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{{Short description|Common name for a genus of bees}}
{{Refimprove|date=April 2008}}{{Taxobox
{{About|large carpenter bees|small bees sometimes referred to as "small carpenter bees"|Ceratina}}
| name = Carpenter bees or borer bees
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Bee September 2007-15.jpg
| name=Carpenter bees
| image_caption = ''[[Xylocopa violacea]]'' obtaining nectar
| image=Southern Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa micans) ♀ (7995162522).jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| image2=BumbleBee1.ogg
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| image2_caption = Foraging female ''[[Xylocopa micans|X. micans]]'' and sounds emitted from a nest of ''[[Xylocopa pubescens|X. pubescens]]''
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| taxon=Xylocopa
| ordo = [[Hymenoptera]]
| display_parents=3
| subordo = [[Apocrita]]
| authority=[[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802
| superfamilia = [[Apoidea]]
| type_species=''[[Xylocopa violacea]]''
| familia = [[Apidae]]
| type_species_authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| subfamilia = [[Xylocopinae]]
| subdivision_ranks=Species
| tribus = '''Xylocopini'''
| subdivision=See text
| genus = '''''Xylocopa'''''
| genus_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802
| type_species = ''[[Xylocopa violacea]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
}}


'''Carpenter bees''' (the genus '''''Xylocopa''''' in the subfamily '''[[Xylocopinae]]''') are large bees distributed worldwide. There are some 500 species of carpenter bee in 31 subgenera.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/cladisticanalysi00minc |title=Minckley, R.L. 1998. A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Scientific Papers, Natural History Museum, University of Kansas 9:1–47 |publisher=Archive.org |date= |accessdate=2012-02-19}}</ref> Their name comes from the fact that nearly all species build their nests in burrows in dead wood, bamboo, or structural timbers (except those in the subgenus ''Proxylocopa'', which nest in the ground).
'''Carpenter bees''' are species in the genus '''''Xylocopa''''' of the subfamily [[Xylocopinae]]. The genus includes some 500 [[bee]]s in 31 subgenera.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://archive.org/details/cladisticanalysi00minc/page/n0 | author=Minckley, R. L. | year=1998 | title=A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae) | journal=Scientific Papers, Natural History Museum, University of Kansas | volume=9 | pages=1–47 | doi=10.5962/bhl.title.16168 | doi-access=free | hdl=1808/25427 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant material such as dead wood or [[bamboo]]. The main exceptions are species in the subgenus ''[[Proxylocopa]]'', which dig nesting tunnels in suitable soil.
Members of the related tribe [[Ceratinini]] are sometimes referred to as "small carpenter bees".

==Taxonomy==
The genus was described by French entomologist [[Pierre André Latreille]] in 1802. The name is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ''xylokopos''/ξῦλοκὀπος "wood-cutter".<ref name=Liddell1980>{{cite book | author = [[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] | year = 1980 | title = [[A Greek-English Lexicon]] (Abridged Edition) | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = United Kingdom | isbn =0-19-910207-4|page=472}}</ref>


== Characteristics ==
== Characteristics ==
[[File:Carpenter bee head and compound eyes.jpg|thumb|left|Carpenter bees have large [[compound eyes]]]]
In several species, the females live alongside their own daughters or sisters, creating a sort of social group. They use wood bits to form partitions between the cells in the nest. A few species bore holes in wood dwellings. Since the tunnels are near the surface, structural damage is generally minor or nonexistent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Susan|title=Fact Sheet Carpenter Bees|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2074.html|publisher=Ohio State University Extension|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref>


