History of China: Difference between revisions
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{{About|the general history of China from prehistoric times to the present|the history of the Republic of China from 1912 to 1949|History of the Republic of China|the history of the People's Republic of China since 1949|History of the People's Republic of China}} |
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[[File:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif|thumb|300px|Approximate territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China]] |
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{{History of China|BC=yes|expanded=all}} |
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Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the [[Yellow River]] and the [[Yangtze River]] valleys in the [[Neolithic]] era, but the Yellow River is said to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, [[China]] is one of the world's oldest [[civilization]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1287798.stm |title=China country profile |publisher=BBC News |date=18 October 2010 |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref> The written '''history of China''' can be found as early as the [[Shang Dynasty]] (c. 1700–1046 BC),<ref name="state1">{{cite web|url=http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071215094418/http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|archivedate=15 December 2007|title=Cultural History and Archaeology of China|publisher=Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, U.S. State Department|accessdate=2008-01-12}}{{Dead link|url=http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|date=December 2008}}</ref> although ancient historical texts such as the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' (ca. 100 BC) and ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' assert the existence of a [[Xia Dynasty]] before the Shang.<ref name="state1"/><ref name="The Ancient Dynasties">{{cite web|url=http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html|title=The Ancient Dynasties|publisher=University of Maryland|accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref> Much of Chinese [[Culture of China|culture]], [[Chinese literature|literature]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]] further developed during the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (1045–256 BC). |
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The '''history of China''' spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the [[Yellow River]] valley, which along with the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] basin constitutes the geographic core of the [[Sinosphere|Chinese cultural sphere]]. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The [[Chinese historiography|traditional lens]] for viewing Chinese history is the [[Dynasties of China|dynastic cycle]]: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread [[Five thousand years of Chinese civilization|many thousands of years into the past]], making it one of the [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]]. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the [[Tian Shan]], the [[Tarim Basin]], and the [[Himalayas]], as far north as the [[Sayan Mountains]], and as far south as the [[Red River Delta|delta of the Red River]]. |
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The Zhou Dynasty began to bow to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the kingdom eventually broke apart into smaller states, beginning in the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] and reaching full expression in the [[Warring States period]]. This is one of multiple periods of [[failed state]]hood in Chinese history (the most recent of which was the [[Chinese Civil War]]). |
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The [[Neolithic China|Neolithic]] period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the [[Yellow river civilization|Yellow]] and [[Yangtze civilization|Yangtze]] rivers. The [[Erlitou culture]] in the [[Zhongyuan|central plains of China]] is sometimes identified with the [[Xia dynasty]] (3rd millennium BC) of traditional [[Chinese historiography]]. The earliest surviving [[written Chinese]] dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on [[oracle bone]]s. [[Chinese bronze inscriptions]], ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include [[Classic of Poetry|poetry]], [[Yi Jing|divination]], and [[Shang Shu|records of official speeches]]. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The [[culture of China|culture]] remembered by the earliest [[Chinese literature|extant literature]] is that of the [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{circa|1046}}{{snd}}256 BC), China's [[Axial Age]], during which the [[Mandate of Heaven]] was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], and ''[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]]''. |
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In between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras, including the present, control has stretched as far as [[Xinjiang]] and/or [[Tibet]]. This practice began with the [[Qin Dynasty]]: in 221 BC, [[Qin Shi Huang]] united the various warring kingdoms and created the first Chinese empire. Successive [[dynasties in Chinese history]] developed [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] systems that enabled the [[Emperor of China]] to directly control vast territories. |
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China was [[Qin's wars of unification|first united]] under a single imperial state by [[Qin Shi Huang]] in 221 BC. [[Orthography]], weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the [[Han dynasty]] (202 BC{{snd}}220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as [[Han Chinese]]. The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its [[Four Books and Five Classics|core texts]] were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous [[Roman Empire]]: mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its [[sericulture]]. When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which [[Buddhism]] began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while [[Chinese calligraphy|Calligraphy]], art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. |
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The conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were in turn assimilated into the [[Han Chinese]] population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of immigration, expansion, and [[cultural assimilation]], are part of the modern culture of China. |
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A period of unity began in 581 with the [[Sui dynasty]], which soon gave way to the long-lived [[Tang dynasty]] (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, [[Wu Zetian]], reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. [[History of printing in East Asia|Mechanical printing]] was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are [[woodblock printing|wood-block prints]] from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the [[imperial examination system]] gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in [[Neo-Confucianism]]. |
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Eventually, the [[Mongol Empire]] conquered all of China, establishing the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) include [[Ming treasure voyages|global exploration]], fine [[Chinese ceramics|porcelain]], and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] and [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]]. Three of the four [[Classic Chinese Novels]] were written during the Ming. The [[Qing dynasty]] that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic [[Manchu]] people. The [[Qianlong]] emperor ({{reign}} 1735–1796) commissioned [[Siku Quanshu|a complete encyclopaedia]] of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the [[Opium Wars]] and subsequent [[unequal treaties]]. |
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The 1911 [[Xinhai Revolution]], led by [[Sun Yat-sen]] and others, created the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. From 1927 to 1949, a [[Chinese Civil War|costly civil war]] roiled between the Republican government under [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and the Communist-aligned [[Chinese Red Army]], interrupted by the industrialized [[Empire of Japan]] invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War. |
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After the [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] victory, [[Mao Zedong]] proclaimed the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) in 1949, with the ROC retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the [[Cultural Revolution]] in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] under [[Deng Xiaoping]], and became the world's [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing major economy]].{{when|date=November 2023}} China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by [[India]] in 2023. |
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==Prehistory== |
==Prehistory== |
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===Paleolithic=== |
===Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)=== |
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{{main|Prehistory of China}} |
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{{see also|List of Paleolithic sites in China}} |
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What is now China was inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' more than a million years ago.<ref name="MagnetostratigraphicDating">{{cite journal|author=Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman|title=Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans of in China|journal=Earth Science Reviews|volume=61|month=June|year=2003|pages=191–361|url=http://www.paleomag.net/members/rixiangzhu/Earth-Sci%20Review.pdf|format=PDF|issue=3–4}}</ref> Recent study shows that the stone tools found at [[Xiaochangliang]] site are [[Magnetostratigraphy|magnetostratigraphically]] dated to 1.36 million years ago.<ref name="Xiaochangliang">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/whatshot/2001/wh2001-3.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070813201519/http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/whatshot/2001/wh2001-3.htm|archivedate=13 August 2007|title=Earliest Presence of Humans in Northeast Asia|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2007-08-04}}</ref> The archaeological site of [[Xihoudu]] in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by ''Homo erectus'', which is dated 1.27 million years ago.<ref name="MagnetostratigraphicDating" /> |
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{{Multiple image |
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The excavations at [[Yuanmou Man|Yuanmou]] and later [[Lantian Man|Lantian]] show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of ''Homo erectus'' found in China is the so-called [[Peking Man]] discovered in 1923–27. |
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| title = Paleolithic |
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| image1 = Skull pekingman.jpg |
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| caption1 = Traditional reconstruction of the Peking Man skull |
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| image2 = Teeth of Yuanmou Man (Cast) - cropped.png |
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| caption2 = Casts of the teeth of Yuanmou Man |
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| image3 = Dali Man Skull, Replica.jpg |
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| caption3 = Restoration of the skull [[Shaanxi History Museum]] |
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| image4 = Longlin 1.jpg |
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| caption4 = LL-1 partials skull |
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}} |
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The [[archaic human]] species of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' arrived in [[Eurasia]] sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 [[million years ago]] (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=737}} The oldest of these is the southwestern [[Yuanmou Man]] ({{lang|zh-hans|元谋人}}; in [[Yunnan]]), dated to {{c.}} 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed [[bushland]]-forest environment alongside [[chalicothere]]s, [[deer]], the elephant ''[[Stegodon]]'', [[rhino]]s, cattle, pigs, and the [[giant short-faced hyena]].{{sfn|Zhu|Potts|Pan|Yao|2008|pp=1077, 1084–1085}} The better-known [[Peking Man]] ({{lang|zh-hans|北京猿人}}; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 [[Before Present|BP]],{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=737}} was discovered in the [[Zhoukoudian]] cave alongside [[scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]], [[chopper (archaeology)|choppers]], and, dated slightly later, points, [[burin (lithic flake)|burins]], and awls.{{sfn|Wu|Lin|1983|p=92}} Other ''Homo erectus'' fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern [[Lantian Man]] in [[Shaanxi]], as well minor specimens in northeastern [[Liaoning]] and southern [[Guangdong]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=737}} The dates of most [[List of Paleolithic sites in China|Paleolithic sites]] were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern [[magnetostratigraphy]]: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, [[Xiaochangliang]] at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, [[Banshan]] at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.{{sfn|Ao|Dekkers|Wei|Qiang|2013|p=1}} Evidence of fire use by ''Homo erectus'' occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of [[Xihoudu]], Shanxi Province.{{sfn|James|Dennell|Gilbert|Lewis|1989|p=2}} |
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The circumstances surrounding the [[Human evolution|evolution]] of ''Homo erectus'' to contemporary ''[[H. sapiens]]'' is debated; the three main theories include the dominant [[Recent African origin of modern humans|"Out of Africa" theory]] (OOA), the [[regional continuity model]] and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=737}} Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in [[Fuyan Cave]] of [[Dao County]], Hunan.{{sfn|Liu|Martinón-Torres|Cai|Xing|2015|p=696}} The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct ''[[Ailuropoda baconi]]'' panda, the ''[[Crocuta|Crocuta ultima]]'' hyena, the ''Stegodon'', and the [[giant tapir]].{{sfn|Liu|Martinón-Torres|Cai|Xing|2015|p=696}} Evidence of [[Middle Palaeolithic]] [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of [[Guanyindong]] Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.{{sfn|Hu|Marwick|Zhang|Rui|2018|p=82}} |
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===Neolithic=== |
===Neolithic=== |
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{{See also|List of Neolithic cultures of China}} |
{{See also|List of Neolithic cultures of China}} |
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{{Further|Yellow River civilization|Yangtze civilization|Liao civilization}} |
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The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC.<ref name="neolithic period in china">{{cite web|title=Neolithic Period in China|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cneo/hd_cneo.htm|work=Timeline of Art History|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|month=October | year=2004|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> |
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{{Multiple image |
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| title = Neolithic |
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| image1 = National Museum of China 2014.02.01 14-43-38.jpg |
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| caption1 = 10,000-year-old pottery, [[Xianren Cave]] culture (18,000–7000 BC) |
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| image2 = Bone Arrowheads, Jiahu site.jpg |
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| caption2 = Bone Arrowheads, [[Peiligang culture]] (7000–5000 BC) |
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| image3 = Butterfly-shaped ivory vessel with the pattern of two birds facing the sun(Neolithic) in Zhejiang Museum.JPG |
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| caption3 = Butterfly-shaped ivory vessel with the pattern of two birds facing the sun, [[Hemudu culture]] (5500–3300 BC) |
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| image4 = Hemudu Site Museum, 2017-08-12 36.jpg |
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| caption4 = Pottery artifacts from Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC) |
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}} |
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The [[Neolithic Age]] in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.<ref name="neolithic period in china">{{cite web|title=Neolithic Period in China|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cneo/hd_cneo.htm|work=Timeline of Art History|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]| date= October 2004|access-date=10 February 2008}}</ref> Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lander|first=Brian|title=The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire|date=2021|publisher=Yale University Press|language=en}}</ref> The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.<ref name="Pringle"/> Early evidence for [[millet]] agriculture in the Yellow River valley was [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon-dated]] to about 7000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rice and Early Agriculture in China|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/banpo/banpo.html|work=Legacy of Human Civilizations|publisher=Mesa Community College|access-date=10 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827184517/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/banpo/banpo.html|archive-date=27 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Jiahu]] site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At [[Damaidi]] in Ningxia, 3,172 [[Neolithic signs in China|cliff carvings]] dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called [[proto-writing]], were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC,<ref name= "earliest writing">{{cite news |title='Earliest writing' found in China |first=Paul |last=Rincon |date=17 April 2003 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm |work=BBC News }}</ref> Damaidi around 6000 BC, [[Dadiwan culture|Dadiwan]] from 5800 BC to 5400 BC,<ref>[[Qiu Xigui]] (2000). ''Chinese Writing''. English translation of 文字學概論 by Gilbert L. Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]]. ''Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4.'' Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. {{ISBN|978-1-55729-071-7}}</ref> and [[Banpo]] dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like [[Taosi]] and the [[Liangzhu culture]] in the Yangtze delta.<ref name="Pringle">{{cite journal|last=Pringle |first=Heather |title=The Slow Birth of Agriculture |url=http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |year=1998 |volume=282 |issue=5393 |page=1446 |doi=10.1126/science.282.5393.1446 |s2cid=128522781 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101201656/http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm |archive-date=1 January 2011 |issn=0036-8075 }}</ref> The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the [[Yangshao culture]] (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the [[Longshan culture]] (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as [[peaches]], [[cherries]] and [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]], as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.<ref name=":0"/> |
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===Bronze Age=== |
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{{see also|List of Bronze Age sites in China}} |
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Bronze artifacts have been found at the [[Majiayao culture]] site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/landscapessociet00mart |title=Landscapes and Societies: Selected Cases |publisher=Springer |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-481-9412-4 |page=310 |url-access=registration | chapter=Holocene Environmental Changes and the Evolution of the Neolithic Cultures in China |last=Mo |first=Duowen |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhijun |last3=Xu |first3=Junjie |last4=Li |first4=Minglin |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9413-1_19 |editor-first=I. Peter |editor-last=Martini |editor-first2=Ward |editor-last2=Chesworth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Higham |first=Charles |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |publisher=Infobase |year=2004 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 |page=200 |author-link=Charles Higham (archaeologist)}}</ref> The Bronze Age is also represented at the [[Lower Xiajiadian culture]] (2200–1600 BC)<ref>{{Cite book |title=Leadership Strategies, Economic Activity, and Interregional Interaction: Social Complexity in Northeast China|author-link=Gideon Shelach-Lavi| last=Shelach |first=Gideon |page=89 | doi= 10.1007/0-306-47164-7_5 |isbn=978-0-306-47164-3 | publisher=Springer | year=2002}}</ref> site in northeast China. [[Sanxingdui]] located in what is now [[Sichuan]] is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the [[state of Shu]], linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.{{sfn|Bagley|1999|p=135}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Rawson |first=Jessica |title=New discoveries from the early dynasties |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/features/new-discoveries-from-the-early-dynasties/91579.article |access-date=3 October 2013 |magazine=[[Times Higher Education]]}}</ref> |
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Early evidence for proto-Chinese [[millet]] agriculture is [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon-dated]] to about 7000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rice and Early Agriculture in China|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/banpo/banpo.html|work=Legacy of Human Civilizations|publisher=Mesa Community College|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> Farming gave rise to the [[Jiahu]] culture (7000 to 5800 BC). At [[Damaidi]] in Ningxia, 3,172 [[Neolithic signs in China|cliff carvings]] dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6669569.stm | work=BBC News | title=Chinese writing '8,000 years old' | date=18 May 2007 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-05/18/content_6121225.htm|title=Carvings may rewrite history of Chinese characters|publisher=[[Xinhua]] online|date=18 May 2007|accessdate=2007-05-19}}</ref> Excavation of a [[Peiligang culture]] site in [[Xinzheng]] county, [[Henan]], found a community that flourished in 5,500–4,900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peiligang Site | url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_artqa/2003-09/24/content_39079.htm | publisher=[[Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China]]|year=2003|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pringle|first=Heather|title=The Slow Birth of Agriculture|url=http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm|work=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|year=1998|volume=282|page=1446}}</ref> In late [[Neolithic]] times, the [[Yellow River]] valley began to establish itself as a center of [[Yangshao culture]] (5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of these was found at [[Banpo]], [[Xi'an]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Wertz|first=Richard R.|title=Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c03s04.html|work=Exploring Chinese History|publisher=[[ibiblio]]|year=2007|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> Later, [[Yangshao culture]] was superseded by the [[Longshan culture]], which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. |
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{{anchor|Iron Age}} |
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The early history of China is obscured by the lack of written documents from this period, coupled with the existence of later accounts that attempted to describe events that had occurred several centuries previously. In a sense, the problem stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people, which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history. |
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[[Ferrous metallurgy]] begins to appear in the late 6th century in the [[Yangtze]] valley.<ref name="Higham">Higham, Charles. 1996. ''The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia''{{Page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref> A bronze hatchet with a blade of [[meteoric iron]] excavated near the city of [[Gaocheng District|Gaocheng]] in [[Shijiazhuang]] (now [[Hebei]]) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the [[Tibetan Plateau]] has tentatively been associated with the [[Zhang Zhung culture]] described in early Tibetan writings. |
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==Ancient China== |
==Ancient China== |
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<!--'Ancient China' redirects here--> |
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===Xia Dynasty (c. 2100 – c. 1600 BC)=== |
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{{see also|Outline of ancient China}} |
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{{Main|Xia Dynasty}} |
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{{further|Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors}} |
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''Major site(s): possibly [[Erlitou]]'' |
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The [[Xia Dynasty]] of China (from c. 2100 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' and ''[[Bamboo Annals]]''.<ref name="state1"/><ref name="The Ancient Dynasties"/> |
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Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhang|first=Shanruo Ning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-0CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|title=Confucianism in Contemporary Chinese Politics: An Actionable Account of Authoritarian Political Culture|date=2016|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-8240-6|language=en| page=56}}</ref> This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter= Representations of Regional Diversity during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty | last= Goldin | first= Paul R. | pages=31–48 |doi= 10.1163/9789004299337_003 | publisher= Brill | title= Ideology of Power and Power of Ideology in Early China| series= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 124 | editor1= Yuri Pines | editor1-link= Yuri Pines| editor2=Paul R. Goldin | editor3=Martin Kern | date=2015 | isbn= 9789004299337 | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/25000203 | chapter-url-access= registration}}</ref> |
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Although there is disagreement as to whether the dynasty actually existed, there is some archaeological evidence pointing to its possible existence. [[Sima Qian]], writing in the late 2nd century BC, dated the founding of the [[Xia Dynasty]] to around 2200 BC, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in central [[Henan]] province,<ref>[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm Bronze Age China] at [http://www.nga.gov/ National Gallery of Art]</ref> where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050213035644/http://www.gog.com.cn/gz/art0402/ca615230.htm Scripts found on Erlitou pottery] (written in [[Simplified Chinese]])</ref> With few clear records matching the [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] [[oracle bone]]s or the [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood. |
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The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors [[Emperor Yao|Yao]], [[Emperor Shun|Shun]], and [[Yu the Great|Yu]]. Traditionally, the [[abdication system]] was prominent in this period,<ref>{{Cite journal | last= Pines | first= Yuri| author-link=Yuri Pines | journal= T'oung Pao | volume=91 | date=2005 | title= Disputers of Abdication: Zhanguo egalitarianism and the sovereign's power | pages=243–300 | issue=4/5 | jstor= 4529011 | doi= 10.1163/156853205774910098}}</ref> with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. |
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According to mythology, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of the [[Battle of Mingtiao]]. |
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=== |
===<span class="anchor" id="Xia"></span>Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)=== |
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{{Main|Xia dynasty}} |
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[[Image:China 1.jpg|right|thumb|Remnants of advanced, [[social stratification|stratified]] societies dating back to the Shang found primarily in the Yellow River Valley]] |
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[[File:Turquoise-Inlaid Plaque with Stylized Animal-Mask Decoration, 1900-1350 BC, Neolithic to Shang period, Erlitou culture, China, bronze with turquoise inlay - Sackler Museum - DSC02627.JPG|thumb|Decorative plaque from the [[Erlitou culture]]]] |
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{{Main|Shang Dynasty}} |
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''Capital: [[Yinxu|Yin]], near [[Anyang]] ([[Shang Dynasty]] period)'' |
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Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty, c. 1600–1046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set – from the earlier Shang period – comes from sources at [[Erligang culture|Erligang]], [[Zhengzhou]], and Shangcheng. The second set – from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period – is at [[Anyang]], in modern-day [[Henan]], which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c. 1300–1046 BC).{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of Chinese past so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals – the so-called "[[oracle bone]]s", dating from around 1200 BC.<ref>{{cite book |
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| title = [[The Cambridge History of Ancient China]] |
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| editor1-first = Michael | editor1-last = Loewe |
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| editor2-first = Edward L. | editor2-last = Shaughnessy |
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| location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999 |
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| isbn = 978-0-521-47030-8 |
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| first = William | last = Boltz |
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| chapter = Language and Writing | pages = 74–123}}</ref> |
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The [[Xia dynasty]] ({{circa|2070|1600 BC}}) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' and [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Shiji]]'' ({{circa|91 BC}}). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at [[Erlitou]] (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Xu |first=Hong |year=2021 |publisher=生活读书新知三联书店 |isbn=978-7-108-07083-8 |script-title=zh:最早的中国:二里头文明的崛起 | author-mask=Xu Hong (许宏) |lang=zh | trans-title= The Earliest China: The Rise of Erlitou Civilization}}</ref> In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization|year=2007|publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25 |isbn=978-962-937-140-1}}</ref> More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.{{sfn|Bagley|1999|pp=158–159}} |
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The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from [[Tang of Shang]] to [[King Zhou of Shang]]. In this period, the Chinese worshipped many different gods – weather gods and sky gods – and also a supreme god, named [[Shangdi]], who ruled over the other gods. Those who lived during the Shang Dynasty also believed that their ancestors – their parents and grandparents – became like gods when they died, and that their ancestors wanted to be worshipped, too, like gods. Each family worshipped its own ancestors. |
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=== <span class="anchor" id="Shang"></span>Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)=== |
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The ''Records of the Grand Historian'' states that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final (and most important) move to [[Yinxu|Yin]] in 1350 BC led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin Dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to specifically refer to the latter half of the Shang Dynasty. |
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{{Main|Shang dynasty}} |
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{{further|Bronze Age#China|Chinese ritual bronzes|Predynastic Shang}} |
