Culture war: Difference between revisions
→Canada: Just a vague description of general conflicting values, esp. considering Canada's probably less polarized now than ever before. One Chronicle Herald article saying "Culture War" isn't enough. Tag: section blanking |
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{{Short description|Conflict between cultural values}} |
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{{globalize|date=January 2012}} |
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{{For|the "culture war" between the Catholic Church and the German state in the 1870s|Kulturkampf{{!}}''Kulturkampf''}} |
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A '''culture war''' (or '''culture wars''') is a struggle between two sets of conflicting cultural values. |
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{{Redirect|Culture Wars|the book|Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America{{!}}''Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America''}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2016}} |
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A '''culture war''' is a form of [[cultural conflict]] (metaphorical "[[war]]") between different [[Social group|social groups]] who struggle to politically impose their own ideology (moral beliefs, humane [[virtue]]s, and religious practices) upon [[mainstream society]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Diaz Ruiz |first1=Carlos |last2=Nilsson |first2=Tomas |date=2022-08-08 |title=Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852 |journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing |language=en |volume=42 |pages=18–35 |doi=10.1177/07439156221103852 |issn=0743-9156 |s2cid=248934562 |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=June 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620070343/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Koleva |first1=Spassena P. |last2=Graham |first2=Jesse |last3=Iyer |first3=Ravi |last4=Ditto |first4=Peter H. |last5=Haidt |first5=Jonathan |date=2012-04-01 |title=Tracing the threads: How five moral concerns (especially Purity) help explain culture war attitudes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656612000074 |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=184–194 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.006 |s2cid=6786293 |issn=0092-6566}}</ref> or upon the other. In political usage, ''culture war'' is a metaphor for "hot-button" politics about [[Value (ethics)|values]] and [[ideologies]], realized with intentionally adversarial social narratives meant to provoke [[political polarization]] among the mainstream of society over economic matters,<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Trust in Polarised Plural Societies: Intersections Across the Ideological Divides of Women's Groups in Malaysia |url=https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3172024 |publisher=University of Liverpool |date=2023-07-18 |degree=dphil |language=en |first=Saleena Begum |last=Saleem |access-date=October 23, 2023 |archive-date=November 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105180913/https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3172024/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Andrew Hartman 2015" /> such as those of [[public policy]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Culture Wars |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/culture-wars |access-date=2019-10-21 |website=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111010307/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/culture-wars |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as of [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]].<ref name=":1" /> As practical politics, a culture war is about social policy [[wedge issues]] that are based on abstract arguments about [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]], [[morality]], and [[Lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] meant to provoke [[political cleavage]] in a [[multicultural]] society.<ref name=":2" /> |
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==Origins== |
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'''Culture war''' is a loan translation ([[calque]]) from the German ''[[Kulturkampf]].'' The German term, ''Kulturkampf'', was coined to describe the clash between cultural and religious groups in the campaign from 1871 to 1878 under [[Chancellor of Germany (German Reich)|Chancellor]] [[Otto von Bismarck]] of the [[German Empire]] against the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref>Martin Spahn, "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08703b.htm Kulturkampf]", ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', volume 8, [[Robert Appleton Company]], 1910.</ref> The term ''cultural war'' has been in English use almost as long as the original ''Kulturkampf'' and generalizes the idea of these kinds of struggle. It is related then to the theory of cultural hegemony. |
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==Etymology== |
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Italian [[Marxist]] [[Antonio Gramsci]] presented in the 1920s a theory of [[cultural hegemony]] to explain the slower advance, compared to many Marxists' expectations, of [[proletarian revolution]] in Europe. He stated that a culturally diverse society can be dominated by one class who has a monopoly over the mass media and popular culture, and Gramsci argued for a culture war in which [[anti-capitalist]] elements seek to gain a dominant voice in the [[mass media]], education, and other mass institutions.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} |
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[[File:Kladderadatsch 1875 - Zwischen Berlin und Rom.png|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Otto Von Bismarck]] (left) and [[Pope Pius IX]] (right), from the German satirical magazine {{lang|de|[[Kladderadatsch]]}}, 1875]] |
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=== Kulturkampf === |
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==United States of America== |
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{{excerpt|Kulturkampf}} |
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In [[United States|American]] usage the term ''culture war'' is used to claim that there is a conflict between those values considered [[Traditionalist conservatism|traditionalist]] or [[Conservativism in the United States|conservative]] and those considered [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive]] or [[liberal]]. It originated in the 1920s when urban and rural American values came into clear conflict. This followed several decades of immigration to the cities by people considered alien to earlier immigrants. It was also a result of the cultural shifts and modernizing trends of the [[Roaring 20s]], culminating in the presidential campaign of [[Al Smith]].<ref> |
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[http://www.assumption.edu/users/McClymer/his394/ Seminar on the Culture Wars of the 1920s]</ref><ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/reclaiming_faith_and_politics.html "Culture Wars: How 2004" Article by [[E.J. Dionne]]]</ref> However, "The Culture War" in United States of America was redefined by James Davison Hunter's 1991 book ''Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America.'' In this work, it is traced to the 1960s. The perceived focus of the American Culture War and its definition have taken various forms since then. |
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In the English language, the term ''culture war'' is a [[calque]] of the German word ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' (culture struggle), which refers to an historical event in Germany. The term appears as the title of an 1875 British book review of a German pamphlet.<ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=p7nTaPXOce4C&dq=%22culture+war%22&pg=PA380 ''The Month and Catholic Review'' (March 1875) vol 4 p. 380]</ref> |
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===1980s=== |
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In the 1980s the culture war in America was characterized by the conservative climate during the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan]].<ref name="Cengage96">''[http://www.enotes.com/1980-arts-american-decades/culture-wars Culture Wars]'', 1980s The Arts. Gale Cengage, 1996. eNotes.com. 2006. 2 Mar, 2010</ref> Members of the [[religious right]] often criticized academics and "artists", and their works, in a struggle against what they considered indecent, [[Subversion|subversive]], and [[Blasphemy|blasphemous]].<ref name="Cengage96"/> They often accused their political opponents of undermining [[Traditionalist conservatism|tradition]], [[Western civilization]]<ref name="NationObituaries">Ross Benjamin ''[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20041213/benjamin Hostile Obituary for Derrida]'', [[The Nation]], November 24, 2004</ref> and [[family values]]. |
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== |
==Research== |
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The expression was introduced again by the 1991 publication of ''Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America'' by [[James Davison Hunter]], a [[sociologist]] at the [[University of Virginia]]. Hunter described what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed [[politics of the United States|American politics]] and [[American culture|culture]]. |
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===Criticism and evaluation=== |
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He argued that on an increasing number of "hot-button" defining issues — [[abortion]], [[gun politics]], [[separation of church and state]], [[privacy]], [[recreational drug use]], [[homosexuality]], [[censorship]] issues — there existed two definable polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily not by nominal religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation, but rather by ideological [[world view]]s. |
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Since the time that James Davison Hunter first applied the concept of culture wars to American life, the idea has been subject to questions about whether "culture wars" names a real phenomenon, and if so, whether the phenomenon it describes is a cause of, or merely a result of, membership in groups like political parties and religions. Culture wars have also been subject to the criticism of being artificial, imposed, or asymmetric conflicts, rather than a result of authentic differences between cultures. Researchers have differed about the [[Validity (statistics)|scientific validity]] of the notion of culture war. Some claim it does not describe real behavior, or that it describes only the behavior of a small political elite. Others claim culture war is real and widespread, and even that it is fundamental to explaining Americans' political behavior and beliefs. A 2023 study on the circulation of conspiracy theories on social media noted that disinformation actors insert polarizing claims in culture wars by taking one side or the other, thus making the adherents circulate and parrot disinformation as a rhetorical ammunition against their perceived opponents.<ref name=":1" /> |
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Hunter characterized this polarity as stemming from opposite impulses, toward what he referred to as ''Progressivism'' and ''Orthodoxy''. Others have adopted the dichotomy with varying labels. For example, [[Fox News]] commentator [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] emphasizes differences between "Secular-Progressives" and "Traditionalists." |
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Political scientist [[Alan Wolfe]] participated in a series of scholarly debates in the 1990s and 2000s against Hunter, claiming that Hunter's concept of culture wars did not accurately describe the opinions or behavior of Americans, which Wolfe claimed were more united than polarized.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=James Davison |last2=Wolfe |first2=Alan |date= 2006 |title=Is There a Culture War? : A Dialogue on Values and American Public Life |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |oclc=76966750}}</ref> A [[meta-analysis]] of opinion data from 1992 to 2012 published in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' concluded that, in contrast to a common belief that political party and religious membership shape opinion on culture war topics, instead opinions on culture war topics lead people to revise their political party and religious orientations. The researchers view culture war attitudes as "foundational elements in the political and religious belief systems of ordinary citizens."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goren |first1=Paul |last2=Chapp |first2=Christopher |date=February 24, 2017 |title=Moral Power: How Public Opinion on Culture War Issues Shapes Partisan Predispositions and Religious Orientations |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=110–128 |doi=10.1017/S0003055416000435 |s2cid=151573922 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Patrickjbuchanan.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Patrick Buchanan, pictured in 2008.]] |
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====Artificiality or asymmetry==== |
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In 1990 commentator [[Pat Buchanan]] mounted a campaign for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nomination for [[President of the United States]] against incumbent [[George H. W. Bush]] in [[United States presidential election, 1992|1992]]. He received a prime time speech slot at the [[1992 Republican National Convention]], which is sometimes dubbed the "'culture war' speech."<ref> "Not since Pat Buchanan's famous "culture war" speech in 1992 has a major speaker at a national political convention spoken so hatefully, at such length, about the opposition."<br/> |
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{{Cite web |
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Some writers and scholars have said that culture wars are created or perpetuated by political special interest groups, by reactionary social movements, by party dynamics, or by electoral politics as a whole. These authors view culture war not as an unavoidable result of widespread cultural differences, but as a technique used to create [[In-group and out-group|in-groups and out-groups]] for a political purpose. Political commentator E. J. Dionne has written that culture war is an electoral technique to exploit differences and grievances, remarking that the real cultural division is "between those who want to have a culture war and those who don't."<ref name="Dionne2006" /> |
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| title = Dogs of War |
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| url = http://www.newdonkey.com/2004/09/dogs-of-war.html |
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Sociologist Scott Melzer says that culture wars are created by conservative, reactive organizations and movements. Members of these movements possess a "sense of victimization at the hands of a liberal culture run amok. In their eyes, immigrants, gays, women, the poor, and other groups are (undeservedly) granted special rights and privileges." Melzer writes about the example of the [[National Rifle Association of America]], which he says intentionally created a culture war in order to unite conservative groups, particularly groups of white men, against a common perceived threat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melzer |first=Scott |date=October 1, 2009 |title=Gun Crusaders: The NRA's Culture War |url=https://nyupress.org/9780814795507/gun-crusaders/ |publisher=New York University Press |page=59 |isbn=978-0814764503 |access-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406001357/https://nyupress.org/9780814795507/gun-crusaders/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, religion scholar Susan B. Ridgely has written that culture wars were made possible by [[Focus on the Family]]. This organization produced conservative Christian "[[alternative news]]" that began to bifurcate American media consumption, promoting a particular "traditional family" archetype to one part of the population, particularly conservative religious women. Ridgely says that this tradition was depicted as under liberal attack, seeming to necessitate a culture war to defend the tradition.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ridgely |first=Susan B. |date=March 2020 |title=Conservative Christianity and the Creation of Alternative News: An Analysis of Focus on the Family's Multimedia Empire |journal=Religion and American Culture |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1017/rac.2020.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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| publisher = New |
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| date = 2004-09-02 |
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Political scientists Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins have written about an asymmetry between the US's two major political parties, saying the Republican party should be understood as an ideological movement built to wage political conflict, and the Democratic party as a coalition of social groups with less ability to impose ideological discipline on members.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grossmann |first1=Matt |last2=Hopkins |first2=David A. |date=March 2015 |title=Ideological Republicans and Group Interest Democrats: The Asymmetry of American Party Politics |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=119–139 |doi=10.1017/S1537592714003168 |s2cid=144639776}}</ref> This encourages Republicans to perpetuate and to draw new issues into culture wars, because Republicans are well equipped to fight such wars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honestgraft.com/2020/04/solving-covid-crisis-requires.html |title=Solving the COVID Crisis Requires Bipartisanship, But the Modern GOP Isn't Built for It |last=Hopkins |first=David A. |date=April 15, 2020 |website=Honest Graft |access-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-date=May 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518135152/http://www.honestgraft.com/2020/04/solving-covid-crisis-requires.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', "many on the left have argued that such [culture war] battles [a]re 'distractions' from the real fight over class and economic issues."<ref>{{Cite web |last=O. Taiwo |first=Olufemi |date=2022-05-16 |title=Are culture wars really a distraction? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/may/16/are-culture-wars-distraction-critical-race-theory |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717045600/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/may/16/are-culture-wars-distraction-critical-race-theory |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050308043424/http://www.newdonkey.com/2004/09/dogs-of-war.html |