Many species in this enormous genus are difficult to tell apart; most species are all black, or primarily black with some yellow or white pubescence. Some differ only in subtle morphological features, such as details of the male genitalia. Males of some species differ confusingly from the females, being covered in greenish-yellow fur. The confusion of species arises particularly in the [[common names]]; in India, for example, the common name for any all-black species of ''Xylocopa'' is ''bhanvra'' (or ''bhomora'' - ভোমোৰা - in [[Assamese language|Assamese]]), and reports and sightings of ''bhanvra'' or ''bhomora'' are commonly misattributed to a European species, ''[[Xylocopa violacea]]''; however, this species is found only in the northern regions of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], and most reports of ''bhanvra'', especially elsewhere in India, refer to any of roughly 15 other common black ''Xylocopa'' species in the region, such as ''[[Xylocopa nasalis|X. nasalis]]'', ''[[Xylocopa tenuiscapa|X. tenuiscapa]]'', or ''[[Xylocopa tranquebarorum|X. tranquebarorum]]''.<ref>Gupta, R.K., Yanega, D. 2003. A taxonomic overview of the carpenter bees of the Indian region [Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Apidae, Xylocopinae, Xylocopini, ''Xylocopa'' Latreille]. pp. 79–100 in Gupta, R.K. (Ed.) Advancements in Insect Biodiversity. Agrobios, Jodhpur, India.</ref>
Carpenter bees can be important [[pollinator]]s on open-faced flowers, even obligate pollinators on some, such as the Maypop (''[[Passiflora incarnata]]''), though many species are also known to "[[nectar robbing|rob]]" [[nectar]] by slitting the sides of flowers with deep [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]]s.


[[File:Xylocopa Latreille.jpg|thumb]]
In the [[United States]], there are two eastern species, ''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'', and ''[[Xylocopa micans]]'', and three other species that are primarily western in distribution, ''[[Xylocopa varipuncta]]'', ''[[Xylocopa tabaniformis orpifex]]'' and ''[[Xylocopa californica]]''. ''X. virginica'' is by far the more widely distributed species.<ref name="entmuseum.ucr.edu">{{cite web|url=http://entmuseum.ucr.edu/bug_spotlight/posted%20Images-pages/34.htm |title=U.C. Riverside Entomology Research Museum: "Carpenter Bees" Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae, genus Xylocopa |publisher=Entmuseum.ucr.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-02-19}}</ref> Some are often mistaken for a [[bumblebee]] species, as they can be similar in size and coloration, though most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, while in bumblebees the abdomen is completely clothed with dense hair. Males of some species have a white or yellow face, where the females do not; males also often have much larger eyes than the females, which relates to their mating behavior. Male bees are often seen hovering near nests, and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless, since they do not have a stinger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef611.asp |title=University of Kentucky Entomology: Carpenter Bees |publisher=Ca.uky.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-02-19}}</ref> Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked.<ref name="entmuseum.ucr.edu"/>
Non-professionals commonly confuse carpenter bees with [[bumblebees]];<ref name="DiscoverLife">{{cite web|url=http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Xylocopa|title=Xylocopa Latreille Large Carpenter Bees|website=Discover Life|access-date=19 November 2014}} Sourced from Mitchell, T.B. (1962). ''Bees of the Eastern United States, Volume II''. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Tech. Bul. No.152, 557 p.</ref> the simplest rule of thumb for telling them apart is that most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, whereas bumblebee abdomens are completely covered with dense hair. Males of some species of carpenter bees have a white or yellow face, unlike bumblebees, while females lack the bare [[Pollen basket|corbicula]] of bumblebees; the hind leg is entirely hairy.


The wing venation is characteristic; the marginal cell in the front wing is narrow and elongated, and its apex bends away from the [[costa (entomology)|costa]]. The front wing has small stigma. When closed, the bee's short mandibles conceal the [[labrum (arthropod mouthpart)|labrum]]. The [[Clypeus (arthropod anatomy)|clypeus]] is flat.<ref name="DiscoverLife"/> Males of many species have much larger eyes than the females, which relates to their mating behavior.
Many [[Old World]] carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their first [[metasoma]]l [[tergite]] called the [[acarinarium]] where certain species of [[mite]]s (''[[Dinogamasus]]'' spp.) reside as [[commensalism|commensals]]. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites, the mites are beneficial, feeding either on [[fungi]] in the nest, or on other, harmful mites.hhhj

In the United States, two eastern species, ''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'' and ''[[Xylocopa micans|X. micans]]'', occur. Three more species are primarily western in distribution, ''[[Xylocopa sonorina|X. sonorina]]'', ''[[Xylocopa tabaniformis|X. tabaniformis orpifex]]'', and ''[[Xylocopa californica|X. californica]]''. ''X. virginica'' is by far the more widely distributed species.<ref name="entmuseum.ucr.edu">{{cite web | url=http://entmuseum.ucr.edu/bug_spotlight/posted%20Images-pages/34.htm | author=Yanega, D. | publisher=U.C. Riverside Entomology Research Museum | title=Carpenter Bees, Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae, Genus Xylocopa | access-date=2012-02-19 }}</ref>
[[File:Xylocopa Caerulea.jpg|thumb|''[[Xylocopa caerulea]]'', the blue carpenter bee, engaged in [[nectar robbing]]]]