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[[File:HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg|thumb|The 12th-century BC[[Houmuwu ding]], the largest [[Bronze Age]] bronzeware found anywhere in the world]] |
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Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty ({{circa|1600|1046 BC}}). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at [[Erligang]] (modern [[Zhengzhou]]). Findings have been found at [[Yinxu]] (near modern [[Anyang]], Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during the [[Late Shang]] period ({{circa|1250–1050 BC}}).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=756}} The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the [[oracle bone]]s, dating from {{circa|1250|1046 BC}}.{{sfn|Boltz|1986|p=436}} |
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Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang. |
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A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=232}} Throughout their reigns, according to the ''Shiji'', the capital city was moved six times.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=233}} The final and most important move was to [[Yinxu|Yin]] during the reign of [[Wu Ding]] {{circa|1250 BC}}.<ref>{{cite journal |
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Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at [[Sanxingdui]] suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as [[China proper]]. |
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| last= Boileau | first= Gilles |
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| date= 2023 |
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| title= Shang Dynasty's "nine generations chaos" and the Reign of Wu Ding: towards a Unilineal Line of Transmission of Royal Power |
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| journal= Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |
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| publisher= Cambridge University Press |
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| volume= 86 | issue= 2 |
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| pages= 293–315, esp. 299, 303 |
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| doi= 10.1017/S0041977X23000277 |
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| s2cid= 260994337 |
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}}</ref> The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=232}} |
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Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheung |first=Kwong-yue |title=The Origins of Chinese Civilization |pages=235 |year=1983 |editor1-last=Keightley |editor1-first=David N. |chapter=Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04229-2 |editor2-last=Barnard |editor2-first=Noel |translator-last=Barnard |translator-first=Noel}}</ref> Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at [[Sanxingdui]] suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as [[China proper]].{{sfn|Bagley|1999|p=158}} |
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===Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC)=== |
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[[Image:You with zigzag thunder pattern.jpg|thumb|[[Chinese bronzes|Bronze]] ritual vessel ([[You (vessel)|You]]), Western Zhou Dynasty]] |
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{{Main|Zhou Dynasty|Iron Age China}} |
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''Capitals: [[Xi'an]] and [[Luoyang]]'' |
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The Zhou Dynasty was the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, from 1066 BC to approximately 256 BC. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] began to emerge in the [[Yellow River]] valley, overrunning the territory of the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a [[Feudalism|semi-feudal]] system. The Zhou lived west of the [[Shang]], and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], with the assistance of his brother, the [[Duke of Zhou]], as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]]. |
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===Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)=== |
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The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (''tian'') ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. |
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{{main|Zhou dynasty|Western Zhou}} |
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{{further|Iron Age China|Predynastic Zhou}} |
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The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the [[Shang]]. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], defeated the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]]. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |author=Li Feng |title=Landscape and Power in Early China: the Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045–771 BC |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511489655 |language=en |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511489655 |ref={{sfnref|Li|2006}} |author-link=Li Feng (sinologist)}}</ref> Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings. |
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The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web |
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The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern [[Xi'an]], on the [[Wei River]], a tributary of the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the [[Yangtze River]] valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history. |
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|last= Mark | first= Joshua J. |
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| year=2012 |
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|title=Ancient China |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/china/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> Like Shangdi, Heaven (''tian'') ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jinfan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&q=tian+China+rulers&pg=PA159 |title=The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2014 |isbn=978-3642232664 |page=159 |language=en |author-mask=Zhang Jinfan (張晉藩)}}</ref> It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. |
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The Zhou established two capitals [[Zongzhou]] (near modern [[Xi'an]]) and [[Chengzhou]] ([[Luoyang]]), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the [[Yangtze River]] valley.<ref name=":2"/> |
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===Spring and Autumn Period (722–476 BC)=== |
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[[Image:Pu with openwork interlaced dragons design.jpg|thumb|Chinese pu vessel with interlaced [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] design, [[Spring and Autumn period]]]] |
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{{Main|Spring and Autumn period}} |
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''Capitals: of the [[State of Yan]], Beijing; of the [[State of Qin]], [[Xi'an]]'' |
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In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the [[Spring and Autumn period]], named after the influential [[Spring and Autumn Annals]]. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for [[hegemony]]. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the [[Qin (state)|Qin]], forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to [[Luoyang]]. This marks the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. The Spring and Autumn Period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Some local leaders even started using royal titles for themselves. China now consisted of hundreds of states, some of them only as large as a village with a fort. |
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====Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)==== |
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The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] and [[Mohism]] were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. |
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{{main|Spring and Autumn period}} |
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In 771 BC, [[King You of Zhou|King You]] and his forces were defeated in the [[Battle of Mount Li]] by rebel states and [[Quanrong]] barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, [[King Ping of Zhou|King Ping]], in [[Luoyang]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chen Minzhen |last2=Pines |first2=Yuri |author2-link=Yuri Pines |date=2018 |title=Where is King Ping? The History and Historiography of the Zhou Dynasty's Eastward Relocation |journal=Asia Major |series=3 |publisher=Academica Sinica |volume=31 |pages=1–27 |jstor=26571325 |number=1}}</ref>{{rp|4}} beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''. The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of [[Ancient Chinese states|settlement states]], some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for [[hegemony]]. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hsu|first=Cho-yun|title=Ancient China in Transition: An Analysis of Social Mobility, 722–222 B.C. | author-link= Cho-yun Hsu |
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|series= Stanford Studies in the Civilizations of Eastern Asia | url= https://archive.org/details/ancientchinaintr0000hsuc/ | url-access= registration | oclc= 1145777819 |date=1965 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en | lccn=65013110 }}</ref> By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as [[Laozi]], [[Confucius]] and [[Sun Tzu]] lived during this chaotic period. |
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Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and [[Partition of Jin|partitioned the state between them]]. |
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===Warring States Period (476–221 BC)=== |
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{{Main|Warring States period}} |
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''[[Historical capitals of China|Several capitals]], due to there being multiple states'' |
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After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the [[Warring States Period]]. Though there remained a nominal [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power. |
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The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] of [[Chinese philosophy|classical Chinese philosophy]] began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] and [[Mohism]] were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. |
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As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] and [[Liaoning]], were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of [[Commandery (China)|commandery]] and [[prefecture]] (郡縣/郡县). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period, and parts can still be seen in the modern system of [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China|Sheng & Xian]] (province and county, 省縣/省县). |
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====Warring States period (476–221 BC)==== |
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The final expansion in this period began during the reign of [[Ying Zheng]], the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of [[Zhejiang]], Fujian, [[Guangdong]] and [[Guangxi]] in 214 BC, enabled him to proclaim himself the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] (Qin Shi Huang). |
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{{main|Warring States period}} |
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[[File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg|thumb|The Warring States, {{c.}} 260{{nbsp}}BC]] |
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After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century{{nbsp}}BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the [[Warring States]] period. Though the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] king nominally remained as such until 256{{nbsp}}BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. |
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==Imperial China== |
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{{Portal|History of Imperial China}} |
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{{see|Imperial China}} |
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===Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)=== |
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[[File:Qinshihuang.jpg|thumb|[[Qin Shi Huang]]]] |
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{{Main|Qin Dynasty}} |
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''Capital: [[Xianyang]]'' |
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Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of [[Qing Dynasty]] as Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the [[Qin Shi Huang Di|First Qin Emperor]] lasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the [[Han Chinese]] homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] government seated at [[Xianyang]] (close to modern [[Xi'an]]). The doctrine of Legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peacetime. The Qin Emperor {{Definition|date=March 2012}} presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the [[burning of books and burying of scholars]]. This would be the impetus behind the later Han synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance. |
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[[Image:Terracotta Army-China2.jpg|thumb|The [[Terracotta Army]] of [[Qin Shi Huang]].]] |
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The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the [[Great Wall of China]], which was later augmented and enhanced during the [[Ming Dynasty]]. The other major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the unification of the legal code, development of the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts |
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had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uobuy.com/upload/2005/9/19/200591911278032621125.jpg|title=Book "QINSHIHUANG"|accessdate=2007-07-06}}</ref> |
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Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' within the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the [[Tsinghua Bamboo Slips|Tsinghua]] collection, dated to 305{{nbsp}}BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, [[Tsinghua Bamboo Slips#Decimal multiplication table|base-10 multiplication table.]] The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.<ref>{{cite news |
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===Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220)=== |
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| doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14482 |
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{{Main|Han Dynasty}} |
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|last=Qiu | first= Jane |
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{{Further|History of the Han Dynasty}} |
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| publisher= Nature |
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''Capitals: [[Chang'an]], [[Luoyang]], [[Liyang]], [[Xuchang]]'' |
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| url= http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482 |
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====Western Han==== |
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| title= Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips. The 2,300-year-old matrix is the world's oldest decimal multiplication table |
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[[Image:ChangXingongdeng.jpg|thumb|A [[Han Dynasty]] [[oil lamp]] with a sliding shutter, in the shape of a kneeling female servant, 2nd century BC]] |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122064930/http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482 |archive-date=22 January 2014 |
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The [[Han Dynasty]] was founded by [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]], who emerged victorious in the [[Chu–Han Contention|civil war]] that followed the collapse of the unified but short-lived [[Qin Dynasty]]. A [[Pax Sinica|golden age]] in Chinese history, the Han Dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennium. During the Han Dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the [[China proper]] and to areas far west. [[Confucianism]] was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese Civilization. Art, Culture and Science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the [[Han Chinese|dominant ethnic group]] in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and [[Chinese characters|written characters]]. |
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| date=7 January 2014 |
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}}</ref> |
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As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] and [[Liaoning]]), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] and [[prefectures]]. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China|''sheng'' and ''xian'']] ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. |
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After the initial [[Huang-Lao|Laissez-faire policies]] of Emperors [[Emperor Wen of Han|Wen]] and [[Emperor Jing of Han|Jing]], the ambitious [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, [[Confucianism]], which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society, was given exclusive patronage to be the guiding philosophical thoughts and moral principles of the empire. [[Taixue|Imperial Universities]] were established to support its study and further development, while other [[Hundred Schools of Thought|schools of thoughts]] were discouraged. |
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The state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the [[Shu (state)|Shu]] capital of [[Jinsha site|Jinsha]] on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving [[Chu (state)|Chu]] from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.<ref name=":0"/> Its final expansion began during the reign of [[Ying Zheng]], ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first [[Emperor of China|emperor]]—known to history as [[Qin Shi Huang]]. |
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Major [[Han–Xiongnu War|military campaigns]] were launched to weaken the nomadic [[Xiongnu Empire]], limiting their influence north of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]]. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by [[Zhang Qian]], the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the [[Western Regions|states in the Tarim Basin]], opened up the [[Silk Road]] that connected China to west, stimulating prosperous bilateral trades and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze River Valley]] were formally incorporated into the empire. |
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==Imperial era== |
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After [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]], the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various [[consort clan]]s exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of [[Wang Mang]]. |
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{{About|the ancient dynastic Chinese imperial state|the empire founded by Yuan Shikai|Empire of China (1915–1916)|section=yes}} |
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{{see also|Chinese Empire|Political systems of Imperial China}} |
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===Early imperial China=== |
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====Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)==== |
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In AD 9, the usurper [[Wang Mang]] claimed that the [[Mandate of Heaven]] called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived [[Xin Dynasty|Xin ("New") Dynasty]]. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the [[peasant]]s. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the [[Yellow River]]; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in [[Weiyang Palace]] by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. |
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{{main|Qin dynasty}} |
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[[File:Terracotta Army-China2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The massive [[Terracotta Army]] of [[Qin Shi Huang]], a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]] |
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Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty ({{lang|zh-hant|秦朝}}) in 221 BC effectively formalised the region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" ({{lang|zh-hant|秦}}) later evolving into the Western term "{{linktext|China}}".{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=20}} To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself {{transliteration|zh|[[Qin Shi Huang|Shi Huangdi]]}} ({{linktext|始|皇|帝}}; "First Emperor"); the {{transliteration|zh|[[Emperor of China|Huangdi]]}} title, derived from [[Chinese mythology]], became the standard for subsequent rulers.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=53}}{{efn|In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply {{transliteration|zh|Shi Huangdi}}, but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. In its fullest form, Ying's name would be Qin Shi Huangdi ({{lang|zh-hant|秦始皇帝}}), though it is commonly abbreviated to [[Qin Shi Huang]] ({{lang|zh-hant|秦始皇}}).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=287}}}} Based in [[Xianyang]], the empire was a centralized [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=60}}{{sfn|Sanft|2019|p=15}} In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] ({{lang|zh-hant|郡}}; {{transliteration|zh|jun}}),{{efn|The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s description of the Qin including of 36 [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] has now been disproven by archaeological evidence indicating more. The exact number is unknown;{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=16–17}} The sinologist [[Derk Bodde]] noted that probably "four and possibly as many as half a dozen were added by 210 to the original thirty-six".{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=55}}}} made up of [[Counties of China|counties]] ({{lang|zh-hant|县}}; {{transliteration|zh|xian}}) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=15–17}} |
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====Eastern Han==== |
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[[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]], ''east'' of the former capital [[Xi'an]]. Thus, this new era is termed the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]]. With the capable administrations of Emperors [[Emperor Ming of Han|Ming]] and [[Emperor Zhang of Han|Zhang]], former glories of the dynasty was reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The [[Xiongnu Empire]] was [[Han–Xiongnu_War#Final_stages|decisively defeated]]. The diplomat and general [[Ban Chao]] further expanded the conquests across the [[Pamirs]] to the shores of the [[Caspian Sea]].,<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440601/Ban-Chao Ban Chao], Britannica Online Encyclopedia</ref> thus reopening the [[Silk Road]], and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the [[Chinese Buddhism#Traditional_accounts|arrival of Buddhism]]. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several [[Romano-Chinese relations|Roman embassies to China]] were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. |
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Many aspects of society were informed by [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his [[Grand chancellor (China)|chancellor]] [[Li Si]] that was introduced at an earlier time by [[Shang Yang]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles ([[seal script]]) and metal currency ([[Ban Liang]]), all of which were standardized.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=61}}{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=56–57, 59–60}} Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars]] under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the [[Burning of books and burying of scholars#Skepticism|historicity of this event]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by [[Confucianism]] for social and moral beliefs and the five-element [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]] ({{lang|zh-hant|五行}}) theories for [[cosmology|cosmological]] thought.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=75–78}} |
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The Eastern Han Dynasty was one of the [[Science and technology of the Han Dynasty|most prolific era of science and technology]] in ancient China, notably the historic invention of [[papermaking]] by [[Cai Lun]], and the numerous contributions by the [[polymath]] [[Zhang Heng]]. |
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The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.{{sfn|Sanft|2019|p=17}} Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population,{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=102}} "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=63}} This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around {{convert|4250|mi|km}} altogether.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=61}} Other major construction projects were assigned to the general [[Meng Tian]], who concurrently [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|led a successful campaign]] against the northern [[Xiongnu]] peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=61}}{{efn|Other tribes of the north, collectively called the [[Five Barbarians|Wu Hu]] by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=129}}}} Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the [[Great Wall of China]] and oversaw the building of a {{convert|500|mi|km}} straight highway between northern and southern China.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=60–61}} The emperor also oversaw the construction of his [[Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor|monumental mausoleum]], which includes the well known [[Terracotta Army]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=82–83}} |
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By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between [[consort clan]]s and [[Eunuch#China|eunuch]]s. The [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of [[warlord]]s. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the period of the [[Three Kingdoms]]. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''. |
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After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=84}}{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=22–24}} |
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===Wei and Jin Period (AD 265–420)=== |
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{{Main|Cao Wei|Jin Dynasty (265-420)}} |
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''Capitals: of [[Cao Wei]] and Western Jin, [[Luoyang]]; of [[Shu Han]], [[Chengdu]]; of [[Eastern Wu]] and Eastern Jin, [[Jiankang]]; of Western Jin, [[Chang'an]]'' |
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After [[Cao Cao]] reunified the north in 208, his son proclaimed the [[Cao Wei|Wei]] dynasty in 220. Soon, Wei's rivals [[Shu Han|Shu]] and [[Eastern Wu|Wu]] proclaimed their independence, leading China into the [[Three Kingdoms]] Period. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. Although the Three Kingdoms were reunified by the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]] in 280, this structure was essentially the same until the Wu Hu uprising. |
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====Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)==== |
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{{main|Han dynasty}} |
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{{Main|Sixteen Kingdoms|Wu Hu uprising}} |
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{{further|History of the Han dynasty}} |
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''Several capitals, due to there being several states and warring'' |
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Taking advantage of civil war in the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary non-Han Chinese ([[Wu Hu]]) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the [[Yangtze River]]. In 303 the [[Di (Wu Hu)|Di]] people rebelled and later captured [[Chengdu]], establishing the state of [[Cheng Han]]. Under [[Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)|Liu Yuan]], the [[Xiongnu]] rebelled near today's [[Linfen County]] and established the state of [[Han Zhao]]. Liu Yuan's successor [[Liu Cong (Han Zhao)|Liu Cong]] captured and executed the last two Western Jin emperors. [[Sixteen Kingdoms|Sixteen kingdoms]] were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to rule the whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups were involved, including ancestors of the [[Turkic people|Turks]], [[Mongols]], and [[Tibetans]]. Most of these [[nomadic]] peoples had, to some extent, been "[[Sinicization|sinicized]]" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the [[Qiang people|Qiang]] and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. |
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[[Image:Chinese Boddhisattva statue.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[limestone]] statue of the [[Bodhisattva]], from the [[Northern Qi|Northern Qi Dynasty]], AD 570, made in what is now modern [[Henan]] province.]] |
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=====Western Han===== |
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===Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 420–589)=== |
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[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|left|250px|Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC]] |
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{{Main|Southern and Northern Dynasties}} |
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''Capitals: of the [[Northern Dynasties]]: [[Ye, China|Ye]], [[Chang'an]], of the [[Southern Dynasties]]: [[Jiankang]]'' |
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Signaled by the collapse of [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|East Jin Dynasty]] in 420, China entered the era of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]]. The Han people managed to survive the military attacks from the nomadic tribes of the north, such as the [[Xianbei]], and their civilization continued to thrive. |
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The Han dynasty was founded by [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]], who emerged victorious in the [[Chu–Han Contention]] that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A [[Pax Sinica|golden age]] in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the [[China proper]] and to areas far west. [[Confucianism]] was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the [[Han Chinese|dominant ethnic group]] in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and [[Chinese characters|written characters]]. |
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In southern China, fierce debates about whether [[Buddhism]] should be allowed to exist were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. Finally, near the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, both Buddhist and [[Taoist]] followers compromised and became more tolerant of each other. |
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After the [[Huang-Lao|initial laissez-faire policies]] of Emperors [[Emperor Wen of Han|Wen]] and [[Emperor Jing of Han|Jing]], the ambitious [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.{{sfnp|Nylan|2016| pages=76–79, 84, 107–108}} As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. [[Taixue|Imperial Universities]] were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty [[Economy of the Han Dynasty#Private manufacture and government monopolies|with government monopolies]]. |
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In 589, [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] annexed the last Southern Dynasty, [[Chen Dynasty|Chen]], through military force, and put an end to the era of Southern and Northern Dynasties. |
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{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = '''Left image''': Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with raised [[relief]]s of [[Chinese dragon|dragons]], [[Fenghuang|phoenixes]], and ''[[taotie]]''<br/> '''Right image''': Reverse side of a Western-Han [[TLV mirror|bronze mirror]] with painted designs of a flower motif| footer_align = left | image1 = China qing blue.JPG | width1 = 130| caption1 = | image2 = Bronze mirror with painted designs, Western Han.jpg| width2 = 120| caption2 = }} |