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| archivedate = 2005-03-08 |
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==Culture wars by country== |
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| accessdate = 2006-08-29 |
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===United States=== |
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{{excerpt|Ethnocultural politics in the United States}} |
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[[File:Christopher Columbus Statue Torn Down at Minnesota State Capitol on June 10, 2020.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the [[American Indian Movement]] toppled a [[Statue of Christopher Columbus (Saint Paul, Minnesota)|statue of Christopher Columbus]] in Saint Paul, Minnesota, on June 10, 2020]] |
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====1920s–1991: Origins==== |
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{{expand section|date=December 2021}} |
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In American usage, ''culture war'' may imply a conflict between those values considered [[Traditionalist conservatism in the United States|traditionalist]] or [[Conservativism in the United States|conservative]] and those considered [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive]] or [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]]. This usage originated in the 1920s when urban and rural American values came into closer conflict.<ref>{{cite web|date=Fall 2001|title=Seminar on the Culture Wars of the 1920s|url=http://www1.assumption.edu/ahc/1920s/|access-date=October 24, 2021|archive-date=October 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025063441/http://www1.assumption.edu/ahc/1920s/|url-status=live}}</ref> This followed several decades of immigration to the States by people who earlier European immigrants considered 'alien'. It was also a result of the cultural shifts and modernizing trends of the [[Roaring Twenties]], culminating in the presidential campaign of [[Al Smith]] in 1928.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dionne|first=E. J.|author-link=E. J. Dionne|title=Culture Wars: How 2004|url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/reclaiming_faith_and_politics.html|access-date=January 30, 2009|archive-date=December 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210160538/http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/reclaiming_faith_and_politics.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In subsequent decades during the 20th century, the term was published occasionally in American newspapers.<ref>{{Cite news|title=What Bismarck could not do (Culture War reference) (1906)|url=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/29457081/what_bismarck_could_not_do_culture_war/|access-date=2019-03-13|newspaper=Washington Palladium|date=December 21, 1906|page=2|language=en|archive-date=August 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818073847/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/29457081/what-bismarck-could-not-do-culture-war/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title='Culture War' to be theme of talk (1942)|url=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/29456609/culture_war_to_be_theme_of_talk_1942/|access-date=2019-03-13|newspaper=Oakland Tribune|date=February 18, 1942|page=5|language=en|archive-date=December 12, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171946/http://www.newspapers.com/article/oakland-tribune-culture-war-to-be-them/29456609/|url-status=live}}</ref> Historian Matthew Dallek argues the [[John Birch Society]] (JBS) was an early promoter of culture war ideas.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/05/17/1176662608/a-historian-details-how-a-secretive-extremist-group-radicalized-the-american-rig |title=A historian details how a secretive, extremist group radicalized the American right |date=2023-05-17 |last=Gross |first=Terry |type=Radio broadcast |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |series=Fresh Air}}</ref> Scholar Celestini Carmen traces the JBS's apocalyptic culture war rhetoric through the connections of [[Christian right]] leaders such as [[Tim LaHaye]] and [[Phyllis Schlafly]] to the JBS and their founding of the [[Moral Majority]].<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last1=Celestini |first1=Carmen |title=God, Country, and Christian Conservatives: The National Association of Manufacturers, the John Birch Society, and the Rise of the Christian Right |url=https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/handle/10012/13361/Celestini_Carmen.pdf |date=2018 |publisher=[[University of Waterloo]] |pages=iv, 37, 283, 322–325, 328–334}}</ref> |
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====1991–2001: Rise in prominence==== |
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[[James Davison Hunter]], a [[sociologist]] at the [[University of Virginia]], introduced the expression again in his 1991 publication, ''[[Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America]]''. Hunter described what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed [[politics of the United States|American politics]] and [[American culture|culture]]. He argued that on an increasing number of "[[Hot-button issue|hot-button]]" defining issues—[[abortion]], [[gun politics]], [[separation of church and state]], [[privacy]], [[recreational drug use]], [[homosexuality]], [[censorship]]—there existed two definable polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily not by nominal religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation, but rather by ideological [[world-view]]s. Hunter characterized this polarity as stemming from opposite impulses, toward what he referred to as ''Progressivism'' and as ''Orthodoxy''. Others have adopted the dichotomy with varying labels. For example, [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]], a conservative political commentator and former host of the [[Fox News Channel]] talk show ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]'', emphasizes differences between "Secular-Progressives" and "Traditionalists" in his 2006 book ''[[Culture Warrior]]''.<ref>Brian Dakss, |
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[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bill-oreillys-culture-warrior/ "Bill O'Reilly's 'Culture Warrior'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213000253/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bill-oreillys-culture-warrior/ |date=December 13, 2020 }}, |
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''CBS News'', |
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December 5, 2006. |
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Retrieved March 27, 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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| last = O'Reilly |
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| first = Bill |
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| author-link = Bill O'Reilly (political commentator) |
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| title = Culture Warrior |
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| publisher = [[Broadway Books]] |
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| location = New York |
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| date = September 2006 |
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| isbn = 0-7679-2092-9}}</ref> |
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Historian [[Kristin Kobes Du Mez]] attributes the 1990s emergence of culture wars to the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991. She writes that [[Evangelical Christians]] viewed a particular Christian masculine [[gender role]] as the only defense of America against the threat of [[communism]]. When this threat ended upon the close of the Cold War, Evangelical leaders transferred the perceived source of threat from foreign communism to domestic changes in gender roles and sexuality.<ref>{{cite news |last=Illing |first=Sean |date=July 9, 2020 |title=Is evangelical support for Trump a contradiction? |url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/7/9/21291493/donald-trump-evangelical-christians-kristin-kobes-du-mez |work=Vox |access-date=July 9, 2020 |archive-date=June 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616155249/https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/7/9/21291493/donald-trump-evangelical-christians-kristin-kobes-du-mez |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Patrickjbuchanan.JPG|thumb|left|180px|Pat Buchanan in 2008]] |
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During the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992 presidential election]], commentator [[Pat Buchanan]] mounted [[Pat Buchanan#1992 presidential primaries|a campaign]] for the [[1992 Republican Party presidential primaries|Republican nomination for president]] against incumbent [[George H. W. Bush]]. In a [[Prime time|prime]]-[[time slot]] at the [[1992 Republican National Convention]], Buchanan gave his speech on the culture war.<ref>{{cite web |quote=Not since Pat Buchanan's famous 'culture war' speech in 1992 has a major speaker at a national political convention spoken so hatefully, at such length, about the opposition. |title=Dogs of War |url=http://www.newdonkey.com/2004/09/dogs-of-war.html |url-status=dead |publisher=New Donkey |date=September 2, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308043424/http://www.newdonkey.com/2004/09/dogs-of-war.html |archive-date=March 8, 2005 |access-date=August 29, 2006}}</ref> He argued: "There is a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America. It is a cultural war, as critical to the kind of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself."<ref name="1992-GOP">{{Cite speech |author-link=Patrick Buchanan |first=Patrick |last=Buchanan |title=1992 Republican National Convention Speech |date=August 17, 1992 |url=http://buchanan.org/blog/1992-republican-national-convention-speech-148 |access-date=November 3, 2014 |archive-date=December 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208185713/https://buchanan.org/blog/1992-republican-national-convention-speech-148 |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition to criticizing [[Environmental movement in the United States|environmentalists]] and [[Feminism in the United States|feminism]], he portrayed [[public morality]] as a [[defining issue]]: |
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<blockquote>The agenda [Bill] Clinton and [Hillary] Clinton would impose on America—abortion on demand, a [[Litmus test (politics)|litmus test]] for the Supreme Court, homosexual rights, discrimination against religious schools, women in combat units—that's change, all right. But it is not the kind of change America wants. It is not the kind of change America needs. And it is not the kind of change we can abide in a nation that we still call God's country.<ref name="1992-GOP" /> |
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</blockquote> |
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A month later, Buchanan characterized the conflict as about power over society's definition of right and wrong. He named abortion, sexual orientation and popular culture as major fronts—and mentioned other controversies, including clashes over the [[Confederate flag]], Christmas, and taxpayer-funded art. He also said that the negative attention his "culture war" speech received was itself evidence of America's polarization.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://buchanan.org/blog/the-cultural-war-for-the-soul-of-america-149 |title=The Cultural War for the Soul of America |last=Buchanan |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Buchanan |access-date=March 6, 2015 |archive-date=March 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317033220/http://buchanan.org/blog/the-cultural-war-for-the-soul-of-america-149 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The culture war had significant impact on national politics in the 1990s.<ref name="Andrew Hartman 2015">Andrew Hartman, ''A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars'' (University of Chicago Press, 2015)</ref> The rhetoric of the [[Christian Coalition of America]] may have weakened president George H. W. Bush's chances for re-election in 1992 and helped his successor, [[Bill Clinton]], win reelection in 1996.<ref name="Chávez 2010">{{cite book |last=Chávez |first=Karma R. |editor-last=Chapman |editor-first=Roger |title=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices, Volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3 |page=88 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/culturewarsencyc0000unse/page/88/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Christian Coalition}}</ref> On the other hand, the rhetoric of conservative cultural warriors helped Republicans gain control of Congress in 1994.<ref name="Benedic 2010">{{cite book |last1=Benedic |first1=Diane |last2=Rising |first2=George |editor-last=Chapman |editor-first=Roger |title=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices, Volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3 |page=136 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/culturewarsencyc0000unse/page/136/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Democratic Party}}</ref> The culture wars influenced the debate over [[State school|state-school]] history [[Curriculum|curricula]] in the United States in the 1990s. In particular, debates over the development of [[Standards-based education reform in the United States|national educational standards]] in 1994 revolved around whether the study of American history should be a "celebratory" or "critical" undertaking and involved such prominent public figures as [[Lynne Cheney]], [[Rush Limbaugh]], and historian [[Gary Nash]].<ref>{{google book |title=Who Owns History: Rethinking the Past in a Changing World |last=Foner |first=Eric |id=H3I-Z8KW5REC |location=New York |publisher=Hill & Wang |year=2002 |isbn=1-4299-2392-X}}</ref><ref>{{google book |title=History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past |last1=Nash |first1=Gary B. |authorlink1=Gary B. Nash |last2=Crabtree |first2=Charlotte A. |last3=Dunn |first3=Ross E. |authorlink=Ross E. Dunn |id=iE1DzmHrh9EC |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |year=1997 |isbn=0-679-76750-9}}</ref> |
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====2001–2012: Post-9/11 era==== |
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[[File:Bush War Budget 2003-crop.jpg|thumb|(from right to left) 43rd President [[George W. Bush]], [[Donald Rumsfeld]], and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were prominent neoconservatives of the 2000s.]] |
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A political view called [[neoconservatism]] shifted the terms of the debate in the early 2000s. Neoconservatives differed from their opponents in that they interpreted problems facing the nation as [[moral issues]] rather than economic or political ones. For example, neoconservatives saw the decline of the traditional [[Family structure in the United States|family structure]] as well as the decline of religion in American society as [[Spiritual crisis|spiritual crises]] that required a spiritual response. Critics accused neoconservatives of [[Correlation does not imply causation|confusing cause and effect]].<ref>Zafirovski, Milan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UEl91MbLiO0C&pg=PA60 "Modern Free Society and Its Nemesis: Liberty Versus Conservatism in the New Millennium "] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171945/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEl91MbLiO0C&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=December 12, 2023 }} ''Google Books''. 6 September 2018.</ref> |
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During the 2000s, voting for Republicans began to correlate heavily with [[Traditionalist conservatism|traditionalist]] or [[Orthodoxy|orthodox]] religious belief across diverse religious sects. Voting for Democrats became more correlated with [[Religious liberalism|liberal]] or [[Modernism in the Catholic Church|modernist]] religious belief, and with being [[nonreligious]].<ref name="Dionne2006">Dionne, E.J., Jr. |
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[https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/01/why-the-culture-war-is-the-wrong-war/304502/ "Why the Culture War Is the Wrong War."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213000333/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/01/why-the-culture-war-is-the-wrong-war/304502/ |date=December 13, 2020 }} ''The Atlantic''. January/February 2006. 29 April 2019.</ref> [[Scientism|Belief in scientific]] conclusions, such as [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]], also became tightly coupled with political party affiliation in this era, causing climate scholar [[Andrew Hoffman]] to observe that [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]] had "become enmeshed in the so-called [[Global warming controversy|culture wars]]."<ref name="Hoffman2012"/> |
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[[File:Fresno - Prop 8 Rally.jpg|thumb|Rally for [[Proposition 8]], an item on the 2008 California ballot to ban same-sex marriage]] |
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Topics traditionally associated with culture war were not prominent in media coverage of the [[2008 United States elections|2008 election]] season, with the exception of coverage of vice-presidential candidate [[Sarah Palin]],<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=November 20, 2008 |title=How the News Media Covered Religion in the 2008 General Election: Sarah Palin and the "Culture Wars" |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/legacy/Religion_gen_election_FINAL-11-20_0.pdf |publisher=Pew Research |pages=8, 11–12 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022094123/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/legacy/Religion_gen_election_FINAL-11-20_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> who drew attention to her conservative religion and created a performative [[climate change denialism]] brand for herself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hatzisavvidou |first1=Sophia |date=September 17, 2019 |title='The climate has always been changing': Sarah Palin, climate change denialism, and American conservatism |journal=Celebrity Studies |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=371–388 |doi=10.1080/19392397.2019.1667251 |s2cid=204377874 |url=https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/198548337/The_Climate_Has_Always_Been_Changing_with_author_details.pdf |access-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306084450/https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/198548337/The_Climate_Has_Always_Been_Changing_with_author_details.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Palin's defeat in the election and subsequent resignation as governor of Alaska caused the [[Center for American Progress]] to predict "the coming end of the culture wars," which they attributed to demographic change, particularly high rates of acceptance of [[same-sex marriage]] among [[millennials]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2009/07/15/6454/the-coming-end-of-the-culture-wars/ |title=The Coming End of the Culture Wars |last=Teixeira |first=Ruy |date=July 15, 2009 |website=Center for American Progress |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209141022/https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2009/07/15/6454/the-coming-end-of-the-culture-wars/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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====2012–present: Broadening of the culture war==== |