== Ecological significance ==
In several species, the females live alongside their own daughters or sisters, creating a small social group. They use wood bits to form partitions between the cells in the nest. A few species bore holes in wood dwellings. Since the tunnels are near the surface, structural damage is generally minor or superficial.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Susan|title=Fact Sheet Carpenter Bees|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2074.html|publisher=Ohio State University Extension|access-date=23 July 2012}}</ref> However, carpenter bee nests are attractive to [[woodpecker]]s, which may do further damage by drilling into the wood to feed on the bees or larvae.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why is a woodpecker knocking on the cedar shingles of my house and how do I make it stop?|url=https://extension.unh.edu/blog/why-woodpecker-knocking-cedar-shingles-my-house-and-how-do-i-make-it-stop|last=Erler|first=Emma|date=January 2, 2018|website=NH Extension}}</ref>

Carpenter bees have short mouthparts and are important [[pollinator]]s on some open-faced or shallow flowers; for some they even are obligate pollinators, for example the maypop (''[[Passiflora incarnata]]'') and ''[[Orphium]]'', which are not pollinated by any other insects. They also are important pollinators of flowers with various forms of lids, such as ''[[Salvia]]'' species and some members of the [[Fabaceae]]. However many carpenter bees "[[nectar robbing|rob]]" [[nectar]] by slitting the sides of flowers with deep [[Corolla (flower)|corollae]]. ''[[Eastern carpenter bee|Xylocopa virginica]]'' is one example of a species with such [[nectar robbing]] behavior. With their short labia the bees cannot reach the nectar without piercing the long-tubed flowers; they miss contact with the anthers and perform no pollination. In some plants, this reduces fruit and seed production, while others have developed defence mechanisms against nectar robbing. When foraging for pollen from some species with tubular flowers however, the same species of carpenter bees still achieve pollination, if the anthers and stigmata are exposed together.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keasar |first1=Tamar |title=Large carpenter bees as agricultural pollinators |journal=Psyche: A Journal of Entomology |date=2010 |volume=2010 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1155/2010/927463|doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Carpenter bee on Abelia flowers.webm|thumb|right|A carpenter bee on [[abelia]] flowers, Tokyo, Japan]]
Many [[Old World]] carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their first [[metasoma]]l [[tergite]] called the [[acarinarium]] where certain [[mite]]s (''[[Dinogamasus]]'' species) reside as [[commensalism|commensals]]. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites, they are beneficial, feeding either on [[fungi]] in the nest, or on other harmful mites.


== Behavior ==
== Behavior ==
[[File:Carpenter bee.jpg|thumb|''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'' in the United States]]
[[File:Marvels of insect life; a popular account of structure and habit (1916) (14593767158).jpg|thumb|Cross-section of the brood chambers of ''[[Xylocopa violacea|X. violacea]]'', illustrated by Theo Carreras; tunnels are excavated in wooden posts, divided into chambers which are provisioned, and an egg is laid in each; each cell initially contains a mass of pollen with the egg, on which the grub will feed; the [[pupa]] (lower left) is seen from back and front<ref>{{cite book |last1=Step |first1=Edward |title=Marvels of insect life; a popular account of structure and habit |date=1915 |publisher=W. Briggs |isbn=978-0-665-76534-6 |page=39 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/127977#page/52/mode/1up |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.62864 }}</ref>]]

As a subfamily, they nest in a wide range of host plants, but any one species may show definite adaptations or preferences for particular groups of plants. Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. Examples of this type of social nesting can be seen in the species ''[[Xylocopa sulcatipes]]''<ref name= Comparative>{{cite journal |last1=Gerling |first1=Dan |author2=Hurd, Paul David |author3=Hefetz, Abraham |year=1983 |title=Comparative behavioral biology of two Middle East species of carpenter bees (''Xylocopa'' Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology |volume=369 |pages=1–33 |hdl=10088/5359 |doi=10.5479/si.00810282.369 }}</ref> and ''[[Xylocopa nasalis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerling |first1=D |last2=Velthuis |first2=H H W |last3=Hefetz |first3=A |title=Bionomics of the large carpenter bees of the genus ''Xylocopa'' |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=1989 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=163–190 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001115}}</ref> When females cohabit, a division of labor between them occurs sometimes. In this type of nesting, multiple females either share in the foraging and nest laying, or one female does all the foraging and nest laying, while the other females guard.<ref name=Comparative/>

