Mi-Kyoung (2021). "Effect of aromatherapy on sleep quality of adults and elderly people: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 60. Elsevier BV: 102739. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102739. ISSN 0965-2299. PMID 34166869.
  21. ^ PDQ (9 March 2007). "Aromatherapy With Essential Oils". National Cancer Institute.
  22. ^ Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E (2012). "Adverse effects of aromatherapy: a systematic review of case reports and case series". Int J Risk Saf Med. 24 (3): 147–161. doi:10.3233/JRS-2012-0568. PMID 22936057.
  23. ^ Manion, Widder, Chelsea, Rebecca (May 2017). "Essentials of essential oils". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 74 (9): e153–e162. doi:10.2146/ajhp151043. PMID 28438819.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Grassman, J; Elstner, E F (1973). "Essential Oils". In Caballero, Benjamin; Trugo, Luiz C; Finglas, Paul M (eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-227055-X.[page needed]
  25. ^ Cather, JC; MacKnet, MR; Menter, MA (2000). "Hyperpigmented macules and streaks". Proceedings. 13 (4). Baylor University Medical Center: 405–406. doi:10.1080/08998280.2000.11927714. PMC 1312240. PMID 16389350.
  26. ^ Edwards, J; Bienvenu, FE (1999). "Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia". Australasian Plant Pathology. 28 (3): 212. doi:10.1071/AP99036. S2CID 36366606.
  27. ^ Adamovic, DS. "Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)". Retrieved 6 June 2009.
  28. ^ Bischoff, K; Guale, F (1998). "Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 10 (2): 208–210. doi:10.1177/104063879801000223. PMID 9576358.
  29. ^ American College of Healthcare Sciences (20 April 2017). "Essential Oil". American College of Healthcare Sciences. Accredited Online Holistic Health College. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
  30. ^ Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA (2007). "Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils". N. Engl. J. Med. 356 (5): 479–485. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.
  31. ^ "Lavender & Tea Tree Oil Rebuttle (sic)". Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
  32. ^ Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M (2016). "Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases". J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 29 (1): 103–107. doi:10.1515/jpem-2015-0248. PMID 26353172. S2CID 19454282.
  33. ^ Weaver, Janelle (2019). "Lavender oil linked to early breast growth in girls". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2022. Persistent exposure to lavender products is associated with premature breast development in girls, according to new research by NIEHS scientists. The findings also reveal that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – estrogen and androgen (see sidebar). The study was published Aug. 8 in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.
  34. ^ "Eucalyptus oil". International Programme on Chemical Safety (UPCS).
  35. ^ Millet, Y; Jouglard, J; Steinmetz, MD; Tognetti, P; Joanny, P; Arditti, J (1981). "Toxicity of Some Essential Plant Oils. Clinical and Experimental Study". Clinical Toxicology. 18 (12): 1485–1498. doi:10.3109/15563658108990357. PMID 7333081.
  36. ^ Dw, Sibbritt; Cj, Catling; J, Adams; Aj, Shaw; Cs, Homer (March 2014). "The Self-Prescribed Use of Aromatherapy Oils by Pregnant Women". Women and Birth. 27 (1): 41–45. doi:10.1016/j.wombi.2013.09.005. hdl:10453/43623. PMID 24670414.
  37. ^ "Aromatherapy spray recalled in U.S. following rare tropical disease deaths". CBC News.
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