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{{See also|List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests|List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests|List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests}} |
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[[File:JEB Stuart Monument 2020-05-31.jpg|thumb|The [[J. E. B. Stuart Monument]], defaced during [[George Floyd protests in Richmond, Virginia|protests in Richmond, Virginia]], was removed on July 7, 2020.]] |
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In the early 2010s, tensions between supporters and opponents of issues such as [[LGBT rights]], modern [[feminism]], [[Black Lives Matter]], and other progressive movements intensified, [[foreshadowing]] the political conflicts that would dominate the political media discussions in the 2020s. [[American conservatives]] took issue with the perceived worldwide dominance of leftism in international politics and corporate activity, [[anti-nationalism]], and secular [[human rights]] policies and activism not based on [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic religious]] worldviews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bob |first=Clifford |title=The Global Right Wing and the Clash of World Politics |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-521-19381-8 |location=New York |pages=i}}</ref> |
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While traditional culture war issues, like abortion, continue to be a focal point,<ref>Smith, Karl. [https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-05-21/abortion-debate-it-s-different-from-other-culture-wars "The Abortion Debate Is Not Part of the Culture Wars."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720175834/https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-05-21/abortion-debate-it-s-different-from-other-culture-wars |date=July 20, 2019 }} ''Bloomberg''.</ref> the issues identified with the culture war broadened and intensified in the mid-late 2010s. [[Jonathan Haidt]], author of ''[[The Coddling of the American Mind]]'', identified a rise in [[cancel culture]] via [[social media]] among young progressives since 2012, which he believes had "transformative effects on university life and later on politics and culture throughout the English-speaking world," in what Haidt<ref>{{cite news |last1=Haidt |first1=Jonathan |title=Why the Past 10 Years of American Life Have Been Uniquely Stupid |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/05/social-media-democracy-trust-babel/629369/ |work=The Atlantic |date=11 April 2022 |language=en |access-date=2022-08-29 |archive-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410164044/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/05/social-media-democracy-trust-babel/629369/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and other commentators<ref name="Mirzaei 2019">{{Cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/where-woke-came-from-and-why-marketers-should-think-twice-before-jumping-on-the-social-activism-bandwagon-122713 |title=Where 'woke' came from and why marketers should think twice before jumping on the social activism bandwagon |first=Abas |last=Mirzaei |website=The Conversation |date=September 8, 2019 |access-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320231919/https://theconversation.com/where-woke-came-from-and-why-marketers-should-think-twice-before-jumping-on-the-social-activism-bandwagon-122713 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yglesias |first=Matthew |title=How Hillary Clinton unleashed the Great Awokening |url=https://www.slowboring.com/p/how-hillary-clinton-unleashed-the |access-date=2023-01-06 |website=www.slowboring.com |language=en |archive-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328160348/https://www.slowboring.com/p/how-hillary-clinton-unleashed-the |url-status=live }}</ref> have called the "[[Great Awokening]]". Journalist [[Michael Grunwald]] says that "President [[Donald Trump]] has pioneered a new politics of perpetual culture war" and lists [[Black Lives Matter]], [[U.S. national anthem protests]], [[climate change]], education policy, healthcare policy including [[Obamacare]], and infrastructure policy as culture war issues in 2018.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Grunwald |first=Michael |date=November 2018 |title=How Everything Became the Culture War |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/11/02/culture-war-liberals-conservatives-trump-2018-222095 |magazine=Politico |access-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524050840/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/11/02/culture-war-liberals-conservatives-trump-2018-222095 |url-status=live }}</ref> The rights of [[transgender]] people and the role of religion in lawmaking were identified as "new fronts in the culture war" by political scientist Jeremiah Castle, as the polarization of public opinion on these two topics resembles that of previous culture war issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castle |first1=Jeremiah |date=December 14, 2018 |title=New Fronts in the Culture Wars? Religion, Partisanship, and Polarization on Religious Liberty and Transgender Rights in the United States |journal=American Politics Research |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=650–679 |doi=10.1177/1532673X18818169|s2cid=220207260 }}</ref> In 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], North Dakota governor [[Doug Burgum]] described [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States#Attitudes|opposition to wearing face masks]] as a "senseless" culture war issue that jeopardizes human safety.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blake |first=Aaron |date=May 23, 2020 |title=GOP governor offers emotional plea to the anti-mask crowd: Stop this senseless culture war |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/05/23/doug-burgum-masks/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524005046/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/05/23/doug-burgum-masks/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| footer = Clockwise from top left: [[anti-abortion movements|anti-abortion]] protesters in 1986; members of [[the Proud Boys]] protest a [[drag queen]] story hour; Representative [[Marjorie Taylor Greene]] of Georgia and [[Libs of TikTok]] creator [[Chaya Raichik]] hold up an anti-transgender sign; "Save Our Children" graffiti near downtown [[Lufkin, Texas]] in relation to the [[LGBT grooming conspiracy theory]]. |
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</ref> During his speech, he claimed: "There is a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America. It is a cultural war, as critical to the kind of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself." [http://www.buchanan.org/pa-92-0817-rnc.html] In addition to criticizing "environmental extremists" and "radical feminism," he said [[public morality]] was a [[defining issue]]: |
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<blockquote>The agenda [Bill] Clinton and [Hillary] Clinton would impose on America — abortion on demand, a [[Litmus test (politics)|litmus test]] for the Supreme Court, homosexual rights, discrimination against religious schools, women in combat — that's change, all right. But it is not the kind of change America wants. It is not the kind of change America needs. And it is not the kind of change we can tolerate in a nation that we still call God's country.<ref>{{Cite news|authorlink = Patrick Buchanan| first=Patrick | last=Buchanan | title=1992 Republican National Convention Speech | date=1992-08-17 | publisher= | url =http://www.buchanan.org/pa-92-0817-rnc.html | accessdate = 2007-11-03 | language = |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071018035401/http://www.buchanan.org/pa-92-0817-rnc.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-10-18}}</ref></blockquote> |
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This broader understanding of culture war issues in the mid-late 2010s and 2020s is associated with a political strategy called "[[owning the libs]]." Conservative media figures employing this strategy emphasize and expand upon culture war issues with the goal of upsetting liberals. According to [[Nicole Hemmer]] of Columbia University, this strategy is a substitute for the cohesive conservative ideology that existed during the [[Cold War]]. It holds a conservative [[voting bloc]] together in the absence of shared policy preferences among the bloc's members.<ref>{{cite news |last=Peters |first=Jeremy W. |date=August 3, 2020 |title=These Conservatives Have a Laser Focus: 'Owning the Libs' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/03/us/politics/the-federalist-trump-liberals.html |work=New York Times |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803161740/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/03/us/politics/the-federalist-trump-liberals.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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A month later, Buchanan said that the conflict was about power over society's definition of right and wrong. He named abortion, sexual orientation and popular culture as major fronts – and mentioned other controversies, including clashes over the [[Confederate Flag]], Christmas and taxpayer-funded art. He also said that the negative attention his "culture war" speech received was itself evidence of America’s polarization.<ref>[http://www.buchanan.org/pa-92-0914.html The Cultural War for the Soul of America - by Pat Buchanan - Articles, Essays and Speeches - T H E I N T E R N E T B R I G A D E - Official Web Site<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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[[File:Charlottesville 'Unite the Right' Rally (35780274914) crop.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Unite the Right rally]] in [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]], Virginia in August 2017, an alt-right event regarded as a battle of the culture wars<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buffington |first=Melanie L. |date=January 1, 2017 |title=Contemporary Culture Wars: Challenging the Legacy of the Confederacy |url=https://jcrae.art.arizona.edu/index.php/jcrae/article/view/74 |journal=Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education |volume=34 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.2458/jcrae.4883 |s2cid=148760859 |issn=2152-7172 |access-date=May 24, 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=July 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729022613/https://jcrae.art.arizona.edu/index.php/jcrae/article/view/74 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] |
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When Buchanan ran for President in 1996, he promised to fight for the conservative side of the culture war: |
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<blockquote>I will use the [[bully pulpit]] of the Presidency of the United States, to the full extent of my power and ability, to defend American traditions and the values of faith, family, and country, from any and all directions. And, together, we will chase the purveyors of sex and violence back beneath the rocks whence they came.<ref>[http://www.4president.org/speeches/buchanan1996announcement.htm Announcement Speech by Patrick J<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></blockquote> |
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A number of conflicts about diversity in popular culture occurring in the 2010s, such as the [[Gamergate controversy]], [[Comicsgate]] and the [[Sad Puppies]] science fiction voting campaign, were identified in the media as being examples of the culture war.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hurley |first=Kameron |author-link=Kameron Hurley |date=April 9, 2015 |title=Hijacking the Hugo Awards Won't Stifle Diversity in Science Fiction |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/04/the-culture-wars-come-to-sci-fi/390012/ |magazine=The Atlantic |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205115606/https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/04/the-culture-wars-come-to-sci-fi/390012/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Journalist [[Caitlin Dewey]] described Gamergate as a "[[proxy war]]" for a larger culture war between those who want greater inclusion of women and minorities in cultural institutions versus anti-feminists and traditionalists who do not.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dewey |first=Caitlin |date=October 14, 2014 |title=The only guide to Gamergate you will ever need to read |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/14/the-only-guide-to-gamergate-you-will-ever-need-to-read/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=June 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611104007/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/14/the-only-guide-to-gamergate-you-will-ever-need-to-read/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The perception that culture war conflict had been demoted from electoral politics to popular culture led writer Jack Meserve to call popular movies, games, and writing the "last front in the culture war" in 2015.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meserve |first1=Jack |date=Spring 2015 |title=Last Front in the Culture War |url=https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/36/last-front-in-the-culture-war/ |journal=Democracy: A Journal of Ideas |issue=36 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=August 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817142610/https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/36/last-front-in-the-culture-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Culture war disputes are considered by many to have had significant impacts on national politics in the United States in the 1990s. Some say extreme conservative rhetoric of the [[Christian Coalition]] hurt then-president [[George H.W. Bush]]'s chances for reelection in 1992 and helped his successor, [[Bill Clinton]], win reelection in 1996.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Roger|title=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices|year=2010|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, NY|isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3|pages=88|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vRY27FkGJAUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> On the other hand, conservative “cultural warriors'” rhetoric helped [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] gain control of Congress in 1994, and the subsequent [[impeachment]] of Clinton by Congress over a sex scandal is widely understood as having been a divisive "culture war" battle.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Roger|title=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices|year=2010|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, NY.|isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3|pages=136|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vRY27FkGJAUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=Culture%20Wars%20in%20the%201990s&f=false}}</ref> |
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These conflicts about representation in popular culture re-emerged into electoral politics via the [[alt-right]] and [[alt-lite]] movements.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nagle |first=Angela |author-link=Angela Nagle |date=June 30, 2017 |title=Kill All Normies: Online Culture Wars From 4Chan And Tumblr To Trump And The Alt-Right |publisher=Zero Books |isbn=9781785355431}}</ref> According to media scholar Whitney Phillips, Gamergate "prototyped" strategies of harassment and controversy-stoking that proved useful in political strategy. For example, Republican political strategist [[Steve Bannon]] publicized pop-culture conflicts during the 2016 presidential campaign of [[Donald Trump]], encouraging a young audience to "come in through Gamergate or whatever and then get turned onto politics and Trump."<ref>{{cite news |last=Warzel |first=Charlie |date=August 15, 2019 |title=How an Online Mob Created a Playbook for a Culture War |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/15/opinion/what-is-gamergate.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702142826/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/15/opinion/what-is-gamergate.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The culture wars influenced the debate over public school history curricula in the United States in the 1990s. In particular, debates over the development of national educational standards in 1994 revolved around whether the study of American history should be a "celebratory" or "critical" undertaking and involved such prominent public figures as [[Lynne Cheney]], [[Rush Limbaugh]], and historian [[Gary Nash]].<ref>Eric Foner, "Who Owns History: Rethinking the Past in a Changing World". New York: Hill & Wang, 2002.</ref><ref>Gary B. Nash, Crabtree, Charlotte, and Ross E. Dunn, "History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past". New York: Knopf, 1997.</ref> |
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===Canada=== |
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{{Main|Political culture of Canada|Monuments and memorials in Canada removed in 2020–2022}} |
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In a 2004 column, Pat Buchanan said the culture war had reignited and that certain groups of Americans no longer inhabited the same moral universe. He gave such examples as same-sex [[civil union]]s, the "crudity of the MTV crowd," and the controversy surrounding [[Mel Gibson|Mel Gibson's]] film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]''. He wrote: |