Solitary species differ from social species. Solitary bees tend to be gregarious and often several nests of solitary bees are near each other. In solitary nesting, the founding bee forages, builds cells, lays the eggs, and guards. Normally, only one generation of bees live in the nest.<ref name= Comparative/> ''[[Xylocopa pubescens]]'' is one carpenter bee species that can have both social and solitary nests.<ref name= Comparative/>

Carpenter bees make nests by tunneling into wood, bamboo, and similar hard plant material such as [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]], usually dead. They vibrate their bodies as they rasp their [[mandible (arthropod)|mandible]]s against hard wood, each nest having a single entrance which may have many adjacent tunnels. The entrance is often a perfectly circular hole measuring about {{convert|16|mm|abbr=on}} on the underside of a beam, bench, or tree limb. Carpenter bees do not eat wood. They discard the bits of wood, or reuse particles to build partitions between cells. The tunnel functions as a nursery for brood and storage for the pollen/nectar upon which the brood subsists. The provision masses of some species are among the most complex in shape of any group of bees; whereas most bees fill their brood cells with a soupy mass and others form simple [[spheroid]]al pollen masses, ''Xylocopa'' species form elongated and carefully sculpted masses that have several projections which keep the bulk of the mass from coming into contact with the cell walls, sometimes resembling an irregular [[caltrop]]. The eggs are very large relative to the size of the female, and are some of the largest eggs among all insects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 40 — Largest Eggs |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_40.shtml |author=Salvatore Vicidomini |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |date=February 9, 2005 |work=Book of Insect Records}}</ref> Carpenter bees can be timber pests, and cause substantial damage to wood if infestations go undetected for several years.<ref name="ZabelMorrell2012">{{cite book|author1=Robert A. Zabel|author2=Jeffrey J. Morrell|title=Wood Microbiology: Decay and Its Prevention|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5KqLXeoi-wC|date=2 December 2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-323-13946-5}}</ref>


Two very different [[mating system]]s appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, which they then pursue. In the other mating system, the males often have very small heads, but a large, hypertrophied [[gland]]ular reservoir in the [[mesosoma]] releases [[pheromone]]s into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Minckley, R. L. |author2=Buchmann, S. L. |author3=Wcislo, W. T. | title=Bioassay evidence for a sex attractant pheromone in the large carpenter bee, ''Xylocopa varipuncta'' (Anthophoridae: Hymenoptera) | journal=Journal of Zoology | year=1991 | volume=224 | issue=2 | pages=285–291 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04805.x }}</ref>
[[Image:Carpenter-bee.JPG|thumb|left|Carpenter bee nest in a [[tree trunk]]]]
[[File:Xylocopa caffra Male Carpenter Bee South Africa.jpg|thumb|A male ''[[Xylocopa caffra]]'' carpenter bee, feeding from flower, [[South Africa]]]]
[[Image:Carpenter Bee Gallery.JPG|thumb|left|Carpenter bee gallery in a split piece of 2X4 wood]]
[[File:Carpenter bee.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'' in [[Indianapolis]], United States]]
Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. However, even solitary species tend to be gregarious, and often several will nest near each other. It has been occasionally reported that when females cohabit, there may be a division of labor between them, where one female may spend most of her time as a guard within the nest, motionless and near the entrance, while another female spends most of her time foraging for provisions.


Male bees often are seen hovering near nests and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless, since they do not have a stinger.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef611 | author=Potter, M. | publisher=University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Department of Entomology | title=Carpenter Bees | access-date=2012-02-19 }}</ref> Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked.<ref name="entmuseum.ucr.edu"/>
Carpenter bees make nests by tunneling into wood, vibrating their bodies as they rasp their [[mandible (arthropod)|mandible]]s against the wood, each nest having a single entrance which may have many adjacent tunnels. The entrance is often a perfectly circular hole measuring about {{convert|16|mm}} on the underside of a beam, bench, or tree limb. Carpenter bees do not eat wood. They discard the bits of wood, or re-use particles to build partitions between cells. The tunnel functions as a nursery for brood and storage for the pollen/nectar upon which the brood subsists. The provision masses of some species are among the most complex in shape of any group of bees; whereas most bees fill their brood cells with a soupy mass, and others form simple [[spheroid]]al pollen masses, ''Xylocopa'' form elongate and carefully sculpted masses that have several projections which keep the bulk of the mass from coming into contact with the cell walls, sometimes resembling an irregular [[caltrop]]. The eggs are very large relative to the size of the female, and are some of the largest eggs among all insects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 40 — Largest Eggs |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_40.shtml |author=Salvatore Vicidomini |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |date=February 9, 2005 |work=Book of Insect Records}}</ref>