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[[Han–Xiongnu War|Major military campaigns]] were launched to weaken the nomadic [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu Empire]], limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by [[Zhang Qian]], the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the [[Western Regions|states in the Tarim Basin]], opened up the [[Silk Road]] that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. |
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===Sui Dynasty (AD 589–618)=== |
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{{Main|Sui Dynasty}} |
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''Official capital: [[Chang'an|Daxing]]; secondary capital: [[Luoyang|Dongdu]]'' |
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The [[Sui Dynasty]], which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]]. These included the government system of [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]], standard [[Ancient Chinese coinage|coinage]], improved defense and expansion of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], and official support for [[Buddhism]]. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed. Also similar to the Qin, traditional history has judged the Sui somewhat unfairly, as it has stressed the harshness of the Sui regime and the arrogance of its second emperor, giving little credit for the Dynasty's many positive achievements. |
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Emperor Wu also dispatched a [[southward expansion of the Han dynasty|series of military campaigns]] against the [[Baiyue]] tribes. The Han annexed [[Han campaigns against Minyue|Minyue in 135 BC]] and 111 BC, [[Han–Nanyue War|Nanyue in 111 BC]], and [[Han campaign against Dian|Dian in 109 BC]].{{sfn|Yu|1986|pp=455–458}} Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pingfang|last=Xu|title=The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective|year=2005|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-09382-7|page=281}}</ref> It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Gernet|title=A History of Chinese Civilization|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49781-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126 126–127]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126}}</ref> |
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===Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907)=== |
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[[Image:Tang horse.jpg|thumb|A Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] tricolored [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]] porcelain horse (ca. AD 700)]] |
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{{Main|Tang Dynasty}} |
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''Capitals: [[Chang'an]] and [[Luoyang]]'' |
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[[Tang Dynasty]] was founded by [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Emperor Gaozu]] on 18 June 618. It was a [[Pax Sinica|golden age of Chinese civilization]] with significant developments in art, literature, particularly [[Tang poetry|poetry]], and technology. [[Buddhism]] became the predominant religion for common people. [[Chang'an]] (modern [[Xi'an]]), the national capital, was the [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city in the world of its time]]. |
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After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various [[consort clan]]s exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of [[Wang Mang]]. |
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Started by the second emperor, [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong]], military campaigns were launched to dissolve threats from nomadic tribes, extend the border, and submit neighboring states into a [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|tributary system]]. Military victories in the [[Inner Asia during the Tang Dynasty|Tarim Basin]] kept the [[Silk Road]] open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes began from port cities such as [[Guangzhou]]. There was extensive trade with distant foreign countries, and many foreign merchants settled in China, boosting a vibrant cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were admired and adapted by neighboring countries like [[Nara period|Japan]]. Internally, the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the economic and agricultural centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. |
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=====Xin dynasty===== |
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Underlying the prosperity of the early Tang Dynasty was a strong centralized bureaucracy with efficient policies. The government was organized as "[[Three Departments and Six Ministries]]" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members as well as [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar officials]] who were selected from [[imperial examination]]s. These practices, which matured in the Tang Dynasty, were to be inherited by the later dynasties with some modifications. |
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{{main|Xin dynasty}} |
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In AD 9 the usurper [[Wang Mang]] claimed that the [[Mandate of Heaven]] called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the [[Yellow River]]; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in [[Weiyang Palace]] by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. |
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The Tang land policy – the "[[Equal-field system]]" – claimed all lands as imperially owned, and were granted evenly to people according to the size of the households. The associated military policy – the "[[Fubing system]]" – conscripted all men in the nation for a fixed duty period each year in exchange for their land rights. These policies stimulated rapid growth of productivity, while boosting the army without much burden on the state treasury. However, lands gradually fell into the hands of private land owners, and [[standing armies]] were to replace conscription towards the middle period of the dynasty. |
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=====Eastern Han===== |
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The dynasty continued to flourish under Empress [[Wu Zetian]], the only [[empress regnant]] in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the reign of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the [[Aral Sea]] with at least 50 million people. |
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[[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]], ''east'' of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the [[Eastern Han dynasty]]. With the capable administrations of Emperors [[Emperor Ming of Han|Ming]] and [[Emperor Zhang of Han|Zhang]], former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu Empire]] was [[Han–Xiongnu War#Final stages|decisively defeated]]. The diplomat and general [[Ban Chao]] further expanded the conquests across the [[Pamirs]] to the shores of the [[Caspian Sea]],<ref>{{ cite journal |
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| pages = 165–184 |
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| jstor = 40727536 |
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| journal= Monumenta Serica |
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| publisher= Taylor & Francis |
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| volume= 54 | year = 2006 |
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| last = So | first= Francis K.H. (蘇其康) |
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| title= Travels, contact, and conversion: Chinese rediscovery of the West |
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| doi = 10.1179/mon.2006.54.1.006 |
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| s2cid = 190841108 |
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}}</ref>{{rp|175}} thus reopening the [[Silk Road]], and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the [[Chinese Buddhism#Traditional accounts|arrival of Buddhism]]. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several [[Romano-Chinese relations|Roman embassies to China]] were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. |
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The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the [[Science and technology of the Han dynasty|most prolific eras of science and technology]] in ancient China, notably the historic invention of [[papermaking]] by [[Cai Lun]], and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous [[polymath]] [[Zhang Heng]]. |
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At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] from 755 to 763 was a watershed event that [[An_Lushan Rebellion#Death_toll|devastated the population]] and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Regional military governors, known as [[Jiedushi]], gained increasingly autonomous status while formerly submissive states raided the empire. Nevertheless, after the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. |
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===Six Dynasties=== |
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From about 860, the Tang Dynasty declined due to a series of rebellions within China itself and in the former subject [[Kingdom of Nanzhao]] to the south. One warlord, [[Huang Chao]], captured Guangzhou in 879, killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants, including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Gabriel Ferrand |year=1922 |title=Voyage du marchand arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine, rédigé en 851, suivi de remarques par Abû Zayd Hasan (vers 916)|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html |title = Kaifung Jews | publisher = University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy}}</ref> In late 880, [[Luoyang]] surrendered to [[Huang Chao]], and on 5 January 881 he conquered [[Chang'an]]. The emperor [[Emperor Xizong of Tang|Xizong]] fled to [[Chengdu]], and Huang established a new temporary regime which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces. Another time of political chaos followed. |
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====Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)==== |
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{{ |
{{main|Three Kingdoms|}} |
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''Several capitals'' |
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The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]], lasted little more than half a century, from 907 to 960. During this brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes rapidly succeeded one another in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, sections of southern and western China were occupied by ten, more stable, regimes so the period is also referred to as the Ten Kingdoms. |
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By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between [[consort clan]]s and [[Eunuch#China|eunuchs]]. The [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of [[warlord]]s. In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' dramatizes events of this period. |
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===Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia Dynasties (AD 960–1234)=== |
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[[Image:Li Di, Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain.jpg|thumb|''Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain'', by Li Di, 12th century]] |
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{{Main|Song Dynasty|Liao Dynasty|Western Xia|Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234}} |
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{{Further|History of the Song Dynasty}} |
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''Capitals: of the Song Dynasty, [[Kaifeng]] and [[Hangzhou|Lin'an]]; of the [[Liao Dynasty]], [[Acheng District|Shangjing]], [[History_of_Beijing#Liao_and_Jin_Dynasties|Nanjing]], and [[Tokmok]]; of the [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin Dynasty]], [[Acheng District|Shangjing]], [[History_of_Beijing#Liao_and_Jin_Dynasties|Zhongdu]], and [[Kaifeng]]; of the Western Xia Dynasty, [[Yinchuan]]'' |
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In 960, the [[Song Dynasty]] gained power over most of China and established its capital in [[Kaifeng]] (later known as [[Bianjing]]), starting a period of economic prosperity, while the [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] ruled over [[Manchuria]], present-day [[Mongolia]], and parts of [[North China|Northern China]]. In 1115, the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years. Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of [[Gansu]], Shaanxi, and [[Ningxia]], there emerged a [[Western Xia|Western Xia Dynasty]] from 1032 to 1227, established by [[Tangut people|Tangut]] tribes. |
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The warlord [[Cao Cao]] reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of [[Emperor Xian of Han]], thus initiating the [[Cao Wei|Wei]] dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals [[Shu Han|Shu]] and [[Eastern Wu|Wu]] proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. |
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The Jin Dynasty took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which moved its capital to [[Hangzhou]] (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years, China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty and the [[Tangut people|Tangut]] [[Western Xia]]. Southern Song experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use of [[gunpowder]] weapons, which played a large role in the Song Dynasty naval victories against the Jin in the [[Battle of Tangdao]] and [[Battle of Caishi]] on the Yangtze River in 1161. Furthermore, China's first permanent standing navy was assembled and provided an [[admiral]]'s office at [[Dinghai]] in 1132, under the reign of [[Emperor Renzong of Song]]. |
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In 266, the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]] overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. |
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The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in science and technology, with innovative [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar-officials]] such as [[Su Song]] (1020–1101) and [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095). There was court intrigue between the political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors [[Wang Anshi]] and [[Sima Guang]], respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of [[Neo-Confucian]] philosophy formulated by [[Zhu Xi]]. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the historical work of the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' and ''[[Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute]]'', along with great Buddhist painters like the prolific [[Lin Tinggui]]. |
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====Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)==== |
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{{main|Jin dynasty (266–420)}} |
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{{Main|Yuan Dynasty}} |
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{{further|History of the Jin dynasty (266–420)}} |
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[[Image:Ch'ien Hsüan 002.jpg|thumb|''[[Yang Guifei]] Mounting a Horse'', by [[Qian Xuan]] (1235–1305 AD).]] |
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''Capitals: [[Shangdu|Xanadu]] and [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]]'' |
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The [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-founded [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]] was defeated by the [[Mongols]], who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war in which [[firearms]] played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', adventurous Westerners such as [[Marco Polo]] travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese. |
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[[Kublai Khan]], grandson of [[Genghis Khan]], wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from Beijing as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with the [[Sixteen Prefectures|Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun]]. Before that, it had been the capital of the [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin]], who did not rule all of China. |
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| title = Jin dynasty (AD 266–420) |
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| image1 = Western Jeun Dynasty 280 CE.png |
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| caption1 = [[Western Jin Dynasty]], {{c.}} 280 AD |
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| image2 = 2016-12-15 Maijishan Grotten 麥積山石窟 anagoria 11.JPG |
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| caption2 = View of Maijishan hill caves, grottoes and stairways. |
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}} |
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The [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the [[Han dynasty]], ending the [[Three Kingdoms]] era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the [[War of the Eight Princes]] and lost control of northern China after [[Uprising of the Five Barbarians|non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled]] and captured [[Luoyang]] and [[Chang'an]]. In 317, the Jin prince [[Emperor Yuan of Jin|Sima Rui]], based in modern-day [[Nanjing]], became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. |
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Before the [[Timeline of Mongol conquests|Mongol invasion]], Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Ping-ti |last= Ho | title=An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China | journal = Études Song | series= 1 | issue=1 | year=1970 | pages=33–53}}</ref> While it is tempting to attribute this major decline solely to Mongol ferocity, scholars today have mixed sentiments regarding this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as [[Timothy Brook]] argue that the Mongols created a system of [[serfdom|enserfment]] among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians like William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. |
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====Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)==== |
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In the 14th century, China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. The [[Black Death]] is estimated to have killed 25 million people or 30% of the population of China.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://chip.med.nyu.edu/course/view.php?id=13&topic=1 |title = Course: Plague |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071118121009/http://chip.med.nyu.edu/course/view.php?id=13&topic=1 | archivedate = 18 November 2007}}{{dead link|date=September 2012}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Sixteen Kingdoms}} |
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Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], most of which were founded by [[Xiongnu]], [[Xianbei]], [[Jie people|Jie]], [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]] and [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]] rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the [[Turkic people|Turks]], [[Mongols]], and [[Tibetans]]. Many had, to some extent, been "[[Sinicization|sinicized]]" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the [[Qiang people|Qiang]] and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the [[Great Wall]] since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. |
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====Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)==== |
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{{main|Northern and Southern dynasties}} |
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{{Main|Ming Dynasty}} |
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{{Further|History of the Ming Dynasty}} |
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''Capitals: [[Nanjing]], Beijing, [[Fuzhou]], and [[Zhaoqing]]'' |
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[[Image:Court Ladies of the Former Shu by Tang Yin.jpg|thumb|upright|''Court Ladies of the Former Shu'', by Ming painter [[Tang Yin]] (1470–1523).]] |
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[[File:明太祖.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Hongwu Emperor]], founder of the [[Ming Dynasty]]]] |
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Throughout the Yuan Dynasty, which lasted less than a century, there was relatively strong sentiment among the populace against the Mongol rule. The frequent natural disasters since the 1340s finally led to peasant revolts. The Yuan Dynasty was eventually overthrown by the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368. |
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| title = Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589) |
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| image1 = Southern and Northern Dynasties 440 CE.png |
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| caption1 = Southern and Northern Dynasties, 440 AD |
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| image2 = Hanging Monastery 02.JPG |
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| caption2 = [[Hanging Monastery]], a temple with the combination of [[Taoism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Confucianism]]. |
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}} |
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In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the [[Liu Song dynasty|Liu Song]], [[Southern Qi]], [[Liang dynasty|Liang]] and finally [[Chen dynasty|Chen]]. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used [[Jiankang]] (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to [[sinify]]. |
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Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [[Nanjing]] and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. |
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In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the [[Northern Wei]], a kingdom founded by the [[Xianbei]], a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the [[Eastern Wei|Eastern]] and [[Western Wei]], which then became the [[Northern Qi]] and [[Northern Zhou]]. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han. |
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Despite the [[xenophobia]] and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of [[neo-Confucianism]], China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of [[Zheng He]]. |
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Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether [[Buddhism]] should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and [[Taoist]]s had become much more tolerant of each other.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=He |first1=Ziquan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/872462398 |title=Wei Jin Nan Bei chao shi = A history of the Wei Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties |last2=Zhang |first2=Guo'an |date=2013 |publisher=Renmin Chubanshe |isbn=978-7-01-011139-1 |edition=1st |location=Beijing |script-title=zh:魏晉南北朝史 |oclc=872462398 |author-mask=He Ziquan (何兹全) |author-mask2=Zhang Guo'an (张国安)}}</ref> |
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[[Zhu Yuanzhang]] or [[Hongwu Emperor of China|Hong-wu]], the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of [[Yongle Emperor of China|Emperor Yong-le]], independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. |
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===Mid-imperial China=== |
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[[File:Ming-Empire2.jpg|left|thumb|Ming China under the reign of the [[Yongle Emperor]]]] |
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====Sui dynasty (581–618)==== |
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The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the "[[Grand Secretariat|Grand Secretaries]]" (内阁) to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. |
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{{main|Sui dynasty}} |
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Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million {{Who|date=March 2009}}) was created. The Chinese armies [[Lê Lợi|conquered Vietnam]] for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern [[Moghulistan]]. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] was expanded and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's [[Forbidden City]] reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. |
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| title = Sui dynasty (AD 581–618) |
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| image1 = Cheui Dynasty 581 CE.png |
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| caption1 = Sui dynasty {{c.}} 609 |
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| image4 = Sui Yangdi Tang.jpg |
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| caption4 = Yang Guang depicted as Emperor Yang of Sui |
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The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by [[Emperor Wen of Sui|Emperor Wen]] in 581 in succession of the [[Northern Zhou]], the Sui went on to conquer the [[Chen dynasty|Southern Chen]] in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]], [[imperial examination]]s for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of [[fubing system]] of the army conscription and the [[equal-field system]] of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. [[Ancient Chinese coinage|Standardized coinage]] was enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] was constructed, linking the capitals [[Chang'an|Daxing (Chang'an)]] and [[Luoyang]] to the wealthy [[Southeastern China|southeast region]], and in another route, to the northeast border. The [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the [[Korean Peninsula]] during the [[Goguryeo–Sui War]] failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to [[transition from Sui to Tang|the fall of the dynasty]]. |
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In 1449 [[Esen Tayisi]] led an [[Oirats|Oirat]] Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the [[Zhengtong Emperor]] at [[Battle of Tumu Fortress|Tumu]]. In 1542 the Mongol leader [[Altan Khan]] began to harass China along the northern border. In 1550 he even reached the suburbs of Beijing. The empire also had to deal with [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]] attacking the southeastern coastline;<ref>"China > History > The Ming dynasty > Political history > The dynastic succession", ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', 2007</ref> General [[Qi Jiguang]] was instrumental in defeating these pirates. The deadliest earthquake of all times, the [[1556 Shaanxi earthquake|Shaanxi earthquake]] of 1556 that killed approximately 830,000 people, occurred during the [[Jiajing Emperor]]'s reign. |
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====Tang dynasty (618–907)==== |
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During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. |
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{{main|Tang dynasty}} |
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{{see also|Wu Zhou}} |
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===Qing Dynasty (AD 1644–1911)=== |
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[[Image:The Reception.JPG|thumb|left|"The reception of the Diplomatique ([[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|Macartney]]) and his suite, at the Court of Pekin". Drawn and engraved by [[James Gillray]], published in September 1792.]] |
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[[File:Qing china.jpg|thumb|300px|Territory of [[Qing Dynasty|Qing China]] in 1892]] |
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{{Main|Qing Dynasty}} |
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''Capitals: [[Shenyang]] and Beijing'' |
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| title = Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) |
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The [[Qing Dynasty]] (1644–1911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the [[Manchu people|Manchus]], it was the second non-[[Han Chinese]] dynasty. The Manchus were formerly known as ''[[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]'', residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the [[Great Wall]]. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming Dynasty after [[Nurhaci]] united all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. However, the [[Ming Dynasty]] would be overthrown by [[Li Zicheng]]'s peasants rebellion, with Beijing captured in 1644 and the last Ming Emperor [[Chongzhen]] committing suicide. The Manchu allied with the Ming Dynasty general [[Wu Sangui]] to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the [[Southern Ming Dynasty|remaining Ming's resistance in the south]]. The decades of Manchu conquest caused [[List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll#Wars_and_armed_conflicts|enormous loss of lives]] and the [[Economic history of China before 1912#Qing (Manchu) Dynasty (1644–1912 CE)|economic scale of China shrank drastically]]. Nevertheless, the Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule and were considered a Chinese dynasty. |
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| image1 = China, 742.svg |
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| caption1 = Tang Dynasty in 742 AD |
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| image2 = 河南 洛阳 龙门石窟 - panoramio.jpg |
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| caption2 = The Fengxian cave ({{c.}} 675 AD) of the [[Longmen Grottoes]], commissioned by [[Wu Zetian]]. |
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| image3 = 洛阳龙门石窟,Luo Yang Dragon Gate Grottoes - panoramio (9).jpg |
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| caption3 = Inside a cave of [[Longmen Grottoes]], a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]. |
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| image4 = Dunhuang star map.jpg |
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| caption4 = The [[Dunhuang map]] is to date the world's oldest complete preserved star atlas. |
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}} |
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The Tang dynasty was a [[Pax Sinica|golden age of Chinese civilization]], a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly [[Tang poetry|poetry]], and technology. [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]] became the predominant religion for the common people. [[Chang'an]] (modern [[Xi'an]]), the national capital, was the [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city in the world during its time]].<ref>{{ cite book |
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The Manchus enforced a 'queue order,' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu [[Queue (hairstyle)|queue hairstyle]] and Manchu-style clothing. The traditional Han clothing, or ''[[Hanfu]]'', was also replaced by Manchu-style clothing ''[[Qipao]]'' ([[Eight Banners|bannermen]] dress and ''[[Tangzhuang]]''). The [[Kangxi Emperor]] ordered the creation of [[Kangxi Dictionary]], the most complete dictionary of [[Chinese characters]] ever put together at the time. The Qing dynasty set up the "[[Eight Banners]]" system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military organization. The bannermen were prohibited from participating in trade and manual labour unless they petitioned to be removed from banner status. They were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land and allotments of cloth. |
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|isbn = 9780674064010 |
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| author-link= Mark Edward Lewis |
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| first = Mark Edward | last= Lewis |
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| title=China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty |
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| year = 2012 | publisher=Belknap Press |
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| series = History of Imperial China 3 |
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}}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> |