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Some observers in [[Canada]] have used the term "culture war" to refer to differing values between [[Western Canada|Western]] versus [[Eastern Canada]], [[List of the largest population centres in Canada|urban]] versus [[rural Canada]], as well as [[Conservatism in Canada|conservatism]] versus [[Liberalism in Canada|liberalism]] and [[Progressivism in Canada|progressivism]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Gerald |last=Caplan |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/second-reading/culture-clash-splits-canadians-over-basic-values/article4626123/ |location=Toronto |work=The Globe and Mail |title=Culture clash splits Canadians over basic values |date=October 20, 2012 |access-date=August 26, 2017 |archive-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425034511/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/second-reading/culture-clash-splits-canadians-over-basic-values/article4626123/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The phrase has also been used to describe the [[Premiership of Stephen Harper|Harper government]]'s attitude towards the [[Art in Canada|arts community]]. [[Andrew Coyne]] termed this negative policy towards the arts community as "[[class warfare]]."<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.macleans.ca/general/this-isnt-a-culture-war-its-a-good-old-class-war/ |title= Coyne: This isn't a culture war, it's a good old class war |author= Andrew Coyne |date= October 2, 2008 |work= Macleans |access-date= March 6, 2015 |archive-date= July 7, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180707173947/https://www.macleans.ca/general/this-isnt-a-culture-war-its-a-good-old-class-war/ |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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===Australia=== |
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<blockquote>Who is in your face here? Who started this? Who is on the offensive? Who is pushing the envelope? The answer is obvious. A radical Left aided by a cultural elite that detests Christianity and finds Christian moral tenets reactionary and repressive is hell-bent on pushing its amoral values and imposing its ideology on our nation. |
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{{Main|Australian history wars}} |
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The unwisdom of what the Hollywood and the Left are about should be transparent to all.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theamericancause.org/patculturewars.htm|title=The Aggressors in the Culture Wars|date=March 8, 2004|accessdate=January 26, 2009|author=[[Pat Buchanan]]|publisher=[http://www.theamericancause.org/ theamericancause.org]}}</ref></blockquote> |
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During the tenure of the [[Coalition (Australia)|Liberal–National Coalition]] government of 1996 to 2007, interpretations of [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] history became a part of a wider political debate regarding Australian national pride and symbolism occasionally called the "[[Australian history wars|culture wars]]", more often the "history wars".<ref name="Manne11/08">{{cite news |url= https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2008/november/1277253191/robert-manne/what-rudd-s-agenda |last= Manne |first= Robert |author-link= Robert Manne |title= What is Rudd's Agenda? |work= [[The Monthly]] |date= November 2008 |access-date= March 15, 2016 |archive-date= March 16, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160316231605/https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2008/november/1277253191/robert-manne/what-rudd-s-agenda |url-status= live }}</ref> This debate extended into [[#Australia|a controversy]] over the presentation of history in the [[National Museum of Australia]] and in [[Education in Australia|high-school]] history curricula.<ref>{{cite web |last= Rundle |first= Guy |url= http://www.crikey.com.au/2007/06/28/1915-and-all-that-history-in-a-holding-pattern/ |title= 1915 and all that: History in a holding pattern |work= Crikey |date= June 28, 2007 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-date= July 6, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100706040803/http://www.crikey.com.au/2007/06/28/1915-and-all-that-history-in-a-holding-pattern/ |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Ferrari |first= Justine<!--Education writer--> |url= http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24492542-13881,00.html |title= History curriculum author defies his critics to find bias |work= The Australian |date= October 14, 2008 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091006084757/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24492542-13881,00.html |archive-date= October 6, 2009 |url-status= dead }}</ref> It also migrated into the general Australian media, with major broadsheets such as ''[[The Australian]]'', ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' and ''[[The Age]]'' regularly publishing opinion pieces on the topic. [[Marcia Langton]] has referred to much of this wider debate as "war porn"<ref>Baudrillard J. War porn. ''Journal of Visual Culture'', Vol. 5, No. 1, 86–88 (2006) {{doi| 10.1177/147041290600500107}}</ref> and as an "intellectual dead end".<ref name=Langton>Langton M. Essay: [https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/trapped-in-the-aboriginal-reality-show/ "Trapped in the aboriginal reality show"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724191527/https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/trapped-in-the-aboriginal-reality-show/ |date=July 24, 2020 }}. ''Griffith Review 2007'', 19:Re-imagining Australia.</ref> |
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Two Australian Prime Ministers, [[Paul Keating]] (in office 1991–1996) and John Howard (in office 1996–2007), became major participants in the "wars". According to [[Mark McKenna (historian)|Mark McKenna's]] analysis for the Australian Parliamentary Library,<ref name=McKenna>{{cite web |url= http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05 |title= Different Perspectives on Black Armband History |author= Mark McKenna |series= Parliamentary Library: Research Paper 5 1997-98 |publisher= The Parliament of Australia |date= November 10, 1997 |access-date= March 5, 2015 |archive-date= February 19, 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150219085809/http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05 |url-status= live }}</ref> John Howard believed that Paul Keating portrayed Australia pre-[[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam]] (Prime Minister from 1972 to 1975) in an unduly negative light; while Keating sought to distance the modern [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] movement from its historical support for the monarchy and for the [[White Australia policy]] by arguing that it was the conservative Australian parties which had been barriers to national progress. He accused [[United Kingdom|Britain]] of having abandoned Australia during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Keating staunchly supported a symbolic apology to [[Aboriginal Australians|Australian Aboriginals]] for their mistreatment at the hands of previous administrations, and outlined his view of the origins and potential solutions to contemporary Aboriginal disadvantage in his [[Redfern Park Speech]] of 10 December 1992 (drafted with the assistance of historian [[Don Watson]]). In 1999, following the release of the 1998 ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'' Report, Howard passed a Parliamentary [[Motion of Reconciliation]] describing treatment of Aborigines as the "most blemished chapter" in Australian history, but he refused to issue an official apology.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221_1.htm |title= The History of Apologies Down Under | Thinking Faith |publisher= thinkingfaith.org |date= February 21, 2008 |access-date= March 5, 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141202000730/http://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221_1.htm |archive-date= December 2, 2014 }}</ref> Howard saw an apology as inappropriate as it would imply "intergeneration guilt"; he said that "practical" measures were a better response to contemporary Aboriginal disadvantage. Keating has argued for the eradication of remaining symbols linked to colonial origins: including deference for [[ANZAC Day]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-20081030-5enw.html|title=A nation reborn at Anzac Cove? Utter nonsense: Keating|first=Tony|last=Wright|date=October 30, 2008|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=April 24, 2018|archive-date=April 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424135601/https://www.smh.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-20081030-5enw.html|url-status=live}}</ref> for the [[Flag of Australia|Australian flag]] and for the [[monarchy in Australia]], while Howard supported these institutions. Unlike fellow Labor leaders and contemporaries, [[Bob Hawke]] (Prime Minister 1983–1991) and [[Kim Beazley]] (Labor Party leader 2005–2006), Keating never traveled to [[Gallipoli]] for ANZAC Day ceremonies. In 2008 he described those who gathered there as "misguided".<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.theage.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-20081030-5enw.html |title= A nation reborn at Anzac Cove? Utter nonsense: Keating |work= The Age |date= October 31, 2008 |access-date= March 5, 2010 |location= Melbourne |first= Tony |last= Wright |archive-date= January 15, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100115185002/http://www.theage.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-20081030-5enw.html? |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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[[Peter Beinart]], best known as a senior fellow of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], argued in a January 2009 column for ''[[The Daily Beast]]'' that the new [[United States presidential election, 2008|election of Barack Obama as President]] could be the beginning of the end for the American culture war. He wrote: |
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{{quote|When it comes to culture, Obama doesn’t have a public agenda; he has a public anti-agenda. He wants to remove culture from the political debate. He wants to cut our three-sided political game back down to two.... Barack Obama was more successful than John Kerry in reaching out to moderate white evangelicals in part because he struck them as more authentically Christian. That’s the foundation on which Obama now seeks to build. He seems to think there are large numbers of conservative white Protestants and Catholics who will look beyond culture when they enter the voting booth as long as he and other Democrats don’t ram cultural liberalism down their throats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-01-26/the-end-of-the-culture-wars/|author=[[Peter Beinart]]|publisher=''[[The Daily Beast]]''|accessdate=January 5, 2010|title=The End of the Culture Wars|date=January 26, 2009}}</ref></blockquote>}} |
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In 2006 John Howard said in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of ''Quadrant'' that [[Political correctness|"Political Correctness"]] was dead in Australia but: "we should not underestimate the degree to which the soft-left still holds sway, even dominance, especially in Australia's universities".{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} Also in 2006, [[The Sydney Morning Herald|''Sydney Morning Herald'']] political editor [[Peter Hartcher]] reported that Opposition foreign-affairs spokesman [[Kevin Rudd]] was entering the philosophical debate by arguing in response that "John Howard, is guilty of perpetrating 'a fraud' in his so-called culture wars ... designed not to make real change but to mask the damage inflicted by the Government's economic policies".<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/pms-culture-wars-a-fraud-rudd/2006/10/27/1161749320974.html |title= PM's culture wars a fraud: Rudd - National |work= The Sydney Morning Herald |date= October 28, 2006 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-date= June 5, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110605030058/http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/pms-culture-wars-a-fraud-rudd/2006/10/27/1161749320974.html |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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In response, author and writer [[Rod Dreher]] stated in a [[RealClearPolitics]] column that the rhetoric of a culture war disguises the fact that American society truly is deeply divided on some moral issues, which is not an artificial creation of political parties seeking to drum up support. He wrote that the economic positions of the Democratic Party are generally popular enough that, if it chose to drop polarizing social issues, it would become a majority party in ongoing control. He describes the culture war as "inevitable."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2009/02/obama_wont_end_the_culture_war.html|publisher=[[RealClearPolitics]]|author=[[Rod Dreher]]|date=February 16, 2009|title=Obama Won't End the Culture Wars|accessdate=January 5, 2010}}</ref> Columnist [[Ross Douthat]], then with ''[[The Atlantic]]'', wrote that he had "a lot to agree with" [[Peter Beinart|Beinart]], but he stated that what Obama and his supporters seem to be doing is "winning" the culture wars for their side rather than coming to some kind of compromise.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=''[[The Atlantic]]''|author=[[Ross Douthat]]|date=January 28, 2009|title=Ending or Winning?|url=http://rossdouthat.theatlantic.com/archives/2009/01/ending_or_winning.php|accessdate=January 5, 2010}}</ref> |
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The defeat of the Howard government in the [[2007 Australian federal election|Australian Federal election of 2007]] and its replacement by the [[First Rudd Government|Rudd Labor government]] altered the dynamic of the debate. Rudd made an [[Apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples|official apology]] to the Aboriginal ''[[Stolen Generation]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/12/australia.text/index.html |title= Full text of Australia's apology to Aborigines |publisher= [[CNN]] |date= February 12, 2008 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-date= September 18, 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090918004745/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/12/australia.text/index.html |url-status= live }}</ref> with bi-partisan support.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/brendan-nelsons-sorry-speech/2008/02/13/1202760366050.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1 |title= Brendan Nelson's sorry speech |work= The Sydney Morning Herald |date= February 13, 2008 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-date= March 15, 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080315183621/http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/brendan-nelsons-sorry-speech/2008/02/13/1202760366050.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1 |url-status= live }}</ref> Like Keating, Rudd supported an Australian republic, but in contrast to Keating, Rudd declared support for the [[Australian flag]] and supported the commemoration of ANZAC Day; he also expressed admiration for Liberal Party founder [[Robert Menzies]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/keating-utterly-wrong-on-gallipoli-pm/story-0-1111117908459 |title= Paul Keating 'utterly wrong' to reject Gallipoli identity, says Kevin Rudd |date= October 31, 2008 |access-date= February 19, 2015 |archive-date= September 12, 2012 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120912154538/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/keating-utterly-wrong-on-gallipoli-pm/story-0-1111117908459 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/is-rudd-having-a-bob-each-way/2007/04/12/1175971263000.html |title= Is Rudd having a Bob each way? - Opinion |work= The Sydney Morning Herald |date= October 28, 2004 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |archive-date= June 5, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110605031126/http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/is-rudd-having-a-bob-each-way/2007/04/12/1175971263000.html |url-status= live }}</ref> Subsequent to the 2007 change of government, and prior to the passage, with support from all parties, of the Parliamentary apology to indigenous Australians, Professor of Australian Studies Richard Nile argued: "the culture and history wars are over and with them should also go the adversarial nature of intellectual debate",<ref>{{cite news |url= http://blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au/richardnile/index.php/theaustralian/comments/end_of_the_culture_wars |title= End of the culture wars | Richard Nile Blog, ''The Australian'' |publisher= blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au |date= November 28, 2007 |access-date= April 27, 2010 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100309215605/http://blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au/richardnile/index.php/theaustralian/comments/end_of_the_culture_wars/ |archive-date= March 9, 2010 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> a view contested by others, including conservative commentator [[Janet Albrechtsen]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/orwellian-left-quick-to-unveil-totalitarian-heart/story-e6frg6n6-1111115088194 |title= Orwellian Left quick to unveil totalitarian heart |work= The Australian |date= December 12, 2007}}</ref> [[Climate change in Australia]] is also considered a [[List of climate change controversies|highly divisive or politically controversial topic]], to the point it is sometimes called a "culture war".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hornsey |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Chapman |first2=Cassandra M. |last3=Fielding |first3=Kelly S. |last4=Louis |first4=Winnifred R. |last5=Pearson |first5=Samuel |date=August 2022 |title=A political experiment may have extracted Australia from the climate wars |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01431-4 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=695–696 |doi=10.1038/s41558-022-01431-4 |bibcode=2022NatCC..12..695H |s2cid=251043448 |issn=1758-6798 |access-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922112127/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01431-4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The recent history of Australia's climate change wars |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/the-recent-history-of-australias-climate-change-wars/ss9nn2yd6 |first=Nick |last=Baker |date=23 January 2022 |access-date=20 September 2022 |website=SBS News |language=en |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171152/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/the-recent-history-of-australias-climate-change-wars/ss9nn2yd6 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In a February 2009 column in ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[William Saletan]] stated that a holistic mix of left-wing and right-wing ideas would come out of the culture war. He wrote, "morality has to be practical, and that practicality requires morals." He concluded that conservatives should embrace [[family planning]] as a way to reduce abortion and government assistance while liberals should embrace personal responsibility, which means that unprotected sex is criticized "bluntly." He also advocated same sex marriage as a way to lead LGBT Americans to an "ethic of mutual support and sacrifice" involving stricter personal responsibility.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=''[[The New York Times]]''|date=February 21, 2009|accessdate=January 5, 2010|author=[[William Saletan]]|title=This Is the Way the Culture Wars End|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/22/opinion/22saletan.html}}</ref> |