== Natural predators ==
There are two very different [[mating system]]s that appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, whom they then pursue. In the other type of mating system, the males often have very small heads, but there is a large, hypertrophied [[gland]]ular reservoir in the [[mesosoma]], which releases [[pheromone]]s into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.<ref>Minckley, R.L., Buchmann, S.L., Wcislo, W.T. 1991. Bioassay evidence for a sex attractant pheromone in the large carpenter bee, ''Xylocopa varipuncta'' (Anthophoridae: Hymenoptera). J. Zool. Soc. London 224: 285–291</ref>
[[Woodpeckers]] eat carpenter bees, as do various species of birds, such as [[shrike]]s and [[bee-eater]]s as well as some mammals such as [[Honey badger|ratel]]s. Other predators include large [[mantis]]es and predatory flies, particularly large robber-flies of the family [[Asilidae]]. Woodpeckers are attracted to the noise of the bee larvae and drill holes along the tunnels to feed on them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/wp_about/insects.html|title=Cornell Lab of Ornithology|work=cornell.edu|date=24 February 2023 }}</ref>


Apart from outright predators, [[parasitoid]]al species of [[Bombyliidae|bee flies]] (e.g. ''[[Xenox]]'') lay eggs in the entrance to the bee's nest and the fly maggots live off the bee larvae.
==Species==