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The first emperor, [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Emperor Gaozu]], came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong]], one of the greatest [[Emperor of China|emperors in Chinese history]]. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|a tributary system]]. Military victories in the [[Tang dynasty in Inner Asia|Tarim Basin]] kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as [[Guangzhou]] connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably [[Nara period|Japan]]. Internally the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. [[Xuanzang]], a Chinese [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monk]], scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred [[sarira]] relics." |
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[[Image:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|left|thumb|French political cartoon from the late 1890s. A [[king cake]] representing China is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and Japan.]] |
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The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "[[Three Departments and Six Ministries]]" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar officials]] selected by [[imperial examination]]s, setting patterns for later dynasties. |
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Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the [[Ming Dynasty]] were consolidated under the Qing. [[Xinjiang]], Tibet, and [[Mongolia]] were also formally incorporated into Chinese territory. Between 1673 and 1681, the Emperor Kangxi suppressed an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule to large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor; he also put down a Ming restorationist invasion from Taiwan, called the [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories]]. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel [[Kingdom of Tungning|Grand Duchy of Tungning]], which was founded by the Ming loyalist [[Koxinga]] in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. |
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Under the Tang "[[equal-field system]]" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the ''[[Fubing system|fubing]]'' system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, [[Standing army|standing armies]] had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions. |
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By the end of [[Qianlong Emperor]]'s long reign, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. China ruled more than [[List_of_largest_empires#All_empires_at_their_greatest_extent|one-third of the world's population]], and had the largest economy in the world. By area of extent, it was [[List_of_largest_empires#All_empires_at_their_greatest_extent|one of the largest empires ever in history]]. |
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In the 19th century, the empire was internally stagnated and externally threatened by [[imperialism]]. The defeat by the [[British Empire]] in the [[First Opium War]] (1840) led to the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (1842), under which [[History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)|Hong Kong]] was ceded and [[opium]] import was legitimized. Subsequent military defeats and [[unequal treaties]] with other imperial powers would continue even after the fall of the Qing Dynasty. |
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| image1 = Freer SacklerDSCF8036.JPG |
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| caption1 = [[Western Regions|Central Asian]] influence can also be seen in the shape of this cup. The metropolitan and multicultural influences of this era can also be seen in the myriad depictions of foreigners in Tang [[Sancai]] ceramics and wall murals. |
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| image2 = Gilt silver jar with pattern of dancing horses.jpg |
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| caption2 = A Tang period [[gilding|gilt]]-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern [[nomad]]'s leather bag decorated with a [[domestication of the horse|horse]] dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] were trained to do.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=127}} |
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}} |
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The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress [[Wu Zetian]], the only official [[empress regnant]] in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], who oversaw an empire that stretched from the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] to the [[Aral Sea]] with at least {{nowrap|50 million}} people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese [[Tang poetry|poets]], [[Li Bai]] and [[Du Fu]]. |
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Internally, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (1851–1864), a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" [[Hong Xiuquan]], raided roughly a third of Chinese territory for over a decade until they were finally crushed in the [[Third Battle of Nanking]] in 1864. Arguably one of the largest wars in the 19th century in terms of troop involvement, there was massive loss of life, with [[List_of_wars_and_anthropogenic_disasters_by_death_toll#Wars_and_armed_conflicts|a death toll of about 20 million]].<ref>{{cite web | first=Matthew | last=White |url = http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm | title = Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> A string of rebellions followed, which included the [[Punti–Hakka Clan Wars]], [[Nien Rebellion]], [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]], and [[Panthay Rebellion]].<ref>{{cite book | first=Damsan |last=Harper | first2=Steve |last2=Fallon |first3=Katja |last3=Gaskell |first4=Julie |last4=Grundvig |first5= Carolyn |last5=Heller | first6=Thomas |last6=Huhti |first7=Bradley |last7=Maynew |first8=Christopher | last8=Pitts | title=Lonely Planet China | edition=9 | year=2005 | ISBN=1-74059-687-0}}</ref> Although all rebellions were eventually put down at enormous cost and with many casualties, the central imperial authority was seriously weakened. |
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At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] from 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption [[An Lushan Rebellion#Death toll|devastated the population]] and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as ''[[jiedushi]]'', gained increasingly autonomous status as the central government lost its ability to control them. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on its [[Salt in Chinese history|salt monopoly]]. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. |
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[[Image:The Portrait of the Qing Dynasty Cixi Imperial Dowager Empress of China in the 1900s.PNG|thumb|upright|The [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]]] |
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In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce [[Niu–Li factional strife|factional strife]] and corrupted [[eunuchs]] [[Sweet Dew incident|amassed immense power]]. Catastrophically, the [[Huang Chao Rebellion]], from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port [[Guangzhou]] in 879 was followed by the [[Guangzhou massacre|massacre]] of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagedumarchand00sirauoft |title=Voyage du marchand arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine, rédigé en 851, suivi de remarques par Abû Zayd Hasan (vers 916) |publisher=Paris Éditions Bossard |year=1922 |editor=Ferrand |editor-first=Gabriel |editor-link=Gabriel Ferrand |page=[https://archive.org/details/voyagedumarchand00sirauoft/page/76 76] |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html |title=Kaifung Jews |publisher=University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028113532/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html |archive-date=28 October 2008 }}</ref> By 881, both capitals, [[Luoyang]] and [[Chang'an]], fell successively. The reliance on ethnic [[Han Chinese|Han]] and [[Shatuo|Turkic]] [[Jiedushi|warlords]] in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following [[Zhu Wen]]'s usurpation led to an [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|era of division]]. |
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In response to calamities within the empire and threats from imperialism, the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] was an institutional reform in the second half of the 1800s. The aim was to modernize the empire, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by corrupt officials, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. As a result, the "[[Beiyang Fleet]]" were soundly defeated in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895). [[Guangxu Emperor]] and the reformists then launched a more comprehensive reform effort, the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] (1898), but it was shortly overturned by the conservatives under [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] in a military coup. |
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In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mm-cEAAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=PT248 | title=From the Khitans to the Jurchens & Mongols: A History of Barbarians in Triangle Wars & Quartet Conflicts | isbn=9781663242587 | last1=Yuan | first1=Hong | date=14 November 2022 | publisher=iUniverse }}</ref> The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=RA1-PA310 | title=History of Central Asia, the: 4-volume set | isbn=9781838608682 | last1=Baumer | first1=Christoph | date=18 April 2018 | publisher=Bloomsbury }}</ref> The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin ([[Li Guochang]]) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the [[Uyghur Khaganate]]. In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning [[Zhangxin Khan]], he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang.<ref>''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷246|vol. 246]].</ref> In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer [[Shi Xiong]] with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain.<ref>{{multiref2|''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷247|vol. 247]].|{{cite book | last= Twitchett | first= Denis | author-link = Denis Twitchett | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSk7EAAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=PA173 | title=Warfare in Chinese History | isbn=9789004482944 | editor=Hans van de Ven | date=2000 | publisher=Brill | page=173 | series= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 47 | doi=10.1163/9789004482944_006 | chapter= Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy }}|{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzEUAgAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=PA32 | title=Governing China: 150–1850 | isbn=9781603844475 | last1=Dardess | first1=John W. | date= 2010 | publisher=Hackett | page=32 }}}}</ref> |
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At the turn of the 20th century, a conservative anti-imperialist movement, the [[Boxer Rebellion]], violently revolted against foreign suppression over vast areas in Northern China. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to ensure her continual grip on power, sided with the Boxers as they advanced on Beijing. In response, a [[China Relief Expedition|relief expedition]] of the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China to rescue the besieged foreign missions. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US, and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing government. |
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====Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)==== |
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The early 1900s saw increasing civil disorder, despite reform talk by Cixi and the Qing government. [[Slavery]] in China was abolished in 1910.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/class/cfe/ceth/abolition/history.htm |title = Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071114095017/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/class/cfe/ceth/abolition/history.htm |archivedate = 14 November 2007}}</ref> The [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911 overthrew the Qing's imperial rule. |
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{{main|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period}} |
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| title = Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960) |
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| image1 = Later Han.png |
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| caption1 = Five Dynasties Ten Kingdoms Period 947 AD |
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| image2 = YunYanSiPagoda.jpg |
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| caption2 = [[Yunyan Pagoda]] in Jiangsu Province of Eastern China. |
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| image3 = 096 20100911 bt shanghai museum (4986578699).jpg |
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| caption3 = Coins of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms |
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| image4 = Gu Hongzhong 15.jpg |
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| caption4 = Section and detail of ''Night Revels of [[Han Xizai]]'', by [[Gu Hongzhong]] |
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}} |
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The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) [[Later Liang (Five Dynasties)|Liang]], [[Later Tang|Tang]], [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|Jin]], [[Later Han (Five Dynasties)|Han]] and [[Later Zhou|Zhou]], rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) [[Later Tang|Tang]], [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|Jin]] and [[Later Han (Five Dynasties)|Han]] were [[Sinicization|sinicized]] [[Shatuo|Shatuo Turks]], which ruled over an ethnic majority of [[Han Chinese]] in the north. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms". |
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Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic [[Sixteen Prefectures]] (region along today's [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]]) were ceded to the emerging [[Liao dynasty|Khitan Liao dynasty]], which drastically weakened the defense of [[China proper]] against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)|gained lasting independence]] after [[Third Chinese domination of Vietnam|being a Chinese prefecture]] for [[Chinese domination of Vietnam|many centuries]]. With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of [[Later Zhou]] general [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Zhao Kuangyin]], and the establishment of the [[Song dynasty]] in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China. |
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{{clear}} |
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===Late imperial China=== |
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====Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)==== |
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{{main|Song dynasty|Liao dynasty|Western Xia|Jin dynasty (1115–1234)}} |
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{{further|History of the Song dynasty}} |
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{{see also|Dali Kingdom|Qara Khitai}} |
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| title = Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (AD 960–1279) |
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| image1 = Asia in 1100-1200 AD.jpg |
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| caption1 = [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]], [[Southern Song]], and [[Western Xia]] in China. |
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| image2 = Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg |
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| caption2 = A wooden [[Bodhisattva]] from the Song dynasty. |
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| image3 = Chinese Gunpowder Formula.JPG |
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| caption3 = Earliest known [[History of gunpowder|written formula]] for [[gunpowder]], from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' of 1044 AD. |
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| image4 = |
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| caption4 = A giant "squatting-tiger fire [[trebuchet]]" located at the Wolongtai Great Wall section, Xinyang, Henan, China. |
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}} |
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In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Emperor Taizu]], with its capital established in [[Kaifeng]] (then known as [[Bianjing]]). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of [[China proper]], while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by [[Sinicization|sinicized]] [[nomadic empire]]s. The [[Khitan people|Khitan]] Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], and parts of [[North China|Northern China]]. Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of [[Gansu]], [[Shaanxi]], and [[Ningxia]], the [[Tangut people|Tangut]] tribes founded the [[Western Xia|Western Xia dynasty]] from 1032 to 1227. |
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Aiming to recover the strategic [[sixteen prefectures]] lost in the [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|previous dynasty]], [[Battle of Gaoliang River|campaigns]] were launched against the [[Liao dynasty]] in the [[Emperor Taizong of Song|early Song period]], which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao [[cavalry]] swept over the exposed [[North China Plain]] and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the [[Chanyuan Treaty]], which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional [[imperial Chinese tributary system|tributary system]]. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the [[Liao dynasty|Liao Empire]], at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. |
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Within the Liao Empire the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin [[cataphract]] annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the [[Qara Khitai]] Empire (Western Liao dynasty). [[Jin–Song Wars|Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty]] followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the [[Jingkang Incident]], ending the [[Northern Song dynasty]]. Later the [[Jurchen campaigns against the Song dynasty|entire north of China was conquered]]. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of [[Hangzhou]], and initiated the [[Southern Song dynasty]], which ruled territories south of the [[Huai River]]. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the [[Mongol conquest]], as Western Xia fell in 1227, the [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|Jin dynasty in 1234]], and finally the [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|Southern Song dynasty in 1279]]. |
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| image1 = Dingzhou Liaodi Pagoda 3.jpg |
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| caption1 = [[Liaodi Pagoda]], Song dynasty |
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| image2 = People's Republic of China Beijing Tianningsi Tianing Temple David McBride Photography-0045 02.jpg |
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| caption2 = The Pagoda of [[Tianning Temple (Beijing)|Tianing Temple]], [[Liao dynasty]] |
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}} |
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Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The [[Economy of the Song dynasty|Song economy]], facilitated by technological advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over {{nowrap|100 million}} and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the [[List of largest cities throughout history|most populous cities]] in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensive [[Maritime Silk Route|maritime trade]] with neighbouring states, such as in [[South-east Asia]], which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with [[compass]]es traveled throughout the [[China Seas]] and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime [[shipment]]s. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of [[Jiaozi (currency)|paper currency]] emerged in the western city of [[Chengdu]], as a cheaper supplement to the existing copper [[coin]]s. |
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The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as [[Su Song]] (1020–1101) and [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, [[woodblock printing]] and [[paper money]] were all invented during the Song dynasty, further cementing its status. |
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There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors [[Wang Anshi]] and [[Sima Guang]], respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of [[Neo-Confucian]] philosophy formulated by [[Zhu Xi]]. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). The invention of [[Woodblock print|movable-type printing]] further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' and ''[[Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute]]'', along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific [[Lin Tinggui]]. |
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{{multiple image |
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| image1 = Song Dynasty Hydraulic Mill for Grain.JPG |
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| image2 = 清明上河图.jpg |
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| image3 = Along the River During the Qingming Festival (detail of original).jpg |
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| image4 = Leifeng Pagoda in the Southern Song Dynasty by Li Song.jpg |
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| footer = City views of Song dynasty from paintings. Clockwise from upper left: A Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) era Chinese painting of a water-powered mill for grain, with surrounding river transport. The bridge scene from [[Zhang Zeduan]]'s (1085–1145) painting ''[[Along the River During Qingming Festival]]''. [[Junk (ship)|Chinese boats]] from ''[[Along the River During Qingming Festival]]''. [[Leifeng Pagoda]] in the Southern Song Dynasty by [[Li Song (painter)|Li Song]]. |
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}} |
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The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the [[Military history|history of warfare]]. [[Gunpowder]], while invented in the [[Tang dynasty]], was first put into practical use on the battlefield by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new [[firearm]]s and [[siege engine]]s designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the [[Yangtze]] and [[Huai River]] against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at [[Dinghai]]. [[Paddle wheel|Paddle-wheel]] warships equipped with [[trebuchet]]s could launch [[Incendiary device|incendiary bombs]] made of gunpowder and lime to effect, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the [[Battle of Tangdao]] in the [[East China Sea]], and the [[Battle of Caishi]] on the Yangtze River in 1161. |
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The advances in civilisation during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest of the North and subsequently other areas of the empire, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|halting Mongol advances]] for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the [[Battle of Yamen]] in 1279. |
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====Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)==== |
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{{main|Yuan dynasty}} |
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{{further|History of the Yuan dynasty}} |
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{{see also|Mongol Empire|Northern Yuan}} |
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| title = Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–1368) |
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| image1 = Miaoyingsi baita.jpg |
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| caption1 = The White Stupa of [[Miaoying Temple]] in Beijing. |
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| image2 = Deva King of the East.jpg |
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| caption2 = [[Four Heavenly Kings|Deva King of the East]] on the east wall of the [[Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass]]. |
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| image3 = Bronze cannon of 1332.jpg |
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| caption3 = Yuan period [[firearm]] with inscription dated the 3rd year of the Zhiyuan era (1332). Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368). Discovered at the Yunju Temple, Fangshan, Beijing, 1935. |
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| image4 = Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg |
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| caption4 = Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing wood plate, 1287 AD. |
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}} |
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[[File:MongolMap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|Mongol successor khanates]] |
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The [[Yuan dynasty]] was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the [[List of Mongol rulers|Great Khan of Mongol]], [[Kublai Khan]], one of the grandsons of [[Genghis Khan]], assumed the additional title of [[Emperor of China]], and considered [[Division of the Mongol Empire|his inherited part]] of the Mongol Empire as a [[Chinese dynasty]]. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The [[Mongols|Mongol]] Yuan dynasty became the first [[conquest dynasty]] in Chinese history to rule the entirety of [[China proper]] and [[List of ethnic groups in China|its population]] as an [[Mongols in China|ethnic minority]]. The dynasty also directly controlled the [[Mongol heartland]] and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the [[Division of the Mongol Empire|eastern Mongol empire]], which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the [[Mongol invasions of Japan|invasions of Japan]] and [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Vietnam]]. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at [[Khanbaliq]] (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). The [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to lively economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation for Beijing to largely remain as the [[Historical capitals of China|capital]] of the successive regimes of the unified Chinese mainland. |
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A series of [[Division of the Mongol Empire#Civil war|Mongol civil wars]] in the late 13th century led to the [[division of the Mongol Empire]]. In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal [[Khagan]] over western khanates (the [[Chagatai Khanate]], the [[Golden Horde]] and the [[Ilkhanate]]), which nonetheless remained ''de facto'' autonomous. The era was known as ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the [[Silk Road]] was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. A network of roads and a [[Yam (route)|postal system]] were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with [[Quanzhou]] and [[Hangzhou]] emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]], [[Marco Polo]], would settle in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail [[The Travels of Marco Polo|travel record]] inspired generations of [[High Middle Ages|medieval Europeans]] with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where [[paper currency]], known at the time as ''[[Jiaochao]]'', was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted [[hyperinflation]], which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty. |
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| image1 = The Observatory, Dengfeng, 2015-09-24 08.jpg |
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| caption1 = [[Dengfeng Observatory]], the first in a series of 27 astronomical observatories built in the early Yuan dynasty. |
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| image2 = 柏林禅寺舍利塔 - panoramio.jpg |
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| caption2 = The Pagoda of Bailin Temple, an octagonal-based brick pagoda built in 1330 during the reign of [[Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür|Emperor Wenzong]], ruler of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). |
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}} |
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While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their [[sinicization]] was of lesser extent compared to earlier [[Conquest dynasty|conquest dynasties]] in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the [[Mongolian Steppe]] were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups of [[Semu|foreign migrants]] settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of [[Scholar-official|scholar officials]] and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in ''[[zaju]]'' variety shows and [[Sanqu|literary songs]] (''[[sanqu]]''), which were written in a distinctive [[Yuan poetry|poetry style]] known as ''[[Qu (poetry)|qu]]''. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity. |
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| image1 = 代县阿育王塔.jpg |
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| caption1 = The [[Ayuwang Pagoda|Ayuwang Stupa]] in northern [[Shanxi]], China. |
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| image2 = Zhao guan Tower 2011-10.JPG |
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| caption2 = A [[stupa]] on top of an arch (''crossing street tower''), is a common form of architecture during Yuan period. |
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}} |
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Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately {{nowrap|120 million}} inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly {{nowrap|60 million}} people.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Ping-ti |last= Ho | author-link= Ping-ti Ho | title=An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China | journal = Études Song | series= 1 | issue=1 | year=1970 | pages=33–53}}</ref> This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as [[Timothy Brook]] argue that the Mongols created a system of [[serfdom|enserfment]] among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that [[Plague (disease)|plague]] was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China.<ref>{{cite journal |
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| pages =319–355 |
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| jstor = 44452010 |
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| journal= Bulletin of the History of Medicine |
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| publisher= The Johns Hopkins University Press |
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| volume= 85 | number= 3 | year = 2011 |
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| title=Was the Black Death in India and China? |
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| last = Sussman | first=George D. |
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| doi = 10.1353/bhm.2011.0054 |
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| pmid = 22080795 |
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| s2cid = 41772477 |
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| url = https://academicworks.cuny.edu/lg_pubs/52 |
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}}</ref>{{rp|348–351}} |
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Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent, corrupt governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the [[Largest naval battle in history|massive naval engagement]] [[Battle of Lake Poyang|at Lake Poyang]], [[Hongwu Emperor|Zhu Yuanzhang]] prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself [[Emperor of China|emperor]] and founded the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and [[Northern Yuan dynasty|sustained the regime]], but the period of Yuan dominance was effectively over for good. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China. |
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====Ming dynasty (1368–1644)==== |
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{{main|Ming dynasty}} |
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{{further|History of the Ming dynasty}} |
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{{see also|Southern Ming}} |
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| title = Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644) |
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| image1 = Haihui Temple (Shanxi).JPG |
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| caption1 = Haihui Temple Pagodas, built in the Ming period. |
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| image2 = 200 Cash (貳佰文) - Da-Ming Tongxing Baochao (大明通行寶鈔) KKNews 01.jpg |