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== |
===African continent=== |
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*[[Christmas controversy]] |
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*[[Red state vs. blue state divide]] |
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*[[History wars]] |
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According to political scientist Constance G. Anthony, American culture war perspectives on human sexuality were exported to Africa as a form of [[neocolonialism]]. In his view, this began during the [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|AIDS epidemic in Africa]], with the United States government first tying HIV/AIDS assistance money to evangelical leadership and the [[Christian right]] during the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]], then to LGBTQ tolerance during the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|administration]] of [[Barack Obama]]. This stoked a culture war that resulted in (among others) the [[Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014|''Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act'']] of 2014.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anthony |first=Constance G. |date=November 2018 |title=Schizophrenic Neocolonialism: Exporting the American Culture War on Sexuality to Africa |journal=International Studies Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=289–304 |doi=10.1093/isp/eky004}}</ref> |
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===Battleground issues in the "culture wars"=== |
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Zambian scholar [[Kapya Kaoma]] notes that because "the demographic center of Christianity is shifting from the [[global North]] to the [[global South]]" Africa's influence on Christianity worldwide is increasing. American conservatives export their culture wars to Africa, Kaoma says, particularly when they realize they may be losing the battle back home. US Christians have framed their anti-LGBT initiatives in Africa as standing in opposition to a "Western [[gay agenda]]", a framing which Kaoma finds ironic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van Klinken|first=Adriaan|date=2017|title=Culture Wars, Race, and Sexuality: A Nascent Pan-African LGBT-Affirming Christian Movement and the Future of Christianity|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217|journal=Journal of Africana Religions|volume=5|issue=2|pages=217–238|doi=10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217|jstor=10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810082713/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217|archive-date=August 10, 2021|access-date=May 4, 2021|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> |
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North American and European conspiracy theories have become widespread in [[West Africa]] via social media, according to 2021 survey by ''[[First Draft News]]''. [[COVID-19 misinformation]], [[New World Order (conspiracy theory)|New World Order]] conspiracy thinking, [[QAnon]] and other conspiracy theories associated with culture war topics are spread by American, Pro-Russian, French-language, and local [[disinformation]] websites and social media accounts, including prominent politicians in [[Nigeria]]. This has contributed to [[vaccine hesitancy]] in West Africa, with 60 percent of survey respondents saying they were unlikely to try to get vaccinated, and an erosion of trust in institutions in the region.<ref>{{cite report |first1=Carlotta |last1=Dotto |first2=Seb |last2=Cubbon |date=June 23, 2021 |title=Disinformation exports: How foreign anti-vaccine narratives reached West African communities online |url=https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/foreign-anti-vaccine-disinformation-reaches-west-africa/ |publisher=First Draft News |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623070135/https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/foreign-anti-vaccine-disinformation-reaches-west-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===United Kingdom=== |
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{{See also|Actions against memorials in Great Britain during the George Floyd protests}} |
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[[File:Statue of Robert Milligan, West India Quay on 9 June 2020 - statue covered and with Black Lives Matter sign 03.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''[[statue of Robert Milligan]]'' on 9 June 2020, the day of its removal]] |
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A 2021 report from [[King's College London]] argued that many people's views on cultural issues in Britain had become tied up with the side of the [[Brexit]] debate with which they identify, while the public party-political identities, although not as strong, show similar alignments and that around half the country held relatively strong views on "culture war" issues such as debates on Britain's colonial history or Black Lives Matter; however, the report concluded Britain's cultural and political divide was not as stark as the Republican–Democratic divide in the US and that a sizeable section of the public can be categorised as having either moderate views or as being disengaged from social debates. It also found that ''[[The Guardian]]'', as opposed to the centre-right newspapers, was more likely to talk about the culture wars.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Duffy |first1=Bobby |last2=Hewlett |first2=Kirstie |last3=Murkin |first3=George |last4=Benson |first4=Rebecca |last5=Hesketh |first5=Rachel |last6=Page |first6=Ben |last7=Skinner |first7=Gideon |last8=Gottfried |first8=Glenn |date=June 2021 |title='Culture wars' in the UK |url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/policy-institute/assets/culture-wars-in-the-uk.pdf |website=The Policy Institute at King's College London |access-date=November 2, 2023 |archive-date=November 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102135835/https://www.kcl.ac.uk/policy-institute/assets/culture-wars-in-the-uk.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] have been described as attempting to ignite culture wars in regard to "conservative values" under the tenure of Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]]. Others argue that it is the left who are engaging in "culture wars", particularly against liberal values, accepted words, and British institutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://inews.co.uk/opinion/tories-culture-war-win-back-popular-support-670637|title=The Tories are spoiling for a culture war to stand up for 'British values'|last=Balls|first=Katy|date=29 September 2020|website=inews.co.uk|accessdate=8 February 2021|archive-date=May 10, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510021634/https://inews.co.uk/opinion/tories-culture-war-win-back-popular-support-670637|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/dec/20/tory-class-agenda-is-culture-war-stunt-that-will-leave-inequality-untouched|title=The Tory 'class agenda' is a culture war stunt that will leave inequality untouched|last=Malik|first=Kenan|date=20 December 2020|work=The Guardian|accessdate=8 February 2021|archive-date=February 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208040554/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/dec/20/tory-class-agenda-is-culture-war-stunt-that-will-leave-inequality-untouched|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Mason|first=Paul|date=10 February 2021|title=Boris Johnson's probe into left-wing "extremism" is a dangerous distraction from the fascist threat|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2021/02/boris-johnson-s-probe-left-wing-extremism-dangerous-distraction-fascist-threat|access-date=2021-02-18|website=New Statesman|language=en|quote=This is, at one level, part of the pre-scripted culture war being orchestrated by those around [Boris] Johnson.|archive-date=February 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122508/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2021/02/boris-johnson-s-probe-left-wing-extremism-dangerous-distraction-fascist-threat|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/trustees-pay-price-for-speaking-out|title=UK culture war: museum trustees are paying the price for disagreeing with government's policies|website=The Art Newspaper|date=June 7, 2021|access-date=June 7, 2021|archive-date=June 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607112437/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/trustees-pay-price-for-speaking-out|url-status=live}}</ref> Observers such as [[Johns Hopkins University]] professor [[Yascha Mounk]] and journalist and author [[Louise Perry]] have argued that the collapse in support for the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] during the [[2019 United Kingdom general election]] came as a result of both a media-induced public perception and a deliberate strategy of Labour of pursuing messages and policy ideas based on cultural issues that resonated with more university educated grassroots activists on the left of the party but alienated Labour's traditional working class voters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/12/how-culture-killed-labour-party/603583/|title=How Labour Lost the Culture War|last=Mounk|first=Yascha|date=December 13, 2019|website=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=December 8, 2021|archive-date=December 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208213313/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/12/how-culture-killed-labour-party/603583/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/comment/2021/06/uk-immersed-class-culture-war-and-labour-incapable-winning-it|title=The UK is immersed in a class-culture war – and Labour is incapable of winning it|last=Perry|first=Louise|date=June 22, 2021|work=New Statesman|access-date=December 8, 2021|archive-date=December 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208213317/https://www.newstatesman.com/comment/2021/06/uk-immersed-class-culture-war-and-labour-incapable-winning-it|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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An April 2022 survey found evidence that Britons are less divided on "culture war" issues than has often been portrayed in the media. The greatest predictor of opinion was how people voted in the UK's referendum on membership of the European Union, [[Brexit]], yet even among those who voted Leave, 75% agreed "it is important to be attentive to issues of race and social justice". Similarly, even among Remainers and those who last voted for the Labour Party, there was moderately strong support for several socially conservative positions.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/may/01/four-in-five-people-in-the-uk-believe-in-being-woke-to-race-and-social-justice |title=Four in five people in the UK believe in being 'woke' to race and social justice |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Michael |last=Savage |date=1 May 2022 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503201928/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/may/01/four-in-five-people-in-the-uk-believe-in-being-woke-to-race-and-social-justice |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name ="InCommon">{{cite web |url=https://ourglobalfuture.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/GF_TheCentreHolds_Report_10.pdf |title=The Centre Holds |work=Global Future |first1=Renie |last1=Anjeh |first2=Isabel |last2=Doraisamy |date=April 2022 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=January 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129165934/https://ourglobalfuture.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/GF_TheCentreHolds_Report_10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Turkey=== |
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{{empty-section|date=December 2024}} |
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===Europe=== |
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{{See also|"Polish death camp" controversy|Language policy in Ukraine|LGBT ideology-free zone}} |
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Several politicians, such as Poland's [[Law and Justice]] party,<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Rohac |first1=Dalibor |last2=Kokonos |first2=Lance |date=November 2, 2020 |title=Poland's Culture Wars |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/02/poland-hungary-culture-wars-abortion-russia/ |magazine=Foreign Policy |access-date=November 4, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154316/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/02/poland-hungary-culture-wars-abortion-russia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hungary's [[Viktor Orbán]], Serbia's [[Aleksandar Vučić]], and Slovenia's [[Janez Janša]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Kakissis |first=Joanna |title=Slovenian Prime Minister Cheers Trump 'Triumph' Despite Untallied Votes |url=https://apps.npr.org/liveblogs/20201103-election/#slovenian-prime-minister-cheers-trump-328 |work=NPR |location=Athens, Greece |date=November 4, 2020 |access-date=November 4, 2020 |archive-date=November 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104000755/https://apps.npr.org/liveblogs/20201103-election/#slovenian-prime-minister-cheers-trump-328 |url-status=live }}</ref> have been accused of fomenting culture wars in their respective countries by encouraging dissent, resistance to LGBT rights, and restrictions on abortion. One facet of the controversy in Poland is the removal of [[Soviet War Memorials]], which is divisive because some Poles viewed the memorials positively as commemorations of their ancestors who died during [[World War II]], while others felt negatively due to the oppression that some Poles experienced under the Soviet-backed [[Polish People's Republic]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Poland plans to tear down hundreds of Soviet memorials |url=https://www.dw.com/en/poland-plans-to-tear-down-hundreds-of-soviet-memorials/a-19185159 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=13 April 2016 |access-date=October 31, 2021 |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326170823/https://www.dw.com/en/poland-plans-to-tear-down-hundreds-of-soviet-memorials/a-19185159 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Then And Now: Soviet Monuments Disappear Across Poland |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/then-and-now-photos-show-soviet-monuments-disappearing-in-poland-after-decommunization-law/30905305.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=23 October 2020 |access-date=October 31, 2021 |archive-date=March 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330064935/https://www.rferl.org/a/then-and-now-photos-show-soviet-monuments-disappearing-in-poland-after-decommunization-law/30905305.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Culture war in Hungary is alleged by [[Kim Scheppele]] to be a disguise for [[democratic backsliding]] by Orbán.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Here's why American conservatives are heading to Hungary for a big conference |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/18/1099680587/a-prominent-conference-of-american-conservatives-is-taking-place-in-hungary |access-date=2022-05-19 |archive-date=May 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519173042/https://www.npr.org/2022/05/18/1099680587/a-prominent-conference-of-american-conservatives-is-taking-place-in-hungary |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukraine also experienced a decades-long culture war pitting the eastern, predominately Russian-speaking, regions against the western Ukrainian-speaking areas of the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukraine's Culture War |url=https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/ukraines-culture-war-9838 |work=The National Interest |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=October 31, 2021 |archive-date=October 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022235721/https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/ukraines-culture-war-9838 |url-status=live }}</ref> LGBT rights are controversial in Poland, as exemplified by President [[Andrzej Duda]]'s vow in 2020 to oppose both [[same-sex marriage]] and [[LGBT adoption]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Polish President Calls 'LGBT Ideology' More Harmful Than Communism|url=https://time.com/5853277/andrzej-duda-lgbt-ideology-communism/|access-date=2020-06-14|magazine=Time|language=en|archive-date=June 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613203428/https://time.com/5853277/andrzej-duda-lgbt-ideology-communism/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Polish election: Andrzej Duda says LGBT 'ideology' worse than communism |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53039864 |publisher=BBC News |date=14 June 2020 |access-date=October 31, 2021 |archive-date=October 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031095804/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53039864 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Different interpretations of bitter events during [[World War II]] have become especially contentious in Poland since 2015, shortly after the start of the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]].<ref name=carnegie>{{Cite web | url=https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/75029 | title=The Polish-Ukrainian Battle for the Past}}, Carnegie Europe</ref> One disputed issue is whether Poland bears any [[responsibility for the Holocaust|responsibility]] for [[The Holocaust in Poland|the Holocaust]], or whether Poland was entirely a victim of [[Nazi Germany]]. This dispute is embodied by the "[["Polish death camp" controversy|Polish death camp]]" controversy (involving [[concentration camp]]s that had been built by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]] on German-occupied Polish soil) and an attempt to address that controversy with a now [[Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance|partly repealed law]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hackmann |first1=Jörg |title=Defending the "Good Name" of the Polish Nation: Politics of History as a Battlefield in Poland, 2015–18 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2018 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=587–606 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2018.1528742|s2cid=81922100 }}</ref> A second issue, also addressed by the partly repealed law, revolves around [[Poland–Ukraine relations]]. In the region, in passing a law to criminalize negative interpretations of the country's collaborationist nationalist movements during World War II, Poland is not alone,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Katz |first1=Dovid |title=Poland's New Holocaust Law Is Bad, But Not the Worst |url=https://jewishcurrents.org/poland-s-new-holocaust-is-bad-but-not-the-worst/ |access-date=26 October 2020 |work=Jewish Currents |date=25 April 2018}}</ref> and [[Poland–Ukraine relations]] have suffered as a result of a [[Ukrainian decommunization laws|similar law]] in Ukraine that was criticized in Poland for deflecting blame away from the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] and their [[massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tvp.info/19594670/mowie-upa-odpowiada-za-ludobojstwo-polakow-ukraincy-scigajcie-mnie|title="Mówię: UPA odpowiada za ludobójstwo Polaków. Ukraińcy, ścigajcie mnie!"|access-date=2018-03-06|language=pl}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Class conflict]] |