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| caption2 = [[Da Ming Baochao]], a series of banknotes issued by the Ming government. |
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| image3 = Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665 0789.tif |
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| caption3 = [[Porcelain Tower]], from ''[[An embassy from the East-India Company]]'' (1665) by Johan Nieuhof. It was first discovered by the Western world when travelers like [[Johan Nieuhof]] visited it, sometimes listing it as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. |
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| image4 = Jining Chongjue Si Tieta 2015.08.13 17-18-45.jpg |
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| caption4 = Pagoda of Chongjue Temple, dated to the Song dynasty. The onion-shaped [[Sōrin]] was a Ming dynasty addition. |
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| image1 = Dongyang Luzhai 2015.05.24 15-53-48.jpg |
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| alt1 = Dongyang Luzhai |
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| caption1 = Residence of the Lu Family in Dongyang, built in the Ming period. |
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| image2 = XiAn CityWall DiLou.jpg |
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| alt2 = XiAn CityWall DiLou |
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| caption2 = [[Fortifications of Xi'an|City wall of Xi'an]], a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] built during the early Ming dynasty |
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| image3 = Fenghuang old town.JPG |
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| alt3 = Fenghuang old town |
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| caption3 = [[Fenghuang County]], an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles. |
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| image4 = Yixian Hongcun 2016.09.09 17-27-03.jpg |
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| alt4 = Yixian Hongcun |
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| caption4 = [[Hongcun]], a village in Yi County in the historical Huizhou region of southern Anhui Province. |
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| image5 = Xinye-9.jpg |
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| alt5 = Xinye |
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| caption5 = [[Xinye Village|Xinye]], a village noted for its well-preserved Ming and Qing era architecture and ancient residential buildings. |
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}} |
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The [[Ming dynasty]] was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the [[Hongwu Emperor]]. The capital was initially set at [[Nanjing]], and was later moved to [[Beijing]] from [[Yongle Emperor]]'s reign onward. |
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Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. |
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Despite the [[xenophobia]] and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of [[neo-Confucianism]], China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the [[Treasure voyages|voyages of Zheng He]]. |
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The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a [[Dynasties of China|Chinese dynasty]] who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived. |
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The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "[[Grand Secretariat]]" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including [[memorial to the throne|memorials]] (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. |
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The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armies [[Ming–Hồ War|conquered]] and [[Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam|occupied Vietnam]] for around 20 years, while the [[Treasure voyages|Chinese fleet sailed]] the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern [[Moghulistan]]. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's [[Forbidden City]] reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. |
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In 1449 [[Esen Tayisi]] led an [[Oirats|Oirat]] Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the [[Emperor Yingzong of Ming|Zhengtong Emperor]] at [[Tumu Crisis|Tumu]]. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the [[Ming Great Wall]] being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. |
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| image1 = Lin Liang-Eagles.jpg |
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| alt1 = A donkey |
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| caption1 = ''Eagles'' by [[Lin Liang]] ({{c.}} 1424 – 1500). Located at the [[National Palace Museum]]. |
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| image2 = Bian Jingzhao-Snow Plum and Twin Cranes.jpg |
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| alt2 = A trout |
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| caption2 = ''Snow Plums and Twin Cranes'' by [[Bian Jingzhao]] ({{Circa|1355|1428}}). Located at the [[Guangdong Museum]]. |
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At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the [[Haijin|maritime prohibition]] laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the [[Age of Discovery]] were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being [[Battle of Tunmen|repulsed by the Ming navy]] at [[Tuen Mun]] in 1521 and again [[Second Battle of Tamao|in 1522]]. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread ''[[wokou]]'' piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the [[Jiajing Emperor]] (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in [[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]] and [[Jiajing wokou raids|much military suppression]].<ref>{{ cite encyclopedia | entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-dynastic-succession | last= Hucker | first= Charles O. | author-link= Charles Hucker | entry= China > History > The Ming dynasty > Political history > The dynastic succession |title= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |date= 2007}}</ref> In addition to raids from Japan by the ''[[wokou]]'', raids from Taiwan and the [[Military history of the Philippines#Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565)|Philippines by the Pisheye]] also ravaged the southern coasts.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isorena |first=Efren B. |title=The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |date=2004 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=73–95 |jstor=29792550 |quote=Chau Ju-Kua, writing in the thirteenth century, probably was the first to mention that certain ferocious raiders of China's [[Fujian|Fukien]] coast probably came by way of the southern portion of the island of [[Formosa]], He referred to them as the Pi-sho-ye. }}</ref> The Portuguese were allowed to settle in [[Macau]] in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the [[Manila Galleon|Spanish at Manila]] imported large quantities of [[Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries|Mexican and Peruvian silver]] from the [[Spanish Americas]] to China.<ref>{{ cite journal| url= https://www.academia.edu/44625493 |title=Connecting China with the Pacific World? |first= Angela | last= Schottenhammer |date=2019 | journal= Orientierungen | volume= 31 | pages= 111–171 | publisher=Ostasien | place=Gossenberg | issn= 0936-4099 }}</ref>{{rp|144–145}} The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the [[Penghu|Penghu islands]] in the [[Sino-Dutch conflicts]] of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. [[Dutch Formosa|The Dutch in Taiwan]] fought with the Ming in the [[Battle of Liaoluo Bay]] in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist [[Koxinga]] in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty. |
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In 1556, during the rule of the [[Jiajing Emperor]], the [[1556 Shaanxi earthquake|Shaanxi earthquake]] killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time. |
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The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)]], which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the [[Joseon|Joseon dynasty]], its traditional ally and [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributary state]]. The [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|regional hegemony]] of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control in [[Manchuria]] in decline, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] ([[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]) tribes, under their chieftain [[Nurhaci]], broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was [[Hong Taiji|later proclaimed]] as the [[Qing dynasty]]. It went on to subdue the much weakened [[Joseon dynasty|Korea]] as its [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributary]], conquered [[Northern Yuan dynasty|Mongolia]], and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the [[Shanhai Pass]] to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal [[Li Zicheng|peasants uprisings]]. |
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====Qing dynasty (1644–1912)==== |
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{{main|Qing dynasty}} |
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{{further|History of the Qing dynasty}} |
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{{see also|Later Jin (1616–1636)|High Qing era|Century of humiliation|Self-Strengthening Movement}} |
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| title = Qing dynasty (AD 1644–1912) |
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| image1 = Carte generale de l'Empire Chinois et du Japon (1836).jpg |
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| caption1 = 1836 map of China published by C. Picque. |
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| image2 = Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 041.jpg |
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| caption2 = Pilgrim flask, [[porcelain]] with underglaze blue and iron-red decoration. |
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| image3 = MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg |
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| caption3 = A military attire of the Qianlong Emperor |
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| image4 = Chinese Geomantic Compass c. 1760, National Maritime Museum.JPG |
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| caption4 = A Qing period geomantic compass ({{c.}} 1760) |
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}} |
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| image1 = 颐和园万寿山佛香阁.jpg |
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| alt1 = Dongyang Luzhai |
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| caption1 = [[Summer Palace]], an imperial garden in Qing dynasty. |
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| image2 = Putuo Zongcheng Temple.jpg |
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| alt2 = XiAn CityWall DiLou |
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| caption2 = [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]], a Buddhist temple complex built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the [[Potala Palace]] of [[Tibet]]. |
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| image3 = 晋城皇城相府 - panoramio (14).jpg |
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| alt3 = |
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| caption3 = The [[House of the Huangcheng Chancellor]], a 10-hectare walled estate on Phoenix Hill in southeastern [[Shanxi]], China. |
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| image4 = 花戏楼 山门 副本.jpg |
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| caption4 = Flower Theatre, a Qing period guildhall. |
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| image5 = 会芳.jpg |
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| alt5 = |
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| caption5 = A residential building of [[Qiao Family Compound]], built in the Qing period. |
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The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the [[Manchu people|Manchus]], it was the second [[conquest dynasty]] to rule the entirety of [[China proper]], and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known as [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after [[Nurhaci]] united all Jurchen tribes and his son, [[Hong Taiji]], declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up the [[Eight Banners]] system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest. [[Li Zicheng]]'s peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the [[Southern Ming dynasty|Ming remnants in the south]]. During the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]], when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like the [[Shun dynasty]] and [[Xi dynasty]] founded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerable [[natural disaster]]s at that time such as those caused by the [[Little Ice Age]]<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Climate | date=March 2023 |volume= 11|issue=3|at= 71 |doi= 10.3390/cli11030071 | last=Fan |first=Ka-wai | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369343464 | title = The Little Ice Age and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty: A Review | bibcode=2023Clim...11...71F | access-date = September 3, 2023 | doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> and [[epidemic]]s like the [[Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty|Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=邱 |first=仲麟 |author-mask=Ch'iu Chung-lin (邱仲麟) |date=June 2004 |script-title=zh:明代北京的瘟疫與帝國醫療體系的應變 |trans-title=The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System |url=https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/3028acXZKHg.pdf |journal= |language=zh |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=331–388 |script-work=zh:中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 |trans-work=Journal of the Institute of History and Philology, Academica Sinica}}</ref> caused enormous loss of lives and [[Economic history of China before 1912#Qing dynasty (1644–1912)|significant harm to the economy]]. In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as {{nowrap|25 million}} lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.<ref>{{ cite book |
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| first = John Morris | last = Roberts |
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| year = 1997 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3QZXvUhGwhAC |
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| title=A Short History of the World |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125053756/https://books.google.com/books?id=3QZXvUhGwhAC |archive-date=25 November 2022 | publisher= Oxford University Press | page = 272 |
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| isbn =0-19-511504-X}}</ref> The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of [[Inner Asia]]n rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty. |
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The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu [[Queue (hairstyle)|queue hairstyle]]. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing ''[[Changshan]]'' ([[Eight Banners|bannermen]] dress and ''[[Tangzhuang]]''), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear [[Ancient Chinese clothing|traditional Han clothing]]. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. The [[Kangxi Emperor]] ordered the creation of the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'', the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. |
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Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. [[Ten Great Campaigns|Conquests in Central Asia]] in the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories]], an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the [[Shunzhi Emperor|previous emperor]]. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel [[Kingdom of Tungning]], which was founded by the Ming loyalist [[Koxinga]] (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing [[Sino-Russian border conflicts|defeated the Russians at Albazin]], resulting in the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]]. |
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By the end of [[Qianlong Emperor]]'s long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at [[High Qing era|its zenith]]. The Qing ruled more than [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|one-third of the world's population]], and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|one of the largest empires ever]]. |
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[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|A map of the [[Qing dynasty]], {{c.}} 1820]] |
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[[File:大清帝国全图.png|thumb|250px|Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905]] |
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In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the [[British Empire]] in the [[First Opium War]] (1840) led to the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (1842), under which [[History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)|Hong Kong]] was ceded to Britain and importation of [[opium]] (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and [[unequal treaties]] with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty. |
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Internally the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" [[Hong Xiuquan]] swept from the south to establish the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as [[Zeng Guofan]] to raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the [[Third Battle of Nanking]] in 1864.<ref name="Kuhn">{{ cite book |
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| isbn = 9780674749511 |
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| first = Phillip | last = Kuhn |
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| title= Rebellion and its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864 |
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| year = 1970 |
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| publisher= Harvard University Press |
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| at = Chapter 6 |
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| series=Harvard East Asian series |
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| volume = 49 |
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}}</ref> This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million.<ref>{{cite web | first=Matthew | last=White |url = http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm | title = Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century |access-date=11 April 2007}}</ref> A string of civil disturbances followed, including the [[Punti–Hakka Clan Wars]], [[Nian Rebellion]], [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Dungan Revolt]], and [[Panthay Rebellion]].<ref>{{cite book | first1=Damsan |last1=Harper | first2=Steve |last2=Fallon |first3=Katja |last3=Gaskell |first4=Julie |last4=Grundvig |first5= Carolyn |last5=Heller | first6=Thomas |last6=Huhti |first7=Bradley |last7=Maynew |first8=Christopher | last8=Pitts | title=Lonely Planet China | url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetchin00dami_1 | url-access=registration | edition=9 | year=2005 |publisher=Lonely Planet | isbn=1-74059-687-0}}</ref> All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.<ref name="Kuhn"/> |
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[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]]]] |
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Yet the dynasty appeared to recover in the [[Tongzhi Restoration]] (1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his proteges [[Li Hongzhang]] and [[Zuo Zongtang]]. Their [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] made effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The defeat of [[Yuan Shikai]]'s modernized "[[Beiyang Fleet]]" in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895) led to the formation of the [[New Army]]. The [[Guangxu Emperor]], advised by [[Kang Youwei]], then launched a comprehensive reform effort, the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] (1898). [[Empress Dowager Cixi]], however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it. |
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In the summer of 1900, the [[Boxer Rebellion|Boxer Uprising]] opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were [[Siege of the International Legations|besieged in the foreign legations quarter]]. An [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] sent the [[Seymour Expedition]] of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were routed and forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the [[Battle of Langfang]]. After [[Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)|the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts]], the court declared war on the Alliance and authorised the Boxers to join with imperial armies. After [[Battle of Tientsin|fierce fighting at Tianjin]], the Alliance formed the second, much larger [[Gaselee Expedition]] and [[Battle of Peking (1900)|finally reached Beijing]]; the Empress Dowager evacuated to [[Xi'an]]. The [[Boxer Protocol]] ended the war, exacting a tremendous [[Boxer Indemnity|indemnity]]. |
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The Qing court then instituted administrative and legal reforms known as the [[late Qing reforms]], including abolition of the [[imperial examinations|examination system]]. But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps a [[constitutional monarchy]], or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such as [[Liang Qichao]] and the revolutionary ideas of [[Sun Yat-sen]]. A localised military uprising, the [[Wuchang uprising]], began on 10 October 1911, in [[Wuchang]] (today part of [[Wuhan]]), and soon spread. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule. |
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==Modern China== |
==Modern China== |
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{{Main|History of the Republic of China|History of the People's Republic of China}} |
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[[File:1903 emperors-2.JPG|thumb|180px|right|{{center|Rulers of the world at the beginning of the 20th century}}]] |
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===Republic of China (1912–1949)=== |
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{{Main|History of the Republic of China|Republic of China (1912–1949)}} |
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''Capitals: [[Nanjing]], Beijing, [[Chongqing]], and several short-lived wartime capitals; [[Taipei]] after 1949'' |
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Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of [[Sun Yat-sen]]. When Sun Yat-sen was asked by one of the leading revolutionary generals to what he ascribed the success, he said, "To Christianity more than to any other single cause. Along with its ideals of religious freedom, and along with these it inculcates everywhere a doctrine of universal love and peace. These ideals appeal to the Chinese; they largely caused the Revolution, and they largely determined its peaceful character." |
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[[File:Sunyatsen1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sun Yat-sen]], founder and first president of the Republic of China.]] |
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===Republic of China (since 1912)=== |
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A revolutionary military uprising, the [[Wuchang Uprising]], began on 10 October 1911, in [[Wuhan]]. The [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional government]] of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] was formed in [[Nanjing]] on 12 March 1912. [[Sun Yat-sen]] was declared [[President of the Republic of China|President]], but Sun was forced to turn power over to [[Yuan Shikai]], who commanded the [[New Army]] and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the [[Puyi|last Qing monarch]] abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself emperor in late 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916, and died in June of that year. |
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{{Main|1911 Revolution|History of the Republic of China|Republic of China (1912–1949)|Taiwan}} |
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{{See also|History of Taiwan|History of Taiwan (1945–present)|Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan}} |
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[[File:Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|Flag of the [[First Guangzhou uprising]]]] |
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Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum in China; the republican government was all but shattered. This ushered in the [[Warlord Era]], during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. |
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[[File:Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Nanjing Road]] during [[Xinhai Revolution]], 1911]] |
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The [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional government of the Republic of China]] was formed in [[Nanjing]] on 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen became [[President of the Republic of China]], but he turned power over to [[Yuan Shikai]], who commanded the [[New Army]]. Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself as the emperor of [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Empire of China]] in late 1915, in the style of an [[absolute monarchy]]. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the rapidly growing prospect of violent rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June. |
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In 1919, the [[May Fourth Movement]] began as a response to the terms imposed on China by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] ending World War I, but quickly became a protest movement about the domestic situation in China. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century. |
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Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government (that had been nearly brought to its knees by his policies) was all but shattered. This opened the way for the [[Warlord Era]], during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and the [[Beiyang government]], ushering in a short-lived period of uncertainty. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the [[New Culture Movement]]. |
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In the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] (themselves fresh from a socialist uprising), he entered into an alliance with the fledgling [[Communist Party of China]]. After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, [[Chiang Kai-shek]], seized control of the ''[[Kuomintang]]'' (Nationalist Party or KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the [[Northern Expedition]] (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]], the CPC forces embarked on the [[Long March]] across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at [[Yan'an]] in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung). |
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[[File:Beijing students protesting the Treaty of Versailles (May 4, 1919).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Beijing college students rallied during the [[May Fourth Movement]], dissatisfied with Article 156 of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] for China ([[Shandong Problem]]).]] |
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The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)]], which became a part of World War II. |
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In 1919, the [[May Fourth Movement]] began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] following World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of [[Shandong]] to Japan. Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Foot |first=Rosemary |date=2019 |title=Remembering the past to secure the present: Versailles legacies in a resurgent China |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=143–160|doi=10.1093/ia/iiy211 }}</ref> |
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Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the KMT and the CPC resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CPC had established control over most of the country ''(see [[Chinese Civil War]])''. When Chiang was defeated by CPC forces in mainland China in 1949, he retreated to [[Taiwan]] with his government and his most disciplined troops, along with most of the KMT leadership and a large number of their supporters; Chiang Kai-shek had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China troops.<ref>[http://www.taiwandocuments.org/ghq.htm Surrender Order of the Imperial General Headquarters of Japan], 2 September 1945, "(a) The senior Japanese commanders and all ground, sea, air, and auxiliary forces within China (excluding Manchuria), [[Formosa]], and [[French Indochina]] north of 16 degrees north latitude shall surrender to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek."</ref> |
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Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey: |
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===People's Republic of China (1949–present)=== |
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:"Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations."{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=271}} |
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{{main|History of the People's Republic of China}} |
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Major combat in the [[Chinese Civil War]] ended in 1949 with [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to [[Taipei]] and maintaining control only over a few islands. The [[Communist Party of China]] was left in control of [[mainland China]]. On 1 October 1949, [[Mao Zedong]] proclaimed the People's Republic of China.<ref name="Ref_c">[http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm The Chinese people have stood up]. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006.{{dead link|date=November 2012}}</ref> "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.<ref name="Ref_d">Smith, Joseph; and Davis, Simon. [2005] (2005). The A to Z of the Cold War. Issue 28 of ''Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest''. Volume 8 of ''A to Z guides''. Scarecrow Press publisher. ISBN 0-8108-5384-1, ISBN 978-0-8108-5384-3.</ref> |
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[[File: |
[[File:Flag of China (1912–1928).svg|thumb|upright=0.8|Flag of the Republic of China from 1912 to 1928]] |
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[[File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|alt=Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth|thumb|upright=0.8|Flag of the Republic of China from 1928 to now]] |
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The PRC was shaped by a series of [[List of campaigns of the Communist Party of China|campaigns]] and [[Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China|five-year plans]], with mixed success. The economic and social plan known as the [[Great Leap Forward]] resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths.<ref name="Akbar2010">{{Cite news|url =http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html |title= Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'|accessdate=30 October 2010 |publisher=The Independent|location=London|first=Arifa|last=Akbar|date=17 September 2010}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the [[Soviet Union]], led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. |
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In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, [[Chiang Kai-shek]], seized control of the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party]] (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the [[Northern Expedition]] (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by [[National Revolutionary Army|military force]], Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the [[Nationalist government]] in Nanjing. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his [[National Revolutionary Army|NRA]]. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]], the CCP forces embarked on the [[Long March]] across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, a feat transformed into legend, where they established a guerrilla base at [[Yan'an]] in Shaanxi. During the Long March, the communists reorganised under a new leader, [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung). |