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* [[Ethnic conflict]] |
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{{col-begin}} |
{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-3}} |
{{col-3}} |
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===Drugs=== |
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;"Life" issues |
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*[[Drug decriminalization]] |
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*[[Abortion]] / [[Reproductive rights]] |
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*[[Harm reduction]] |
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*[[Right to die|Right to die movement]] and [[euthanasia]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Legal drinking age]] |
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*[[War on Drugs]] |
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;Sexuality |
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*[[Age of consent]] |
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*[[Homosexuality]], [[LGBT social movements|Gay rights]], and [[Gay marriage]] |
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*[[Pornography]] |
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*[[Prostitution]] |
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*[[Sexual revolution]] |
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===Education and parenting=== |
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*[[Corporal punishment]] and [[child discipline]], most notably [[spanking]] |
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*[[Creation-evolution controversy]] |
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*[[Creation–evolution controversy]] |
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*[[Family values]] |
*[[Family values]] |
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*[[Homeschooling]] and [[ |
*[[Homeschooling]] and [[educational choice]] |
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*[[Corporal punishment]] and [[Child discipline]], most notably [[spanking]] |
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*[[Sexual education]] and [[Sexual abstinence|abstinence only education]] |
*[[Sexual education]] and [[Sexual abstinence|abstinence only education]] |
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===Environment and energy=== |
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*[[Global warming controversy]]<ref name="Hoffman2012">[http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/climate_science_as_culture_war ''Climate Science as Culture War: The public debate around climate change is no longer about science—it's about values, culture, and ideology''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121111859/https://ssir.org/books/reviews/entry/climate_science_as_culture_war |date=November 21, 2020 }} Fall 2012 [[Stanford Social Innovation Review]]</ref> |
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{{col-3}} |
{{col-3}} |
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===Gender and sexuality=== |
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;Drugs |
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*[[Age disparity in sexual relationships]] |
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*[[Legal drinking age]] |
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*[[Age of consent]] |
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*[[Recreational drug use]] and [[Drug decriminalization]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Anti-gender movement]] |
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*[[Circumcision controversies]] |
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;Society and culture |
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*[[Animal Rights]] |
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*[[Feminism]] |
*[[Feminism]] |
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*[[LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory]] |
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*[[Gun politics]] |
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*[[LGBT social movements|LGBT rights]] and [[same-sex marriage]] |
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*[[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]], [[affirmative action]] |
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*[[Polyamory]] |
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*[[Media bias in the United States|Media bias in the U.S.]] |
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*[[Sex work]] |
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*[[Moral absolutism]] vs. [[Moral relativism]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Sexual revolution]] |
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*[[Toplessness]] and [[Nudity]] |
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*[[Permissive society]] |
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*[[Political correctness]] |
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*[[Secularism]] and [[Secularization]] |
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{{col-3}} |
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===Law and government=== |
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*[[ |
*[[Crypto wars]] |
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*[[Disfranchisement]] |
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*[[Gerrymandering]] |
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*[[Gun politics in the United States|Gun rights]] |
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*[[Immigration reform]] |
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*[[Law and order (politics)|Law and order]] |
*[[Law and order (politics)|Law and order]] |
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*[[Red state vs. blue state divide]] |
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*[[Separation of church and state in the United States|Separation of church and state]] |
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===Life issues=== |
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*[[Anti-war movement]] |
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*[[Capital punishment]] |
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*[[Reproductive rights]] including [[birth control]] and [[in vitro fertilization]] (and their coverage by insurance) |
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*[[Right to die|Right to die movement]] and [[euthanasia]] |
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*[[Stem-cell research]] |
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*[[Universal healthcare]] |
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{{col-3}} |
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===Society and culture=== |
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*[[Cancel culture]] |
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*[[Counterculture]] |
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*[[Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory]] |
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*[[Cultural Revolution]] |
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*{{annotated link|Expurgation}} |
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*[[Geographical renaming]] |
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*[[Australian history wars|History wars]] |
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*''[[Kulturkampf]]'' |
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*[[Media bias in the United States|Media bias in the U.S.]] |
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*[[Moral absolutism]] vs. [[moral relativism]] |
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*[[Multiculturalism]] |
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*[[Negationism]] |
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*[[Owning the libs]] |
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*[[Permissive society]] |
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*[[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]], [[affirmative action]] |
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*[[Secularism]] and [[secularization]] |
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*[[Social justice warrior]] |
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*[[Squatting]] |
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*[[Theory wars]] |
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*[[Woke]] |
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{{Col-end}} |
{{Col-end}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* Chapman, Roger, and James Ciment. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XO9nBwAAQBAJ Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices]'' (2nd ed. Routledge, 2015) |
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* Buchanan, Patrick J., ''The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization'', New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2002 ISBN 0-312-30259-2 |
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* D'Antonio, William V., Steven A. Tuch and Josiah R. Baker, ''Religion, Politics, and Polarization: How Religiopolitical Conflict Is Changing Congress and American Democracy'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2013) {{ISBN|1442223979}} {{ISBN|978-1442223974}} |
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* [[Morris P. Fiorina|Fiorina, Morris P.]], with [[Samuel J. Abrams]] and Jeremy C. Pope, ''Culture War?: The Myth of a Polarized America'', London: Longman, 2004 ISBN 0-321-27640-X |
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* [[Morris P. Fiorina|Fiorina, Morris P.]], with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope, ''Culture War?: The Myth of a Polarized America'' (Longman, 2004) {{ISBN|0-321-27640-X}} |
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* Gerald Graff. ''Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalize American Education'' (1992) |
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* Graff, Gerald. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GzYG0HytHoAC Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalize American Education]'' (1992) |
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* Hunter, James Davison, ''Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America'', New York: Basic Books, 1992 ISBN 0-465-01534-4 |
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* {{cite book |title=Moral Combat: How Sex Divided American Christians and Fractured American Politics |year=2017 |first=R. Marie |last=Griffith |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465094752}} |
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* Jay, Gregory S., ''American Literature and the Culture Wars'', Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8014-3393-2 ISBN 978-0801433931 |
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* Hartman, Andrew. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fW__BgAAQBAJ A war for the soul of America: a history of the culture wars]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2015) |
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* Jensen, Richard. "The Culture Wars, 1965-1995: A Historian's Map" ''Journal of Social History'' 29 (Oct 1995) 17-37. |
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* |
* Hunter, James Davison, ''Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America'' (New York: Basic Books, 1992) {{ISBN|0-465-01534-4}} |
||
* Jay, Gregory S., ''American Literature and the Culture Wars'', (Cornell University Press, 1997) {{ISBN|0-8014-3393-2}} {{ISBN|978-0801433931}} |
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* Jensen, Richard. "The Culture Wars, 1965-1995: A Historian's Map" ''Journal of Social History'' 29 (Oct 1995) 17–37. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789064 in JSTOR] |
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* Jones, E. Michael, ''Degenerate Moderns: Modernity As Rationalized Sexual Misbehavior'', Ft. Collins, CO: Ignatius Press, 1993 {{ISBN|0-89870-447-2}} |
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* Petro, Anthony, ''After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion'' (Oxford University Press, 2015) |
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* {{cite book |title=Why Liberals Win the Culture Wars (Even When They Lose Elections): A History of the Religious Battles That Define America from Jefferson's Heresies to Gay Marriage Today |first=Stephen |last=Prothero |year=2017 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0061571312 }} |
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* Strauss, William & Howe, Neil, ''The Fourth Turning, An American Prophecy: What the Cycles of History Tell Us About America's Next Rendezvous With Destiny'', 1998, Broadway Books, New York |
* Strauss, William & Howe, Neil, ''The Fourth Turning, An American Prophecy: What the Cycles of History Tell Us About America's Next Rendezvous With Destiny'', 1998, Broadway Books, New York |
||
* Thomson, Irene Tavis., [http://www.press.umich.edu/ |
* Thomson, Irene Tavis., [https://web.archive.org/web/20130614004916/http://www.press.umich.edu/1571954 ''Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas''], (University of Michigan Press, 2010) {{ISBN|978-0-472-07088-6}} |
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* Walsh, Andrew D., ''Religion, Economics, and Public Policy: Ironies, Tragedies, and Absurdities of the Contemporary Culture Wars'', |
* Walsh, Andrew D., ''Religion, Economics, and Public Policy: Ironies, Tragedies, and Absurdities of the Contemporary Culture Wars'', (Praeger, 2000) {{ISBN|0-275-96611-9}} |
||
* Webb, Adam K., ''Beyond the Global Culture War'', Routledge, |
* Webb, Adam K., ''Beyond the Global Culture War'', (Routledge, 2006) {{ISBN|0-415-95313-8}} |
||
* Zimmerman, Jonathan, ''Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools'' |
* Zimmerman, Jonathan, ''Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools'' (Harvard University Press, 2002) {{ISBN|0-674-01860-5}} |
||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
{{Wiktionary}} |
* {{Wiktionary-inline}} |
||
===United States=== |
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*Pat Buchanan, [http://buchanan.org/blog/1992-republican-national-convention-speech-148 1992 Republican National Convention keynote], speech dated August 17, 1992. |
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*Pat Buchanan, [http://www.buchanan.org/pa-92-0914.html The Cultural War for the Soul of America], speech dated September 14, 1992. |
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*Pat Buchanan, [http://www.theamericancause.org/patculturewars.htm The Aggressors in the Culture Wars], column dated March 8, 2004. |
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*Focus on the Family, [http://www.citizenlink.org/FOSI/abstinence/A000002139.CFM A Look at the Sexual Revolution in the United States] |
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===Australia=== |
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*[http://australianpolitics.com/news/2006/01/06-01-25_howard.shtml The Hon John Howard MP, Prime Minister of Australia, Speech: ''A sense of balance: The Australian Achievement in 2006''], Address to the National Press Club, 25 January 2006 |
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{{American Social Conservatism}} |
{{American Social Conservatism}} |
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{{Culture}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Culture War}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Culture War}} |
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[[Category:American political terms]] |
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[[Category:American culture]] |
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[[Category:Christian fundamentalism]] |
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[[Category:Cultural politics]] |
[[Category:Cultural politics]] |
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[[Category:Culture of the United States]] |
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[[Category:Political terminology of the United States]] |
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[[is:Menningarstríðin (Bandaríkin)]] |
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[[sr:Културни рат]] |
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[[fi:Kulttuurisota]] |
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[[vi:Chiến tranh văn hóa]] |
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[[zh:文化战争]] |
Latest revision as of 21:11, 5 January 2025
A culture war is a form of cultural conflict (metaphorical "war") between different social groups who struggle to politically impose their own ideology (moral beliefs, humane virtues, and religious practices) upon mainstream society,[1][2] or upon the other. In political usage, culture war is a metaphor for "hot-button" politics about values and ideologies, realized with intentionally adversarial social narratives meant to provoke political polarization among the mainstream of society over economic matters,[3][4] such as those of public policy,[5] as well as of consumption.[1] As practical politics, a culture war is about social policy wedge issues that are based on abstract arguments about values, morality, and lifestyle meant to provoke political cleavage in a multicultural society.[2]
Etymology
[edit]Kulturkampf
[edit]In the history of Germany, the Kulturkampf (Cultural Struggle) was the seven-year political conflict (1871–1878) between the Catholic Church in Germany led by Pope Pius IX and the Kingdom of Prussia led by chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Prussian church-and-state political conflict was about the church's direct control over both education and ecclesiastical appointments in the Prussian kingdom as a Roman Catholic nation and country. Moreover, when compared to other church-and-state conflicts about political culture, the Kulturkampf of Prussia also featured anti-Polish sentiment.