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In 1972, at the peak of the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mao and [[Zhou Enlai]] met [[Richard Nixon]] in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|admitted to the United Nations]] in place of the Republic of China for China's membership of the United Nations, and permanent membership of the Security Council. |
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{{multiple image |
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A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The [[Gang of Four]] were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. [[Deng Xiaoping]] outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman [[Hua Guofeng]], and gradually emerged as the ''de facto'' leader over the next few years. |
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| title = [[World War II]]<br/>([[Second Sino-Japanese War]]) |
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| image1 = 轟炸重慶.jpg |
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| caption1 = [[Bombing of Chongqing]] in 1940 |
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| image2 =Taierzhuang.jpg |
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| caption2 = Chinese soldiers in house-to-house fighting in the Battle of Tai'erzhuang |
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| image3 = Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces in Battle of Shanghai 1937.jpg |
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| caption3 = The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Special Naval Landing Forces troops in gas masks prepare for an advance in the rubble of Shanghai, China. |
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| image4 = Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg |
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| caption4 = Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at Lushan on 10 July 1937, three days after the [[Marco Polo Bridge Incident|Seventy-seven Incident]]. |
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}} |
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The bitter [[Chinese Civil War]] between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945), which became a part of [[World War II]], although this alliance was tenuous at best and disagreements, sometimes violent, between the forces were still common. Japanese forces committed numerous [[Japanese war crimes|war atrocities]] against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see [[Unit 731]]) and the [[Three Alls Policy]] (''Sankō Sakusen''), namely being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fairbank |first1=John King |author-link= John King Fairbank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBDC2cqb6I0C&pg=PA320 |title=China: A New History |last2=Goldman |first2=Merle |author2-link=Merle Goldman |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0674018280 |edition=2nd |page=320}}</ref> During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" in the [[Declaration by United Nations]], as a tribute to its enduring struggle against the invading Japanese.<ref>{{multiref2|{{cite book|title=Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947|date=1947|publisher=United Nations|location=Lake Success, NY|oclc=243471225|page=3|chapter-url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38|access-date=25 April 2015|chapter=The Moscow Declaration on general security}}|{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/history-of-the-un/preparatory-years|title=1942 Declaration by United Nations|publisher=United Nations|access-date=20 June 2015}} }}</ref> China was one of the four major [[Allies of World War II]], and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<ref>{{ multiref2|{{cite book |last1=Hoopes|first1=Townsend|first2=Douglas|last2=Brinkley |title=FDR and the Creation of the U.N.|publisher=Yale University Press|date= 1997}}|{{cite book|first=John Lewis|last=Gaddis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24 24]–25}} }}</ref> |
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Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country. [[Odd Arne Westad]] says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonised too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |title=Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 |date=2012 |page=291 |author-link=Odd Arne Westad}}</ref> During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rummel |first=Rudolph |title=Death by Government |date=1994}}</ref> These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Valentino |first=Benjamin A. |title=Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century |date=2005 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |page=88}}</ref> |
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[[Deng Xiaoping]] was the [[Paramount Leader]] of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to [[Chinese economic reform|significant economic reforms]]. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the [[People's commune|communes]] were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some<ref name="Ref_e">{{cite web | last=Hart-Landsberg | first=Martin | last2=Burkett | first2=Paul | url= http://www.monthlyreview.org/chinaandsocialism.htm | title =China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle | publisher = Monthly Review Press | ISBN=1-58367-123-4 | date=March 2010 | accessdate=30 October 2008}}</ref> as "[[market socialism]]", and officially by the Communist Party of China as "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]". The PRC adopted its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on 4 December 1982. |
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The Nationalists were slowly routed towards the South. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to [[Taiwan]] with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops there.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 September 1945 |title=Surrender Order of the Imperial General Headquarters of Japan |url=http://www.taiwandocuments.org/ghq.htm}}, "(a) The senior Japanese commanders and all ground, sea, air, and auxiliary forces within China (excluding Manchuria), [[Formosa]], and [[French Indochina]] north of 16 degrees north latitude shall surrender to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek."</ref> |
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In 1989, the death of former general secretary [[Hu Yaobang]] helped to spark the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when [[People's Liberation Army|PLA]] troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.<ref name="Ref_f">Youngs, R. ''The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy.'' Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-924979-4.</ref><ref name="Ref_g">Carroll, J. M. ''A Concise History of Hong Kong.'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3.</ref> The "[[Tank Man]]" incident in particular became famous. |
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Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognised as the [[China and the United Nations|sole legitimate government of China]] by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognise the PRC on account of its status as a communist nation during the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when the [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|PRC was seated in the United Nations]], replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period, and crackdowns against dissidents were common. |
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CPC general secretary and PRC President [[Jiang Zemin]] and PRC Premier [[Zhu Rongji]], both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref name="Ref_h">{{cite news | url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-07/11/content_244499.htm | title = Nation bucks trend of global poverty | date=11 July 2003 | newspaper=China Daily}}</ref><ref name="Ref_i">{{cite news | url = http://english.people.com.cn/english/200003/01/eng20000301X115.html | title = China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World | date= 1 March 2000 | newspaper = People's Daily}}</ref> The country formally joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001. |
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In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the [[Legislative Yuan]] and [[National Assembly]] elected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. In 1996, the ROC held [[1996 Taiwanese presidential election|its first direct presidential election]], and the incumbent president, KMT candidate [[Lee Teng-hui]], was elected. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the [[2008 Taiwan presidential election|2008 election]] by [[Ma Ying-jeou]]. |
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Although the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government has begun to worry that rapid economic growth has negatively impacted the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under former CPC general secretary and President [[Hu Jintao]] and Premier [[Wen Jiabao]], the PRC has initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome remains to be seen.<ref name="Ref_j">{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4913622.stm | title = China worried over pace of growth | publisher=BBC | accessdate=16 April 2006}}</ref> More than 40 million farmers have been displaced from their land,<ref name="Ref_k">{{cite journal | url = http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3166_0_3_0 | title = China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan | journal = Migration News | date=January 2006 | volume=13 |issue=1}}</ref> usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.<ref name="Ref_l">{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/27/AR2006012701588.html |title = In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms | newspaper = The Washington Post | date=28 January 2006}}</ref> For much of the PRC's population, living standards have seen extremely large improvements and freedom continues to expand, but political controls remain tight and rural areas poor.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas | first=Antony | url= http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html | title=''Frontline'': ''The Tank Man'' transcript | accessdate=12 July 2008 |date=11 April 2006 |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS }}</ref> |
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Due to the controversial nature of [[Political status of Taiwan|Taiwan's political status]], the ROC is currently recognised by [[Foreign relations of Taiwan|merely 12 UN member states and the Holy See]] {{as of|lc=y|2024}} as the legitimate government of "China". |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|China}} |
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{{div col|colwidth=20em}} |
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*[[Chinese armour]] |
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*[[Chinese exploration]] |
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*[[Chinese historiography]] |
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*[[Chinese sovereign]] |
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*[[Economic history of China]] |
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*[[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]] |
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*[[Foreign relations of Imperial China]] |
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*[[Four occupations]] |
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*[[History of Hong Kong]] |
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*[[History of Islam in China]] |
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*[[History of Macau]] |
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*[[History of science and technology in China]] |
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*[[List of Chinese monarchs]] |
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*[[List of Neolithic cultures of China]] |
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*[[List of rebellions in China]] |
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*[[List of recipients of tribute from China]] |
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*[[List of tributaries of Imperial China]] |
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*[[Military history of China (pre-1911)]] |
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*[[Naval history of China]] |
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*[[Religion in China]] |
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*[[Timeline of Chinese history]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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===People's Republic of China (since 1949)=== |
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==Notes== |
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{{Main|History of the People's Republic of China|China}} |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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{{See also|Proclamation of the People's Republic of China}} |
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[[File:Guèrra Civila Chinesa (1946-1950).png|thumb|240px|Map of the [[Chinese Civil War]]]] |
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Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to [[Taipei]] and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of [[mainland China]]. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.<ref name="Ref_c">[http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm The Chinese people have stood up]. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906133423/http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm |date=6 September 2015 }}</ref> "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.<ref name="Ref_d">{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Joseph |title=The A to Z of the Cold War |last2=Davis |first2=Simon |date=2005 |volume=Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest volume 8 no. 28|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-5384-3 |series=A to Z guides }}</ref> |
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The PRC was shaped by a [[List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party|series of campaigns]] and [[Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China|five-year plans]]. The [[Great Leap Forward]], a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths.<ref name="Akbar2010">{{Cite news |last=Akbar |first=Arifa |date=17 September 2010 |title=Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years' |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2024}} Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted [[collectivisation]] and implemented the [[Laogai]] camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the [[Soviet Union]], led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. |
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==Bibliography== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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Following the [[Sino-Soviet split]] and motivated by concerns of invasion by either the Soviet Union or the United States, China initiated the [[Third Front (China)|Third Front campaign]] to develop national defense and industrial infrastructure in its rugged interior.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Marquis |url= |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |oclc=1348572572 |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>{{Rp|page=44}} Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=177}} |
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===Surveys=== |
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* Blunden, Caroline, and Mark Elvin. ''Cultural Atlas of China'' (2nd ed 1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Atlas-China/dp/0816038147/ excerpt and text search] |
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* Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free] |
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* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Kwang-ching Liu. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1999) 352 pages |
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* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' 2nd ed. Harvard U. Press, (2006). 640 pp. |
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* Gernet, Jacques, J. R. Foster, and Charles Hartman. ''A History of Chinese Civilization'' (1996), called the best one-volume survey; |
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* Hsu, Cho-yun. ''China: A New Cultural History'' (Columbia University Press; 2012) 612 pages; stress on China's encounters with successive waves of globalization. |
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* Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. ''The Rise of Modern China,'' 6th ed. (Oxford University Press, 1999), highly detailed coverage of 1644–1999, in 1136pp. |
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* Huang, Ray. ''China, a Macro History'' (1997) 335pp, an idiosyncratic approach, not for beginners; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/china-a-macro-history-by-ray-huang.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]] |
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* Keay, John. ''China: A History'' (2009), 642pp |
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* Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''The Development of China'' (1917) 273 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=fSIPAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:latourette&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online] outdated survey |
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* Franz, Michael. ''China through the Ages: History of a Civilization.'' (1986). 278pp; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/china-through-the-ages-history-of-a-civilization-by-franz-michael.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]] |
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* Mote, Frederick W. ''Imperial China, 900–1800'' Harvard University Press, 1999, 1,136 pages, the authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties; |
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* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.'' Facts on File, 1999. 662 pp. |
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* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China.'' Harvard U. Press, 1999. 341 pp. |
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* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' Columbia U. Press, 2000. 356 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]] |
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* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1999), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1990s [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0393307808 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online at [[Questia]]] |
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* Ven, Hans van de, ed. ''Warfare in Chinese History.'' E. J. Brill, 2000. 456 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109282565 online edition] |
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* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' Garland, 1998. 442 pp. |
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* Wright, David Curtis. ''History of China'' (2001) 257pp; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-history-of-china-by-david-curtis-wright-john-e-findling-frank-w-thackeray.jsp online edition] |
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* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=30&as_brr=1&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_libcat=0&as_brr=1&as_vt=history+china&as_auth=&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of older histories (pre 1923)] |
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* Wills, Jr., John E. ''Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History'' (1994) [http://www.amazon.com/Mountain-Fame-Portraits-Chinese-History/dp/0691026742/ excerpt and text search] 20 essays on leading figures across 4000 years |
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In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and [[Zhou Enlai]] met U.S. president [[Richard Nixon]] in Beijing to establish relations with the US. In the same year, the [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|PRC was admitted to the United Nations]] in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council. |
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===Prehistory=== |
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* Chang, Kwang-chih. ''The Archaeology of Ancient China,'' Yale University Press, 1986. |
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*Discovery of residue from fermented beverage consumed up to 9,000 years ago in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues from China, Great Britain and Germany. |
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*{{cite web|first=Rixiang|last=Zhu|coauthors= Zhisheng An, Richard Potts, Kenneth A. Hoffman|url=http://www.paleomag.net/members/rixiangzhu/Earth-Sci%20Review.pdf |title=Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00132-0 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-23}} |
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*[http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/documenta/pdf29/29chi.pdf The Discovery of Early Pottery in China] by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China. |
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A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The [[Gang of Four]] were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. [[Deng Xiaoping]] outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman [[Hua Guofeng]], and gradually emerged as the ''de facto'' leader over the next few years. |
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===Shang Dynasty=== |
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* Durant, Stephen W. ''The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian'' (1995), |
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Deng Xiaoping was the [[Paramount Leader]] of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to [[Chinese economic reform|significant economic reforms]]. The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the [[People's commune|communes]] were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. In addition, there were many free market areas opened. The most successful free market area was Shenzhen. It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some<ref name="Ref_e">{{Cite book |last1=Hart-Landsberg |first1=Martin |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasocialismma00mart |title=China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle |last2=Burkett |first2=Paul |date=2010 |publisher=Monthly Review Press |isbn=978-1-58367-123-8 |access-date=30 October 2008 |url-access=registration}}</ref> as [[market socialism]], and officially by the CCP as [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]. The PRC adopted its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on 4 December 1982. |
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===Han Dynasty=== |
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*[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. 1972. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 16, Australian National University. Canberra. |
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*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. ''Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire''. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra. |
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*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/south_china.html |title=South China under the Later Han Dynasty|first=Rafe|last= de Crespigny |accessdate=2011-01-23|chapter=Chapter One from ''Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu''|journal= Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16|publisher= Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra|year= 1990}} |
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*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/mil_org.html|journal=Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 21 |title=Later Han Military Administration: An Outline of the Military Administration of the Later Han Empire|first= Rafe|last= de Crespigny|publisher=Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University |year=1996|edition=Based on the Introduction to Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling being the Chronicle of Later Han for the years 189 to 220 CE as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang |accessdate=2011-01-23}} |
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*Dubs, Homer H. 1938–55. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. '' (3 vol) |
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* Hill, John E. ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE''. (2009) ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. |
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*Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N., eds. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BCE – CE 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. (1979) |
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*Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. ''The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BCE – CE 220''. Cambridge University Press. |
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*Yap, Joseph P. ``''Wars With the Xiongnu – A Translation From Zizhi tongjian''`` (''Zhan-guo, Qin, Han and Xin'' 403 BCE – 23 CE.) AuthorHouse (2009) ISBN 1-4900-0604-4 |
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In 1989 the death of former general secretary [[Hu Yaobang]] helped to spark the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|Tiananmen Square protests]] of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when [[People's Liberation Army|Army]] troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests#Death toll|considerable numbers of fatalities]]. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the communist government.<ref name="Ref_f">{{Cite book |last=Youngs |first=R. |title=The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy |date=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-924979-4}}.</ref><ref name="Ref_g">{{Cite book |last=Carroll |first=J. M. |title=A Concise History of Hong Kong |date=2007 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-3422-3}}.</ref> |
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===Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties=== |
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*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/3KWJin.html |title=The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD|first=Rafe|last= de Crespigny |journal=East Asian History |publisher= Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra|year=1991|accessdate=2011-01-23|issue= 1 June 1991, pp. 1–36, & no. 2 December 1991, pp. 143–164}} |
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*Miller, Andrew. ''Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty.'' (1959) |
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CCP general secretary and PRC president [[Jiang Zemin]] and PRC premier [[Zhu Rongji]], both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref name="Ref_i">{{Cite news |date=1 March 2000 |title=China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World |work=People's Daily |url=http://english.people.com.cn/english/200003/01/eng20000301X115.html}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} The country formally joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001. By [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]] and [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|1999]], former European colonies of [[British Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau]] became the Hong Kong and Macau [[special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China]], respectively. |
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===Sui Dynasty=== |
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*[[Arthur F. Wright|Wright, Arthur F.]] 1978. ''The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. CE 581–617''. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4, ISBN 0-394-32332-7 (pbk). |
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Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's natural resources and environment. Another concern was that certain sectors of society were not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this was the wide gap between urban and rural areas in terms of development and prevalence of updated infrastructure. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President [[Hu Jintao]] and Premier [[Wen Jiabao]], the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known {{As of|2014|lc=y}}.<ref name="Ref_j">{{Cite news |title=China worried over pace of growth |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4913622.stm |access-date=16 April 2006}}</ref> More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land,<ref name="Ref_k">{{Cite journal |date=January 2006 |title=China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan |url=http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3166_0_3_0 |journal=Migration News |volume=13 |issue=1}}</ref> usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.<ref name="Ref_l">{{Cite news |date=28 January 2006 |title=In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/27/AR2006012701588.html}}</ref> For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Antony |date=11 April 2006 |title=''Frontline'': ''The Tank Man'' transcript |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html |access-date=12 July 2008 |website=Frontline |publisher=PBS}}</ref> |
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===Tang Dynasty=== |
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*Benn, Charles. 2002. ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0. |
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*Schafer, Edward H. 1963. ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics''. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. |
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*Schafer, Edward H. 1967. ''The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. |
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*Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. ''Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500''. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1-56324-144-7. |
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*Wang, Zhenping. 1991. "T’ang Maritime Trade Administration." Wang Zhenping. ''Asia Major'', Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7–38. |
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According to the [[U.S. Department of Defense]], as many as 3 million [[Uyghurs]] and members of other [[Islam in China|Muslim]] minority groups are being held in China's [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] which are located in the [[Xinjiang]] region and which Western news reports often label as "concentration camps".<ref>{{cite news |
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===Song Dynasty=== |
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| last = Chan | first = Tara Francis |
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* Ebrey, Patricia. ''The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period'' (1990) |
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|title=As the U.S. Targets China's 'Concentration Camps', Xinjiang's Human Rights Crisis is Only Getting Worse |url=https://www.newsweek.com/xinjiang-uyghur-crisis-muslim-china-1398782 |work=Newsweek |date=22 May 2019}}{{pb}}{{cite news |
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* Hymes, Robert, and Conrad Schirokauer, eds. ''Ordering the World: Approaches to State and Society in Sung Dynasty China,'' U of California Press, 1993; [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1000031p/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free] |
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| first = Lateshia | last = Beachum |
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*Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. ''Commerce and Society in Sung China''. Originally published in Japanese as ''So-dai sho-gyo—shi kenkyu-''. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. |
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|title=Uighurs and their supporters decry Chinese 'concentration camps', 'genocide' after Xinjiang documents leaked |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/11/17/uighurs-their-supporters-decry-chinese-concentration-camps-genocide-after-xinjiang-documents-leaked/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=17 November 2019}}</ref> The camps were established in late 2010s under [[Xi Jinping]]'s [[Xi Jinping Administration|administration]].<ref name=":1b"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Keeffe |first1=Kate |last2=Ferek |first2=Katy Stech |date=14 November 2019 |title=Stop Calling China's Xi Jinping 'President', U.S. Panel Says |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/stop-calling-chinas-xi-jinping-president-u-s-panel-says-11573740000 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a [[people's war on terror]], a policy announced in 2014.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/10/china-free-xinjiang-political-education-detainees |title=China: Free Xinjiang 'Political Education' Detainees |date=10 September 2017 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=10 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="fp-gulag">{{Cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/28/a-summer-vacation-in-chinas-muslim-gulag/ |title=A Summer Vacation in China's Muslim Gulag |date=28 February 2018 |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=":1b">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html|title='Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims|last1=Ramzy|first1=Austin|date=16 November 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=16 November 2019|last2=Buckley|first2=Chris|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure.<ref name="Dou-2022">{{Cite news |date=2022-09-23 |title=As crackdown eases, China's Xinjiang faces long road to rehabilitation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/09/23/china-xinjiang-crackdown-uyghurs-surveillance/ |access-date=2022-10-06 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en}}</ref> Academic [[Kerry Brown (historian)|Kerry Brown]] attributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them.<ref name=":1022">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Kerry |author-link=Kerry Brown (historian) |title=China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One |date=2023 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-26724-4 |location=London}}</ref>{{Rp|page=138}} China has repeatedly denied this, asserting that the West has never been able to produce reliably-sourced satellite footage of any such detainment or resulting detention of minority groups. Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centres have been performed as of June 2024, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned.<ref name="Dou-2022" /> In 2022, a Washington Post reporter checked a dozen sites previously identified as reeducation centres and found "[m]ost of them appeared to be empty or converted, with several sites labeled as coronavirus quarantine facilities, teachers' schools and vocational schools."<ref name="Dou-2022" /> In 2023, [[Amnesty International]] said that they were "witnessing more and more arbitrary detention", but that detained individuals were being moved from the camps into the [[Penal system in China|formal prison system]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Willemyns |first=Alex |date=September 19, 2023 |title=Uyghur event in NY goes ahead despite Beijing's warning |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/china-transnational-repression-09192023172318.html |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=[[Radio Free Asia]] |language=en}}</ref> |
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The novel coronavirus [[SARS-CoV-2]], which causes the disease [[COVID-19]], was first detected in [[Wuhan]], Hubei in 2019 and led to a [[COVID-19 pandemic|global pandemic]], causing the majority of the world to enter a period of lockdown for at least a year following. |
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===Ming Dynasty=== |
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* Brook, Timothy. ''The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China.'' (1998). |
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* Brook, Timothy. ''The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties'' (2010) 329 pages. Focus on the impact of a Little Ice Age on the empire, as the empire, beginning with a sharp drop in temperatures in the 13th century during which time the Mongol leader Kubla Khan moved south into China. |
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* Dardess, John W. ''A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries.'' (1983); uses advanced "new social history" [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2s2004qh/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free] |
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* Farmer, Edward. ''Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule.'' E.J. Brill, 1995. |
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* Goodrich, L. Carrington, and Chaoying Fang. ''Dictionary of Ming Biography.'' (1976). |
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* Huang, Ray. ''1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline.'' (1981). |
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* Mann, Susan. ''Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century'' (1997) |
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* Mote, Frederick W. and Twitchett, Denis, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1.'' (1988). 976 pp. |
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* Schneewind, Sarah. ''A Tale of Two Melons: Emperor and Subject in Ming China.'' (2006). |
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* Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. ''Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle.'' (2001). |
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* Mote, Frederick W., and Denis Twitchett, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7, part 1: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644'' (1988). 1008 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C excerpt and text search] |
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* Twitchett, Denis and Frederick W. Mote, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1.'' |
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** Twitchett, Denis and Frederick W. Mote, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2. '' (1998). 1203 pp. |
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px"> |
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===Qing Dynasty=== |
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File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg|The [[People's Liberation Army]] enters Beijing in the [[Pingjin Campaign]] |
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* Fairbank, John K. and Liu, Kwang-Ching, ed. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 2: Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911, Part 2.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1980. 754 pp. |
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File:China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing 01.jpg|People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing |
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* Peterson, Willard J., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800.'' Cambridge U. Press, 2002. 753 pp. |
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File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|alt=Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth|The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949. |
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* Rawski, Evelyn S. ''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions'' (2001) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8d5nb4v4/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free] |
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</gallery> |
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* Struve, Lynn A., ed. ''The Qing Formation in World-Historical Time.'' (2004). 412 pp. |
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* Struve, Lynn A., ed. ''Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws'' (1998) |
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* Yizhuang, Ding. "Reflections on the 'New Qing History' School in the United States," ''Chinese Studies in History,'' Winter 2009/2010, Vol. 43 Issue 2, pp 92–96, It drops the theme of "sinification" in evaluating the dynasty and the non-Han Chinese regimes in general. It seeks to analyze the success and failure of Manchu rule in China from the Manchu perspective and focus on how Manchu rulers sought to maintain the Manchu ethnic identity throughout Qing history. |
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== See also == |
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===Republican era=== |
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{{div col}} |
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* Bergere, Marie-Claire. ''Sun Yat-Sen'' (1998), 480pp, the standard biography |
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* [[Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)|Chinese emperors family tree]] |
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* Boorman, Howard L., ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967–1979). 600 short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC excerpt and text search] |
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** [[Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)|Ancient]] – [[Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)|Early]] – [[Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)|Middle]] – [[Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)|Late]] |
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** Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (1970) 3: 170–89, [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=+YANG+CH'%C3%9C-Y%C3%9CN&source=web&ots=2vo5nB_pW4&sig=z9_ba59M35GI7n85WvjZR5zS3HU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA170,M1 complete text online] |
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* [[Chinese exploration]] |
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* Dreyer, Edward L. ''China at War, 1901–1949.'' (1995). 422 pp. |
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* [[Chinese historiography]] |
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* Eastman Lloyd. ''Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937– 1945.'' (1984) |
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* [[Christianity in China]] |
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* Eastman Lloyd et al. ''The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949'' (1991) |
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* [[Economic history of China]] |
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* Fairbank, John K., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912–1949. Part 1.'' (1983). 1001 pp. |
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* [[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]] |
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* Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2.'' (1986). 1092 pp. |
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* [[Foreign relations of imperial China]] |
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* Fogel, Joshua A. ''The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography'' (2000) |
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* [[Golden ages of China]] |
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* Gordon, David M. ''The China-Japan War, 1931–1945.'' ''The Journal of Military History'' v70#1 (2006) 137–182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; in [[Project Muse]] |
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* [[History of canals in China]] |
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* Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945'' (1992), essays by scholars; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinas-bitter-victory-the-war-with-japan-1937-1945-by-james-c-hsiung-steven-i-levine.jsp online from [[Questia]]]; |
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* [[History of Islam in China]] |
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* Hsi-sheng, Ch'i. ''Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945'' (1982) |
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* [[History of science and technology in China]] |
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* Hung, Chang-tai. ''War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937–1945'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft829008m5/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free] |
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* [[History of Taiwan]] |
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*Lara, Diana. ''The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945'' (2010) |
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* [[History of the Great Wall of China]] |
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* Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. ''Taiwan: A New History'' (2006), 560pp |
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* [[List of Chinese monarchs]] |
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* Shiroyama, Tomoko. ''China during the Great Depression: Market, State, and the World Economy, 1929–1937'' (2008) |
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* [[List of rebellions in China]] |
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* Shuyun, Sun. ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007) |
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* [[List of recipients of tribute from China]] |
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* Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China.'' (2009) ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 |
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* [[List of tributary states of China]] |
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* Westad, Odd Arne. ''Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950.'' (2003). 413 pp. the standard history |
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* [[Military history of China before 1912]] |
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* [[Naval history of China]] |
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* [[Population history of China]] |
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* [[Timeline of Chinese history]] |
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* [[Women in ancient and imperial China]]{{div col end}} |
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== References == |
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===Communist era, 1949– present=== |
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===Notes=== |
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* Barnouin, Barbara, and Yu Changgen. ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life'' (2005) |
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{{notelist}} |
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* Baum, Richard D. "'Red and Expert': The Politico-Ideological Foundations of China's Great Leap Forward," ''Asian Survey,'' Vol. 4, No. 9 (Sep. 1964), pp. 1048–1057 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-4687(196409)4%3A9%3C1048%3A%22AETPF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 in JSTOR] |
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* Becker, Jasper. ''Hungry Ghosts: China's Secret Famine'' (1996), on the "Great Leap Forward" of 1950s |
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* Chang, Jung and Jon Halliday. ''Mao: The Unknown Story,'' (2005), 814 pages, ISBN 0-679-42271-4 |
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* Dittmer, Lowell. ''China's Continuous Revolution: The Post-Liberation Epoch, 1949–1981'' (1989) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3q2nb24q/?&query=&brand=ucpress online free] |
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* Dietrich, Craig. ''People's China: A Brief History,'' 3d ed. (1997), 398pp |
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* Kirby, William C., ed. ''Realms of Freedom in Modern China.'' (2004). 416 pp. |
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* Kirby, William C.; Ross, Robert S.; and Gong, Li, eds. ''Normalization of U.S.-China Relations: An International History.'' (2005). 376 pp. |
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* Li, Xiaobing. ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' (2007) |
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* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966–1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp. |
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* [[Maurice Meisner|Meisner, Maurice]]. ''Mao's China and After: A History of the People’s Republic,'' 3rd ed. (Free Press, 1999), dense book with theoretical and political science approach. |
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* Spence, Jonatham. ''Mao Zedong'' (1999) |
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* Shuyun, Sun. ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007) |
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* Wang, Jing. ''High Culture Fever: Politics, Aesthetics, and Ideology in Deng's China'' (1996) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0489n683/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free] |
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* Wenqian, Gao. ''Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary'' (2007) |
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=== |
=== Citations === |
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{{Reflist}} |
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* Clark, Paul. ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History'' (2008), a favorable look at artistic production [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521875153 excerpt and text search] |
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* Esherick, Joseph W.; Pickowicz, Paul G.; and Walder, Andrew G., eds. ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History.'' (2006). 382 pp. |
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* Jian, Guo; Song, Yongyi; and Zhou, Yuan. ''Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.'' (2006). 433 pp. |
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* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966–1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp. |
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* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Michael Schoenhals. ''Mao's Last Revolution.'' (2006). |
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* MacFarquhar, Roderick. ''The Origins of the Cultural Revolution. Vol. 3: The Coming of the Cataclysm, 1961–1966.'' (1998). 733 pp. |
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* Yan, Jiaqi and Gao, Gao. ''Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution.'' (1996). 736 pp. |
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=== |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wu |last2=Martinón-Torres |first2=María |last3=Cai |first3=Yan-jun |last4=Xing |first4=Song |last5=Tong |first5=Hao-wen |last6=Pei |first6=Shu-wen |last7=Sier |first7=Mark Jan |last8=Wu |first8=Xiao-Hong |last9=Edwards |first9=R. Lawrence |last10=Cheng |first10=Hai |last11=Li |first11=Yi-Yuan |last12=Yang |first12=Xiong-xin |last13=De Castro |first13=José María Bermúdez |last14=Wu |first14=Xiu-jie |year=2015 |title=The earliest unequivocally modern humans in southern China |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=526 |issue=7575 |pages=696–699 |doi=10.1038/nature15696 |pmid=26466566 |bibcode=2015Natur.526..696L|s2cid=205246146 |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1472397/1/Nature%20merged%20file.pdf }} |
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* Stuart-Fox, Martin. ''A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence.'' (2003). 278 pp. |
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* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |year=2018 |title=[[Chinese History: A New Manual]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Asia Center]] |location=Cambridge |edition=5th |isbn=978-0-9988883-0-9 }} |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Rukang |last2=Lin |first2=Shenglong |date=June 1983 |title=Peking Man |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=248 |issue=6 |pages=92–93 |jstor=24968922 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0683-86 |bibcode=1983SciAm.248f..86R }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Xiong |first1=Victor Cunrui |last2=Hammond |first2=Kenneth J. |author-link2=Ken Hammond (historian) |year=2019 |title=Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-367-58051-3 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=cmNwDwAAQBAJ}} }} |
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* {{Cite Cambridge History of China|ref=no}} |
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** {{Cite Cambridge History of China|last=Yu |first=Ying-shih |author-link=Yu Ying-shih |volume=1 |chapter=Han Foreign Relations }} |
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{{refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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===Women and gender=== |
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{{Main list|Bibliography of Chinese history}} |
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* Ebrey, Patricia. ''The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period'' (1990) |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* Hershatter, Gail, and Wang Zheng. "Chinese History: A Useful Category of Gender Analysis," ''American Historical Review,'' Dec 2008, Vol. 113 Issue 5, pp 1404–1421 |
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* {{cite book |first=John W. |last=Dardess |title=Governing China, 150–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IpXzmOuqiegC&q=john+dardess |year=2010 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=978-1-60384-311-9}} |
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* Hershatter, Gail. ''Women in China's Long Twentieth Century'' (2007), [http://escholarship.org/uc/gaia_gaia_books full text online] |
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* [[John K. Fairbank|Fairbank, John King]] and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' 2nd ed. (Harvard UP, 2006). 640 pp. |
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* Hershatter, Gail, Emily Honig, Susan Mann, and Lisa Rofel, eds. ''Guide to Women's Studies in China'' (1998) |
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* Gernet, Jacques. ''A History of Chinese Civilization'' (1996). One-volume survey. |
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* Ko, Dorothy. ''Teachers of Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in China, 1573–1722'' (1994) |
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* Li, Xiaobing, ed. [https://archive.org/details/chinaatwaranencyclopedia ''China at War: An Encyclopedia'']. (ABC-CLIO, 2012). |
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* Mann, Susan. ''Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century'' (1997) |
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* Mote, Frederick W. ''Imperial China, 900–1800'' (Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp. Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties. |
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* Wang, Shuo. "The 'New Social History' in China: The Development of Women's History," ''History Teacher,'' May 2006, Vol. 39 Issue 3, pp 315–323 |
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* Perkins, Dorothy. [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00perk_0 ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture''] (Facts on File, 1999). 662 pp. |
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* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China'' (Harvard U. Press, 1999). 341 pp. |
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* Stanford, Edward. [https://archive.org/details/cu31924023258241/page/n4 ''Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China''] (2nd ed., 1917). Legible color maps. |
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* Wright, David Curtis. ''History of China'' (2001) 257 pp. |
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{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
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== External links == |
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==Further reading== |
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{{Library resources box |about=yes |by=no }} |
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*[http://www.princeton.edu/~classbib/ CLASSICAL HISTORIOGRAPHY FOR CHINESE HISTORY] |
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*Abramson, Marc S. (2008). ''Ethnic Identity in Tang China''. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8. |
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PER WIKIPEDIA'S POLICIES, --DO--NOT-- USE GLOBAL CHINAWIKIPEDIA AND SIMILAR SITES AS SOURCES OR EXTERNAL LINKS. THEY WILL BE DELETED. |
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*Ankerl, G. C. ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western''. INU PRESS Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. |
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* Blunden, Caroline, and Mark Elvin. ''Cultural Atlas of China'' (2nd ed 1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Atlas-China/dp/0816038147/ excerpt and text search] |
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* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20121129203455/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm China Knowledge]'', a [[Chinaknowledge|comprehensive online encyclopedia]] of China from Ulrich Theobald |
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* Eberhard, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free] |
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* The ''[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China]'' on [[Oxford Reference]] {{subscription required}} |
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*[[John K. Fairbank|Fairbank, John King]], and Merle Goldman. ''China: A New History.'' (1998). 546 pp. |
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* [https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=4043 China Rediscovers its Own History], a lengthy lecture on Chinese history given by [[Yu Ying-shih]] |
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* [[Ken Hammond|Hammond, Kenneth J.]] [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/ttcx/coursedesclong2.aspx?cid=8320&id=8320&d=From+Yao+to+Mao%3A+5000+Years+of+Chinese+History&pc=History%20-%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History]. The Teaching Company, 2004. (A lecture on DVD.) |
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* [[Herbert Giles|Giles, Herbert Allen]]. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2076 ''The Civilization of China'']. [[Project Gutenburg]] e-text. A general history, originally published around 1911. |
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*[[Herbert Giles|Giles, Herbert Allen]]. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2156/2156-h/2156-h.htm ''China and the Manchus'']. Project Gutenberg e-text. Covers the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty, around 1912. |
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* Hsu, Cho-yun. ''China: A New Cultural History'' (Columbia University Press; 2012) 612 pages; stress on China's encounters with successive waves of globalization. |
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* [[Berthold Laufer|Laufer, Berthold]]. 1912. ''JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion''. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974. |
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* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.'' (1999). 662 pp. |
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* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China.'' (1999). 341 pp. |
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* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' (2000). 356 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition] |
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* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s [http://www.amazon.com/Search-Modern-China-Jonathan-Spence/dp/0393307808/ excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online] |
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* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 442 pp. |
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{{Subject bar |
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* Wilkinson, Endymion Porter, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&printsec=frontcover ''Chinese history : a manual],'' revised and enlarged. – Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University, Asia Center (for the Harvard-Yenching Institute), 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN 0-674-00249-0; for advanced users |
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==External links== |
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| portal3 = History |
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*[http://www.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/database/index.htm Chinese Database] by [[Academia Sinica]] {{zh icon}} |
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| voy-search = Imperial China |
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*[http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552524 Modernizing China] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] |
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}} |
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*[http://saturn.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~wenwu/ww.htm Manuscript and Graphics Database] by [[Academia Sinica]] {{zh icon}} |
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{{China topics}} |
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*[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm A universal guide for China studies] |
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{{Taiwan topics}} |
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*[http://www.ourorient.com/ Oriental Style] The Genuine Soul of Ancient Chinese People |
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*[http://chinese.dsturgeon.net/ Chinese Text Project] Texts and translations of historical Chinese works. |
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*[http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare/ Chinese Siege Warfare] – Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity – An Illustrated History bought to you by [http://www.history-forum.com/ History Forum] |
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*[http://pem.org/yinyutang/ '' Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home ''] Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture. |
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*[http://www.aall.ufl.edu/EMC/ ''Early Medieval China''] is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras. |
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*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/crmaozedong/index.html&date=2009-10-25+17:56:42 Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster] |
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*[http://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=4043 China Rediscovers its Own History] 100-minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University. |
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* [http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/courtmid/Library/subject_resources/socials/CHINA.htm Resources for Middle School students] Readable resources for students in grades 5–9 – more than 250 links. |
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* Wolfram Eberhard, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17695/17695-h/17695-h.htm A history of China] (online), 7 February 2006 [EBook #17695], ISO-8859-1 |
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*[http://www.pbs.org/kqed/chinainside/ China from the Inside] – 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International and the BBC |
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*[http://www.automaticfreeweb.com/index.cfm?s=ancientasianworld Ancient Asian World] History, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures |
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*[http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/toc.html History of China: Table of Contents] – Chaos Group at University of Maryland |
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*[http://www.history-forum.com/forum/ History Forum] – Discuss Chinese history at [http://www.history-forum.com/ History Forum's] [http://www.history-forum.com/forum/forum-1.html Asian History] section |
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*{{cite journal|journal=BMC Biology|last=Li|issue=8:15|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf |title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age |format=PDF |year=2010}} |
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Latest revision as of 19:17, 8 December 2024
Part of a series on the |
History of China |
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The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan, the Tarim Basin, and the Himalayas, as far north as the Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the delta of the Red River.