In modern political usage, the German term Kulturkampf describes any conflict (political, ideological, or social) between the secular government and the religious authorities of a society. The term also describes the great and small culture wars among political factions who hold deeply opposing values and beliefs within a nation, a community, and a cultural group.[6][better source needed]In the English language, the term culture war is a calque of the German word Kulturkampf (culture struggle), which refers to an historical event in Germany. The term appears as the title of an 1875 British book review of a German pamphlet.[7]
Research
[edit]Criticism and evaluation
[edit]Since the time that James Davison Hunter first applied the concept of culture wars to American life, the idea has been subject to questions about whether "culture wars" names a real phenomenon, and if so, whether the phenomenon it describes is a cause of, or merely a result of, membership in groups like political parties and religions. Culture wars have also been subject to the criticism of being artificial, imposed, or asymmetric conflicts, rather than a result of authentic differences between cultures. Researchers have differed about the scientific validity of the notion of culture war. Some claim it does not describe real behavior, or that it describes only the behavior of a small political elite. Others claim culture war is real and widespread, and even that it is fundamental to explaining Americans' political behavior and beliefs. A 2023 study on the circulation of conspiracy theories on social media noted that disinformation actors insert polarizing claims in culture wars by taking one side or the other, thus making the adherents circulate and parrot disinformation as a rhetorical ammunition against their perceived opponents.[1]
Political scientist Alan Wolfe participated in a series of scholarly debates in the 1990s and 2000s against Hunter, claiming that Hunter's concept of culture wars did not accurately describe the opinions or behavior of Americans, which Wolfe claimed were more united than polarized.[8] A meta-analysis of opinion data from 1992 to 2012 published in the American Political Science Review concluded that, in contrast to a common belief that political party and religious membership shape opinion on culture war topics, instead opinions on culture war topics lead people to revise their political party and religious orientations. The researchers view culture war attitudes as "foundational elements in the political and religious belief systems of ordinary citizens."[9]
Artificiality or asymmetry
[edit]Some writers and scholars have said that culture wars are created or perpetuated by political special interest groups, by reactionary social movements, by party dynamics, or by electoral politics as a whole. These authors view culture war not as an unavoidable result of widespread cultural differences, but as a technique used to create in-groups and out-groups for a political purpose. Political commentator E. J. Dionne has written that culture war is an electoral technique to exploit differences and grievances, remarking that the real cultural division is "between those who want to have a culture war and those who don't."[10]
Sociologist Scott Melzer says that culture wars are created by conservative, reactive organizations and movements. Members of these movements possess a "sense of victimization at the hands of a liberal culture run amok. In their eyes, immigrants, gays, women, the poor, and other groups are (undeservedly) granted special rights and privileges." Melzer writes about the example of the National Rifle Association of America, which he says intentionally created a culture war in order to unite conservative groups, particularly groups of white men, against a common perceived threat.[11] Similarly, religion scholar Susan B. Ridgely has written that culture wars were made possible by Focus on the Family. This organization produced conservative Christian "alternative news" that began to bifurcate American media consumption, promoting a particular "traditional family" archetype to one part of the population, particularly conservative religious women. Ridgely says that this tradition was depicted as under liberal attack, seeming to necessitate a culture war to defend the tradition.[12]
Political scientists Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins have written about an asymmetry between the US's two major political parties, saying the Republican party should be understood as an ideological movement built to wage political conflict, and the Democratic party as a coalition of social groups with less ability to impose ideological discipline on members.[13] This encourages Republicans to perpetuate and to draw new issues into culture wars, because Republicans are well equipped to fight such wars.[14] According to The Guardian, "many on the left have argued that such [culture war] battles [a]re 'distractions' from the real fight over class and economic issues."[15]
Culture wars by country
[edit]United States
[edit]1920s–1991: Origins
[edit]This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2021) |
In American usage, culture war may imply a conflict between those values considered traditionalist or conservative and those considered progressive or liberal. This usage originated in the 1920s when urban and rural American values came into closer conflict.[16] This followed several decades of immigration to the States by people who earlier European immigrants considered 'alien'. It was also a result of the cultural shifts and modernizing trends of the Roaring Twenties, culminating in the presidential campaign of Al Smith in 1928.[17] In subsequent decades during the 20th century, the term was published occasionally in American newspapers.[18][19] Historian Matthew Dallek argues the John Birch Society (JBS) was an early promoter of culture war ideas.[20] Scholar Celestini Carmen traces the JBS's apocalyptic culture war rhetoric through the connections of Christian right leaders such as Tim LaHaye and Phyllis Schlafly to the JBS and their founding of the Moral Majority.[21]
1991–2001: Rise in prominence
[edit]James Davison Hunter, a sociologist at the University of Virginia, introduced the expression again in his 1991 publication, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America. Hunter described what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed American politics and culture. He argued that on an increasing number of "hot-button" defining issues—abortion, gun politics, separation of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, censorship—there existed two definable polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily not by nominal religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation, but rather by ideological world-views. Hunter characterized this polarity as stemming from opposite impulses, toward what he referred to as Progressivism and as Orthodoxy. Others have adopted the dichotomy with varying labels. For example, Bill O'Reilly, a conservative political commentator and former host of the Fox News Channel talk show The O'Reilly Factor, emphasizes differences between "Secular-Progressives" and "Traditionalists" in his 2006 book Culture Warrior.[22][23]
Historian Kristin Kobes Du Mez attributes the 1990s emergence of culture wars to the end of the Cold War in 1991. She writes that Evangelical Christians viewed a particular Christian masculine gender role as the only defense of America against the threat of communism. When this threat ended upon the close of the Cold War, Evangelical leaders transferred the perceived source of threat from foreign communism to domestic changes in gender roles and sexuality.[24]
During the 1992 presidential election, commentator Pat Buchanan mounted a campaign for the Republican nomination for president against incumbent George H. W. Bush. In a prime-time slot at the 1992 Republican National Convention, Buchanan gave his speech on the culture war.[25] He argued: "There is a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America. It is a cultural war, as critical to the kind of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself."[26] In addition to criticizing environmentalists and feminism, he portrayed public morality as a defining issue:
The agenda [Bill] Clinton and [Hillary] Clinton would impose on America—abortion on demand, a litmus test for the Supreme Court, homosexual rights, discrimination against religious schools, women in combat units—that's change, all right. But it is not the kind of change America wants. It is not the kind of change America needs. And it is not the kind of change we can abide in a nation that we still call God's country.[26]
A month later, Buchanan characterized the conflict as about power over society's definition of right and wrong. He named abortion, sexual orientation and popular culture as major fronts—and mentioned other controversies, including clashes over the Confederate flag, Christmas, and taxpayer-funded art. He also said that the negative attention his "culture war" speech received was itself evidence of America's polarization.[27]
The culture war had significant impact on national politics in the 1990s.[4] The rhetoric of the Christian Coalition of America may have weakened president George H. W. Bush's chances for re-election in 1992 and helped his successor, Bill Clinton, win reelection in 1996.[28] On the other hand, the rhetoric of conservative cultural warriors helped Republicans gain control of Congress in 1994.[29] The culture wars influenced the debate over state-school history curricula in the United States in the 1990s. In particular, debates over the development of national educational standards in 1994 revolved around whether the study of American history should be a "celebratory" or "critical" undertaking and involved such prominent public figures as Lynne Cheney, Rush Limbaugh, and historian Gary Nash.[30][31]
2001–2012: Post-9/11 era
[edit]A political view called neoconservatism shifted the terms of the debate in the early 2000s. Neoconservatives differed from their opponents in that they interpreted problems facing the nation as moral issues rather than economic or political ones. For example, neoconservatives saw the decline of the traditional family structure as well as the decline of religion in American society as spiritual crises that required a spiritual response. Critics accused neoconservatives of confusing cause and effect.[32]
During the 2000s, voting for Republicans began to correlate heavily with traditionalist or orthodox religious belief across diverse religious sects. Voting for Democrats became more correlated with liberal or modernist religious belief, and with being nonreligious.[10] Belief in scientific conclusions, such as climate change, also became tightly coupled with political party affiliation in this era, causing climate scholar Andrew Hoffman to observe that climate change had "become enmeshed in the so-called culture wars."[33]
Topics traditionally associated with culture war were not prominent in media coverage of the 2008 election season, with the exception of coverage of vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin,[34] who drew attention to her conservative religion and created a performative climate change denialism brand for herself.[35] Palin's defeat in the election and subsequent resignation as governor of Alaska caused the Center for American Progress to predict "the coming end of the culture wars," which they attributed to demographic change, particularly high rates of acceptance of same-sex marriage among millennials.[36]
2012–present: Broadening of the culture war
[edit]In the early 2010s, tensions between supporters and opponents of issues such as LGBT rights, modern feminism, Black Lives Matter, and other progressive movements intensified, foreshadowing the political conflicts that would dominate the political media discussions in the 2020s. American conservatives took issue with the perceived worldwide dominance of leftism in international politics and corporate activity, anti-nationalism, and secular human rights policies and activism not based on Abrahamic religious worldviews.[37]
While traditional culture war issues, like abortion, continue to be a focal point,[38] the issues identified with the culture war broadened and intensified in the mid-late 2010s. Jonathan Haidt, author of The Coddling of the American Mind, identified a rise in cancel culture via social media among young progressives since 2012, which he believes had "transformative effects on university life and later on politics and culture throughout the English-speaking world," in what Haidt[39] and other commentators[40][41] have called the "Great Awokening". Journalist Michael Grunwald says that "President Donald Trump has pioneered a new politics of perpetual culture war" and lists Black Lives Matter, U.S. national anthem protests, climate change, education policy, healthcare policy including Obamacare, and infrastructure policy as culture war issues in 2018.[42] The rights of transgender people and the role of religion in lawmaking were identified as "new fronts in the culture war" by political scientist Jeremiah Castle, as the polarization of public opinion on these two topics resembles that of previous culture war issues.[43] In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, North Dakota governor Doug Burgum described opposition to wearing face masks as a "senseless" culture war issue that jeopardizes human safety.[44]
This broader understanding of culture war issues in the mid-late 2010s and 2020s is associated with a political strategy called "owning the libs." Conservative media figures employing this strategy emphasize and expand upon culture war issues with the goal of upsetting liberals. According to Nicole Hemmer of Columbia University, this strategy is a substitute for the cohesive conservative ideology that existed during the Cold War. It holds a conservative voting bloc together in the absence of shared policy preferences among the bloc's members.[45]
A number of conflicts about diversity in popular culture occurring in the 2010s, such as the Gamergate controversy, Comicsgate and the Sad Puppies science fiction voting campaign, were identified in the media as being examples of the culture war.[47] Journalist Caitlin Dewey described Gamergate as a "proxy war" for a larger culture war between those who want greater inclusion of women and minorities in cultural institutions versus anti-feminists and traditionalists who do not.[48] The perception that culture war conflict had been demoted from electoral politics to popular culture led writer Jack Meserve to call popular movies, games, and writing the "last front in the culture war" in 2015.[49]
These conflicts about representation in popular culture re-emerged into electoral politics via the alt-right and alt-lite movements.[50] According to media scholar Whitney Phillips, Gamergate "prototyped" strategies of harassment and controversy-stoking that proved useful in political strategy. For example, Republican political strategist Steve Bannon publicized pop-culture conflicts during the 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump, encouraging a young audience to "come in through Gamergate or whatever and then get turned onto politics and Trump."[51]