The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BC) of traditional Chinese historiography. The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones. Chinese bronze inscriptions, ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry, divination, and records of official speeches. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), China's Axial Age, during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Wuxing.
China was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. Orthography, weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as Han Chinese. The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire: mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its sericulture. When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which Buddhism began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while Calligraphy, art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere.
A period of unity began in 581 with the Sui dynasty, which soon gave way to the long-lived Tang dynasty (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian, reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. Mechanical printing was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism.
Eventually, the Mongol Empire conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent Ming dynasty (1368–1644) include global exploration, fine porcelain, and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the Grand Canal and Great Wall. Three of the four Classic Chinese Novels were written during the Ming. The Qing dynasty that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic Manchu people. The Qianlong emperor (r. 1735–1796) commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties.
The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created the Republic of China. From 1927 to 1949, a costly civil war roiled between the Republican government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist-aligned Chinese Red Army, interrupted by the industrialized Empire of Japan invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War.
After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, with the ROC retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and became the world's fastest-growing major economy.[when?] China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by India in 2023.
Prehistory
Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)
The archaic human species of Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.[1] The oldest of these is the southwestern Yuanmou Man (元谋人; in Yunnan), dated to c. 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland-forest environment alongside chalicotheres, deer, the elephant Stegodon, rhinos, cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena.[2] The better-known Peking Man (北京猿人; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP,[1] was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers, choppers, and, dated slightly later, points, burins, and awls.[3] Other Homo erectus fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern Lantian Man in Shaanxi, as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong.[1] The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.[4] Evidence of fire use by Homo erectus occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of Xihoudu, Shanxi Province.[5]
The circumstances surrounding the evolution of Homo erectus to contemporary H. sapiens is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.[1] Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan.[6] The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct Ailuropoda baconi panda, the Crocuta ultima hyena, the Stegodon, and the giant tapir.[6] Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.[7]
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.[8] Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.[9] The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.[10] Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC.[11] The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC,[12] Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC,[13] and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in the Yangtze delta.[10] The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as peaches, cherries and oranges, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.[9]
Bronze Age
Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).[14][15] The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC)[16] site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the state of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.[17][18]
Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangtze valley.[19] A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.
Ancient China
Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.[20] This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.[21]
The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period,[22] with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.
Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)
The Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes the Bamboo Annals and Sima Qian's Shiji (c. 91 BC). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia.[23] In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.[24] More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.[25]
Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)
Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang (modern Zhengzhou). Findings have been found at Yinxu (near modern Anyang, Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during the Late Shang period (c. 1250–1050 BC).[26] The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the oracle bones, dating from c. 1250 – c. 1046 BC.[27]
A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.[28] Throughout their reigns, according to the Shiji, the capital city was moved six times.[29] The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Wu Ding c. 1250 BC.[30] The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.[28]
Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,[31] Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.[32]
Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)
The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.[33] Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings.
The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.[34] Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.[35] It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.
The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an) and Chengzhou (Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley.[33]
Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)
In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and Quanrong barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King Ping, in Luoyang,[36]: 4 beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals. The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of settlement states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.[37] By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period.
Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them.
The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.
Warring States period (476–221 BC)
After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power.
Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the Zuo Zhuan within the Spring and Autumn Annals (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305 BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.[38]
As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous sheng and xian ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China.
The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.[9] Its final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng, ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor—known to history as Qin Shi Huang.
Imperial era
Early imperial China
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)
Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty (秦朝) in 221 BC effectively formalised the region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" (秦) later evolving into the Western term "China".[39] To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi (始皇帝; "First Emperor"); the Huangdi title, derived from Chinese mythology, became the standard for subsequent rulers.[40][a] Based in Xianyang, the empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.[42][43] In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 commanderies (郡; jun),[b] made up of counties (县; xian) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.[46]
Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism, a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang Yang.[47] In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.[47] Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles (seal script) and metal currency (Ban Liang), all of which were standardized.[48][49] Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the historicity of this event.[47] Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs and the five-element Wuxing (五行) theories for cosmological thought.[50]
The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.[51] Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population,[52] "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey, as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.[53] This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether.[54] Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian, who concurrently led a successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.[54][c] Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China.[56] The emperor also oversaw the construction of his monumental mausoleum, which includes the well known Terracotta Army.[57]
After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.[58][59]
Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)
Western Han
The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters.
After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.[60] As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. Imperial Universities were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty with government monopolies.
Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.
Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC.[61] Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.[62] It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.[63]
After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang.
Xin dynasty
In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.
Eastern Han
Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea,[64]: 175 thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.
The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang Heng.
Six Dynasties
Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)
By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes events of this period.
The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han, thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.
In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived.
Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)
The Jin dynasty reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the Han dynasty, ending the Three Kingdoms era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an. In 317, the Jin prince Sima Rui, based in modern-day Nanjing, became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.
Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)
Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta.
Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)
In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify.
In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han.
Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other.[65]
Mid-imperial China
Sui dynasty (581–618)
The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the army conscription and the equal-field system of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. Standardized coinage was enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border. The Great Wall was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during the Goguryeo–Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to the fall of the dynasty.
Tang dynasty (618–907)
The Tang dynasty was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for the common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world during its time.[66]
The first emperor, Emperor Gaozu, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, Taizong, one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as Guangzhou connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably Japan. Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics."
The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by scholar officials selected by imperial examinations, setting patterns for later dynasties.
Under the Tang "equal-field system" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the fubing system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions.
The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only official empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least 50 million people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai and Du Fu.
At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as jiedushi, gained increasingly autonomous status as the central government lost its ability to control them. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on its salt monopoly. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy.
In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. Catastrophically, the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.[68][69] By 881, both capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen's usurpation led to an era of division.
In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.[70] The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.[71] The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (Li Guochang) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the Uyghur Khaganate. In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning Zhangxin Khan, he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang.[72] In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer Shi Xiong with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain.[73]
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)
The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over an ethnic majority of Han Chinese in the north. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms".
Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of China proper against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment of the Song dynasty in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China.
Late imperial China
Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)
In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (then known as Bianjing). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of China proper, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires. The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227.
Aiming to recover the strategic sixteen prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept over the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional tributary system. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the Jin dynasty.
Within the Liao Empire the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao dynasty). Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the Northern Song dynasty. Later the entire north of China was conquered. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou, and initiated the Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279.
Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The Song economy, facilitated by technological advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over 100 million and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the most populous cities in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensive maritime trade with neighbouring states, such as in South-east Asia, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses traveled throughout the China Seas and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime shipments. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as a cheaper supplement to the existing copper coins.
The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020–1101) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, woodblock printing and paper money were all invented during the Song dynasty, further cementing its status.
There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative Zizhi Tongjian ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). The invention of movable-type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During the Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui.
The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into practical use on the battlefield by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at Dinghai. Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime to effect, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161.
The advances in civilisation during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest of the North and subsequently other areas of the empire, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously halting Mongol advances for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)
The Yuan dynasty was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, assumed the additional title of Emperor of China, and considered his inherited part of the Mongol Empire as a Chinese dynasty. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The Mongol Yuan dynasty became the first conquest dynasty in Chinese history to rule the entirety of China proper and its population as an ethnic minority. The dynasty also directly controlled the Mongol heartland and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the eastern Mongol empire, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the invasions of Japan and Vietnam. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). The Grand Canal was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to lively economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation for Beijing to largely remain as the capital of the successive regimes of the unified Chinese mainland.
A series of Mongol civil wars in the late 13th century led to the division of the Mongol Empire. In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal Khagan over western khanates (the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate), which nonetheless remained de facto autonomous. The era was known as Pax Mongolica, when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the Silk Road was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. A network of roads and a postal system were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with Quanzhou and Hangzhou emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the Venetian, Marco Polo, would settle in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail travel record inspired generations of medieval Europeans with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where paper currency, known at the time as Jiaochao, was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty.
While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their sinicization was of lesser extent compared to earlier conquest dynasties in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian Steppe were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups of foreign migrants settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in zaju variety shows and literary songs (sanqu), which were written in a distinctive poetry style known as qu. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity.
Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[74] This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China.[75]: 348–351
Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent, corrupt governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the massive naval engagement at Lake Poyang, Zhu Yuanzhang prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and sustained the regime, but the period of Yuan dominance was effectively over for good. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the Hongwu Emperor. The capital was initially set at Nanjing, and was later moved to Beijing from Yongle Emperor's reign onward.
Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.
Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He.
The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a Chinese dynasty who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous Song and Yuan dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived.
The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretariat" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.
The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armies conquered and occupied Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.
In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.
At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread wokou piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression.[76] In addition to raids from Japan by the wokou, raids from Taiwan and the Philippines by the Pisheye also ravaged the southern coasts.[77] The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the Spanish at Manila imported large quantities of Mexican and Peruvian silver from the Spanish Americas to China.[78]: 144–145 The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino-Dutch conflicts of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.
In 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.
The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the Joseon dynasty, its traditional ally and tributary state. The regional hegemony of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control in Manchuria in decline, the Manchu (Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftain Nurhaci, broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was later proclaimed as the Qing dynasty. It went on to subdue the much weakened Korea as its tributary, conquered Mongolia, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the Shanhai Pass to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal peasants uprisings.
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entirety of China proper, and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and his son, Hong Taiji, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest. Li Zicheng's peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south. During the Ming-Qing transition, when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like the Shun dynasty and Xi dynasty founded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerable natural disasters at that time such as those caused by the Little Ice Age[79] and epidemics like the Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty,[80] caused enormous loss of lives and significant harm to the economy. In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.[81] The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of Inner Asian rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty.
The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing Changshan (bannermen dress and Tangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled.
Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. Conquests in Central Asia in the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
By the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. The Qing ruled more than one-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was one of the largest empires ever.
In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.
Internally the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan swept from the south to establish the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan to raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864.[82] This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million.[83] A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion.[84] All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.[82]
Yet the dynasty appeared to recover in the Tongzhi Restoration (1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his proteges Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang. Their Self-Strengthening Movement made effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The defeat of Yuan Shikai's modernized "Beiyang Fleet" in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) led to the formation of the New Army. The Guangxu Emperor, advised by Kang Youwei, then launched a comprehensive reform effort, the Hundred Days' Reform (1898). Empress Dowager Cixi, however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it.
In the summer of 1900, the Boxer Uprising opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were besieged in the foreign legations quarter. An Eight-Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were routed and forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the Battle of Langfang. After the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts, the court declared war on the Alliance and authorised the Boxers to join with imperial armies. After fierce fighting at Tianjin, the Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Empress Dowager evacuated to Xi'an. The Boxer Protocol ended the war, exacting a tremendous indemnity.
The Qing court then instituted administrative and legal reforms known as the late Qing reforms, including abolition of the examination system. But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps a constitutional monarchy, or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such as Liang Qichao and the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen. A localised military uprising, the Wuchang uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuchang (today part of Wuhan), and soon spread. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule.
Modern China
Republic of China (since 1912)
The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen became President of the Republic of China, but he turned power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army. Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself as the emperor of Empire of China in late 1915, in the style of an absolute monarchy. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the rapidly growing prospect of violent rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June.
Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government (that had been nearly brought to its knees by his policies) was all but shattered. This opened the way for the Warlord Era, during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and the Beiyang government, ushering in a short-lived period of uncertainty. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the New Culture Movement.
In 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of Shandong to Japan. Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century.[85]
Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey:
- "Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations."[86]
In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the Soviet Union (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Nationalist Party (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the Northern Expedition (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the Nationalist government in Nanjing. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his NRA. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CCP forces embarked on the Long March across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, a feat transformed into legend, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi. During the Long March, the communists reorganised under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).
The bitter Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which became a part of World War II, although this alliance was tenuous at best and disagreements, sometimes violent, between the forces were still common. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (Sankō Sakusen), namely being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All".[87] During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations, as a tribute to its enduring struggle against the invading Japanese.[88] China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.[89]
Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country. Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonised too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.[90] During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.[91] These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres.[92]
The Nationalists were slowly routed towards the South. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops there.[93]
Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognised as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognise the PRC on account of its status as a communist nation during the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when the PRC was seated in the United Nations, replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period, and crackdowns against dissidents were common.
In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly elected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. In 1996, the ROC held its first direct presidential election, and the incumbent president, KMT candidate Lee Teng-hui, was elected. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the 2008 election by Ma Ying-jeou.
Due to the controversial nature of Taiwan's political status, the ROC is currently recognised by merely 12 UN member states and the Holy See as of 2024[update] as the legitimate government of "China".
People's Republic of China (since 1949)
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.[94] "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.[95]
The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans. The Great Leap Forward, a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths.[96][better source needed] Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society.
Following the Sino-Soviet split and motivated by concerns of invasion by either the Soviet Union or the United States, China initiated the Third Front campaign to develop national defense and industrial infrastructure in its rugged interior.[97]: 44 Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.[97]: 177
In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met U.S. president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the US. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.
A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The Gang of Four were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. Deng Xiaoping outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman Hua Guofeng, and gradually emerged as the de facto leader over the next few years.
Deng Xiaoping was the Paramount Leader of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. In addition, there were many free market areas opened. The most successful free market area was Shenzhen. It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some[98] as market socialism, and officially by the CCP as Socialism with Chinese characteristics. The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.
In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when Army troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in considerable numbers of fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the communist government.[99][100]
CCP general secretary and PRC president Jiang Zemin and PRC premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[101][better source needed] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. By 1997 and 1999, former European colonies of British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau became the Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, respectively.
Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's natural resources and environment. Another concern was that certain sectors of society were not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this was the wide gap between urban and rural areas in terms of development and prevalence of updated infrastructure. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known as of 2014[update].[102] More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land,[103] usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.[104] For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.[105]
According to the U.S. Department of Defense, as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's internment camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which Western news reports often label as "concentration camps".[106] The camps were established in late 2010s under Xi Jinping's administration.[107][108] Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a people's war on terror, a policy announced in 2014.[109][110][107] The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure.[111] Academic Kerry Brown attributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them.[112]: 138 China has repeatedly denied this, asserting that the West has never been able to produce reliably-sourced satellite footage of any such detainment or resulting detention of minority groups. Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centres have been performed as of June 2024, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned.[111] In 2022, a Washington Post reporter checked a dozen sites previously identified as reeducation centres and found "[m]ost of them appeared to be empty or converted, with several sites labeled as coronavirus quarantine facilities, teachers' schools and vocational schools."[111] In 2023, Amnesty International said that they were "witnessing more and more arbitrary detention", but that detained individuals were being moved from the camps into the formal prison system.[113]
The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019 and led to a global pandemic, causing the majority of the world to enter a period of lockdown for at least a year following.
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The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign
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People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing
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The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949.
See also
- Chinese emperors family tree
- Chinese exploration
- Chinese historiography
- Christianity in China
- Economic history of China
- Ethnic groups in Chinese history
- Foreign relations of imperial China
- Golden ages of China
- History of canals in China
- History of Islam in China
- History of science and technology in China
- History of Taiwan
- History of the Great Wall of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- List of rebellions in China
- List of recipients of tribute from China
- List of tributary states of China
- Military history of China before 1912
- Naval history of China
- Population history of China
- Timeline of Chinese history
- Women in ancient and imperial China
References
Notes
- ^ In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply Shi Huangdi, but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. In its fullest form, Ying's name would be Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝), though it is commonly abbreviated to Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇).[41]
- ^ The Shiji's description of the Qin including of 36 commanderies has now been disproven by archaeological evidence indicating more. The exact number is unknown;[44] The sinologist Derk Bodde noted that probably "four and possibly as many as half a dozen were added by 210 to the original thirty-six".[45]
- ^ Other tribes of the north, collectively called the Wu Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.[55]
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Further reading
- Dardess, John W. (2010). Governing China, 150–1850. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60384-311-9.
- Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. China: A New History. 2nd ed. (Harvard UP, 2006). 640 pp.
- Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization (1996). One-volume survey.
- Li, Xiaobing, ed. China at War: An Encyclopedia. (ABC-CLIO, 2012).
- Mote, Frederick W. Imperial China, 900–1800 (Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp. Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties.
- Perkins, Dorothy. Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture (Facts on File, 1999). 662 pp.
- Roberts, J. A. G. A Concise History of China (Harvard U. Press, 1999). 341 pp.
- Stanford, Edward. Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China (2nd ed., 1917). Legible color maps.
- Wright, David Curtis. History of China (2001) 257 pp.
External links
- China Knowledge, a comprehensive online encyclopedia of China from Ulrich Theobald
- The Berkshire Encyclopedia of China on Oxford Reference (subscription required)
- China Rediscovers its Own History, a lengthy lecture on Chinese history given by Yu Ying-shih