Canada
[edit]Some observers in Canada have used the term "culture war" to refer to differing values between Western versus Eastern Canada, urban versus rural Canada, as well as conservatism versus liberalism and progressivism.[52] The phrase has also been used to describe the Harper government's attitude towards the arts community. Andrew Coyne termed this negative policy towards the arts community as "class warfare."[53]
Australia
[edit]During the tenure of the Liberal–National Coalition government of 1996 to 2007, interpretations of Aboriginal history became a part of a wider political debate regarding Australian national pride and symbolism occasionally called the "culture wars", more often the "history wars".[54] This debate extended into a controversy over the presentation of history in the National Museum of Australia and in high-school history curricula.[55][56] It also migrated into the general Australian media, with major broadsheets such as The Australian, The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age regularly publishing opinion pieces on the topic. Marcia Langton has referred to much of this wider debate as "war porn"[57] and as an "intellectual dead end".[58]
Two Australian Prime Ministers, Paul Keating (in office 1991–1996) and John Howard (in office 1996–2007), became major participants in the "wars". According to Mark McKenna's analysis for the Australian Parliamentary Library,[59] John Howard believed that Paul Keating portrayed Australia pre-Whitlam (Prime Minister from 1972 to 1975) in an unduly negative light; while Keating sought to distance the modern Labor movement from its historical support for the monarchy and for the White Australia policy by arguing that it was the conservative Australian parties which had been barriers to national progress. He accused Britain of having abandoned Australia during the Second World War. Keating staunchly supported a symbolic apology to Australian Aboriginals for their mistreatment at the hands of previous administrations, and outlined his view of the origins and potential solutions to contemporary Aboriginal disadvantage in his Redfern Park Speech of 10 December 1992 (drafted with the assistance of historian Don Watson). In 1999, following the release of the 1998 Bringing Them Home Report, Howard passed a Parliamentary Motion of Reconciliation describing treatment of Aborigines as the "most blemished chapter" in Australian history, but he refused to issue an official apology.[60] Howard saw an apology as inappropriate as it would imply "intergeneration guilt"; he said that "practical" measures were a better response to contemporary Aboriginal disadvantage. Keating has argued for the eradication of remaining symbols linked to colonial origins: including deference for ANZAC Day,[61] for the Australian flag and for the monarchy in Australia, while Howard supported these institutions. Unlike fellow Labor leaders and contemporaries, Bob Hawke (Prime Minister 1983–1991) and Kim Beazley (Labor Party leader 2005–2006), Keating never traveled to Gallipoli for ANZAC Day ceremonies. In 2008 he described those who gathered there as "misguided".[62]
In 2006 John Howard said in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of Quadrant that "Political Correctness" was dead in Australia but: "we should not underestimate the degree to which the soft-left still holds sway, even dominance, especially in Australia's universities".[citation needed] Also in 2006, Sydney Morning Herald political editor Peter Hartcher reported that Opposition foreign-affairs spokesman Kevin Rudd was entering the philosophical debate by arguing in response that "John Howard, is guilty of perpetrating 'a fraud' in his so-called culture wars ... designed not to make real change but to mask the damage inflicted by the Government's economic policies".[63]
The defeat of the Howard government in the Australian Federal election of 2007 and its replacement by the Rudd Labor government altered the dynamic of the debate. Rudd made an official apology to the Aboriginal Stolen Generation[64] with bi-partisan support.[65] Like Keating, Rudd supported an Australian republic, but in contrast to Keating, Rudd declared support for the Australian flag and supported the commemoration of ANZAC Day; he also expressed admiration for Liberal Party founder Robert Menzies.[66][67] Subsequent to the 2007 change of government, and prior to the passage, with support from all parties, of the Parliamentary apology to indigenous Australians, Professor of Australian Studies Richard Nile argued: "the culture and history wars are over and with them should also go the adversarial nature of intellectual debate",[68] a view contested by others, including conservative commentator Janet Albrechtsen.[69] Climate change in Australia is also considered a highly divisive or politically controversial topic, to the point it is sometimes called a "culture war".[70][71]
African continent
[edit]According to political scientist Constance G. Anthony, American culture war perspectives on human sexuality were exported to Africa as a form of neocolonialism. In his view, this began during the AIDS epidemic in Africa, with the United States government first tying HIV/AIDS assistance money to evangelical leadership and the Christian right during the Bush administration, then to LGBTQ tolerance during the administration of Barack Obama. This stoked a culture war that resulted in (among others) the Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act of 2014.[72]
Zambian scholar Kapya Kaoma notes that because "the demographic center of Christianity is shifting from the global North to the global South" Africa's influence on Christianity worldwide is increasing. American conservatives export their culture wars to Africa, Kaoma says, particularly when they realize they may be losing the battle back home. US Christians have framed their anti-LGBT initiatives in Africa as standing in opposition to a "Western gay agenda", a framing which Kaoma finds ironic.[73]
North American and European conspiracy theories have become widespread in West Africa via social media, according to 2021 survey by First Draft News. COVID-19 misinformation, New World Order conspiracy thinking, QAnon and other conspiracy theories associated with culture war topics are spread by American, Pro-Russian, French-language, and local disinformation websites and social media accounts, including prominent politicians in Nigeria. This has contributed to vaccine hesitancy in West Africa, with 60 percent of survey respondents saying they were unlikely to try to get vaccinated, and an erosion of trust in institutions in the region.[74]
United Kingdom
[edit]A 2021 report from King's College London argued that many people's views on cultural issues in Britain had become tied up with the side of the Brexit debate with which they identify, while the public party-political identities, although not as strong, show similar alignments and that around half the country held relatively strong views on "culture war" issues such as debates on Britain's colonial history or Black Lives Matter; however, the report concluded Britain's cultural and political divide was not as stark as the Republican–Democratic divide in the US and that a sizeable section of the public can be categorised as having either moderate views or as being disengaged from social debates. It also found that The Guardian, as opposed to the centre-right newspapers, was more likely to talk about the culture wars.[75]
The Conservative Party have been described as attempting to ignite culture wars in regard to "conservative values" under the tenure of Prime Minister Boris Johnson. Others argue that it is the left who are engaging in "culture wars", particularly against liberal values, accepted words, and British institutions.[76][77][78][79] Observers such as Johns Hopkins University professor Yascha Mounk and journalist and author Louise Perry have argued that the collapse in support for the Labour Party during the 2019 United Kingdom general election came as a result of both a media-induced public perception and a deliberate strategy of Labour of pursuing messages and policy ideas based on cultural issues that resonated with more university educated grassroots activists on the left of the party but alienated Labour's traditional working class voters.[80][81]
An April 2022 survey found evidence that Britons are less divided on "culture war" issues than has often been portrayed in the media. The greatest predictor of opinion was how people voted in the UK's referendum on membership of the European Union, Brexit, yet even among those who voted Leave, 75% agreed "it is important to be attentive to issues of race and social justice". Similarly, even among Remainers and those who last voted for the Labour Party, there was moderately strong support for several socially conservative positions.[82][83]
Turkey
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Europe
[edit]Several politicians, such as Poland's Law and Justice party,[84] Hungary's Viktor Orbán, Serbia's Aleksandar Vučić, and Slovenia's Janez Janša,[85] have been accused of fomenting culture wars in their respective countries by encouraging dissent, resistance to LGBT rights, and restrictions on abortion. One facet of the controversy in Poland is the removal of Soviet War Memorials, which is divisive because some Poles viewed the memorials positively as commemorations of their ancestors who died during World War II, while others felt negatively due to the oppression that some Poles experienced under the Soviet-backed Polish People's Republic.[86][87] Culture war in Hungary is alleged by Kim Scheppele to be a disguise for democratic backsliding by Orbán.[88] Ukraine also experienced a decades-long culture war pitting the eastern, predominately Russian-speaking, regions against the western Ukrainian-speaking areas of the country.[89] LGBT rights are controversial in Poland, as exemplified by President Andrzej Duda's vow in 2020 to oppose both same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption.[90][91]
Different interpretations of bitter events during World War II have become especially contentious in Poland since 2015, shortly after the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War.[92] One disputed issue is whether Poland bears any responsibility for the Holocaust, or whether Poland was entirely a victim of Nazi Germany. This dispute is embodied by the "Polish death camp" controversy (involving concentration camps that had been built by Nazi Germany during World War II on German-occupied Polish soil) and an attempt to address that controversy with a now partly repealed law.[93] A second issue, also addressed by the partly repealed law, revolves around Poland–Ukraine relations. In the region, in passing a law to criminalize negative interpretations of the country's collaborationist nationalist movements during World War II, Poland is not alone,[94] and Poland–Ukraine relations have suffered as a result of a similar law in Ukraine that was criticized in Poland for deflecting blame away from the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and their massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia.[95]
See also
[edit]References
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- ^ a b Koleva, Spassena P.; Graham, Jesse; Iyer, Ravi; Ditto, Peter H.; Haidt, Jonathan (April 1, 2012). "Tracing the threads: How five moral concerns (especially Purity) help explain culture war attitudes". Journal of Research in Personality. 46 (2): 184–194. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.006. ISSN 0092-6566. S2CID 6786293.
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Not since Pat Buchanan's famous 'culture war' speech in 1992 has a major speaker at a national political convention spoken so hatefully, at such length, about the opposition.
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- ^ Grunwald, Michael (November 2018). "How Everything Became the Culture War". Politico. Archived from the original on May 24, 2020. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
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Further reading
[edit]- Chapman, Roger, and James Ciment. Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices (2nd ed. Routledge, 2015)
- D'Antonio, William V., Steven A. Tuch and Josiah R. Baker, Religion, Politics, and Polarization: How Religiopolitical Conflict Is Changing Congress and American Democracy (Rowman & Littlefield, 2013) ISBN 1442223979 ISBN 978-1442223974
- Fiorina, Morris P., with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope, Culture War?: The Myth of a Polarized America (Longman, 2004) ISBN 0-321-27640-X
- Graff, Gerald. Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalize American Education (1992)
- Griffith, R. Marie (2017). Moral Combat: How Sex Divided American Christians and Fractured American Politics. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465094752.
- Hartman, Andrew. A war for the soul of America: a history of the culture wars (University of Chicago Press, 2015)
- Hunter, James Davison, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic Books, 1992) ISBN 0-465-01534-4
- Jay, Gregory S., American Literature and the Culture Wars, (Cornell University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8014-3393-2 ISBN 978-0801433931
- Jensen, Richard. "The Culture Wars, 1965-1995: A Historian's Map" Journal of Social History 29 (Oct 1995) 17–37. in JSTOR
- Jones, E. Michael, Degenerate Moderns: Modernity As Rationalized Sexual Misbehavior, Ft. Collins, CO: Ignatius Press, 1993 ISBN 0-89870-447-2
- Petro, Anthony, After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion (Oxford University Press, 2015)
- Prothero, Stephen (2017). Why Liberals Win the Culture Wars (Even When They Lose Elections): A History of the Religious Battles That Define America from Jefferson's Heresies to Gay Marriage Today. HarperOne. ISBN 978-0061571312.
- Strauss, William & Howe, Neil, The Fourth Turning, An American Prophecy: What the Cycles of History Tell Us About America's Next Rendezvous With Destiny, 1998, Broadway Books, New York
- Thomson, Irene Tavis., Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas, (University of Michigan Press, 2010) ISBN 978-0-472-07088-6
- Walsh, Andrew D., Religion, Economics, and Public Policy: Ironies, Tragedies, and Absurdities of the Contemporary Culture Wars, (Praeger, 2000) ISBN 0-275-96611-9
- Webb, Adam K., Beyond the Global Culture War, (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 0-415-95313-8
- Zimmerman, Jonathan, Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools (Harvard University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-674-01860-5
External links
[edit]- The dictionary definition of culture war at Wiktionary