== Species ==
[[File:Xylocopa cubaecola f face.jpg|thumb|right|''Xylocopa cubaecola'' in [[Guantanamo]]; endemic for [[Cuba]]]]
[[File:Xylocopa violacea in Sardinia, Italy.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Xylocopa violacea]]'' in [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]]]]
[[File:Xylocopa waterhousei f.jpg|thumb|right|''Xylocopa waterhousei'' female]]
{{div col|colwidth=266px}}
{{div col|colwidth=266px}}
* ''[[Xylocopa abbotti]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1909)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa abbotti]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1909)</small>
Line 58: Line 64:
* ''[[Xylocopa adusta]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa adusta]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aeneipennis]]'' <small>(DeGeer, 1773)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aeneipennis]]'' <small>(DeGeer, 1773)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aeratus]]'' <small>(Smith, 1851)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aerata]]'' <small>(Smith, 1851)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aestuans]]'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aestuans]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aethiopica]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aethiopica]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa africana]]'' <small>(Fabricius, 1781)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa africana]]'' <small>([[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1781)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa albiceps]]'' <small>Fabricius, 1804</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa albiceps]]'' <small>Fabricius, 1804</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa albifrons]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa albifrons]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
Line 67: Line 73:
* ''[[Xylocopa alternata]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa alternata]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa alticola]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1919)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa alticola]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1919)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa alticola]]'' <small>Hedicke, 1938</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa amamensis]]'' <small>Sonan, 1934</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa amamensis]]'' <small>Sonan, 1934</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa amauroptera]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa amauroptera]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
Line 82: Line 87:
* ''[[Xylocopa aruana]]'' <small>Ritsema, 1876</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aruana]]'' <small>Ritsema, 1876</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa assimilis]]'' <small>Ritsema, 1880</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa assimilis]]'' <small>Ritsema, 1880</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa atamisquensis]]'' <small>Lucia & Abrahamovich, 2010</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa augusti]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa augusti]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa auripennis]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa auripennis]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aurorea]]'' <small>Friese, 1922</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aurorea]]'' <small>[[Heinrich Friese|Friese]], 1922</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aurulenta]]'' <small>(Fabricius, 1804)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa aurulenta]]'' <small>(Fabricius, 1804)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bakeriana]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1914)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bakeriana]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1914)</small>
Line 108: Line 114:
* ''[[Xylocopa boops]]'' <small>Maidl, 1912</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa boops]]'' <small>Maidl, 1912</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bouyssoui]]'' <small>Vachal, 1898</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bouyssoui]]'' <small>Vachal, 1898</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa brasilianorum]]'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1767)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa brasilianorum]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1767)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa braunsi]]'' <small>Dusmet y Alonso, 1924</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa braunsi]]'' <small>Dusmet y Alonso, 1924</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bruesi]]'' <small>Cockerell, 1914</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa bruesi]]'' <small>Cockerell, 1914</small>
Line 115: Line 121:
* ''[[Xylocopa buruana]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1956</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa buruana]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1956</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa caerulea]]'' <small>(Fabricius, 1804)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa caerulea]]'' <small>(Fabricius, 1804)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa caffra]]'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1767)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa caffra]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1767)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa calcarata]]'' <small>(LeVeque, 1928)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa calcarata]]'' <small>(LeVeque, 1928)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa calens]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa calens]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
Line 200: Line 206:
* ''[[Xylocopa fuscata]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa fuscata]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa gabonica]]'' <small>(Gribodo, 1894)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa gabonica]]'' <small>(Gribodo, 1894)</small>
* {{extinct}}''[[Xylocopa gabrielae]]'' <small>Engel, 2001</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa ganglbaueri]]'' <small>Maidl, 1912</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa ganglbaueri]]'' <small>Maidl, 1912</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa gaullei]]'' <small>Vachal, 1898</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa gaullei]]'' <small>Vachal, 1898</small>
Line 208: Line 215:
* ''[[Xylocopa gribodoi]]'' <small>Magretti, 1892</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa gribodoi]]'' <small>Magretti, 1892</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grisescens]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grisescens]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa griswoldi]]'' <small>Mérida, Hinojosa-Díaz, & Ayala, 2022</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grossa]]'' <small>(Drury, 1770)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grossa]]'' <small>(Drury, 1770)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grubaueri]]'' <small>Friese, 1903</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa grubaueri]]'' <small>Friese, 1903</small>
Line 245: Line 253:
* ''[[Xylocopa lateralis]]'' <small>Say, 1837</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa lateralis]]'' <small>Say, 1837</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa lateritia]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa lateritia]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa laticeps]]''
* ''[[Xylocopa latipes]]'' <small>(Drury, 1773)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa latipes]]'' <small>(Drury, 1773)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa lautipennis]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1933)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa lautipennis]]'' <small>(Cockerell, 1933)</small>
Line 271: Line 280:
* ''[[Xylocopa marginella]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa marginella]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mastrucata]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mastrucata]]'' <small>Pérez, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa maya]]'' <small>Mérida, Hinojosa-Díaz, & Ayala, 2022</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mazarredoi]]'' <small>Dusmet y Alonso, 1924</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mazarredoi]]'' <small>Dusmet y Alonso, 1924</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mcgregori]]'' <small>Cockerell, 1920</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa mcgregori]]'' <small>Cockerell, 1920</small>
Line 359: Line 369:
* ''[[Xylocopa remota]]'' <small>Maa, 1938</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa remota]]'' <small>Maa, 1938</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rogenhoferi]]'' <small>Friese, 1900</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rogenhoferi]]'' <small>Friese, 1900</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa romeroi]]'' <small>Villamizar, Fernández, & Vivallo, 2020</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rotundiceps]]'' <small>Smith, 1874</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rotundiceps]]'' <small>Smith, 1874</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rufa]]'' <small>Friese, 1901</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rufa]]'' <small>Friese, 1901</small>
Line 369: Line 380:
* ''[[Xylocopa rutilans]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1957</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa rutilans]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1957</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa samarensis]]'' <small>(Cockerell & LeVeque, 1925)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa samarensis]]'' <small>(Cockerell & LeVeque, 1925)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa sarawatica]]'' <small>Engel, 2017</small><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Engel | first1=M.S. | last2=Alqarni | first2=A.S. | last3=Shebl | first3=M.A. | last4=Iqbal | first4=J. | last5=Hinojosa-Diaz | first5=I.A. | year=2017 | title=A new species of the carpenter bee genus ''Xylocopa'' from the Sarawat Mountains in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Apidae) | url=https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/21150/ | journal=ZooKeys | issue=716 | pages=29–41 | doi= 10.3897/zookeys.716.21150| pmid=29290706 | pmc=5740427 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
* ''[[Xylocopa schoana]]'' <small>Enderlein, 1903</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa schoana]]'' <small>Enderlein, 1903</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa scioensis]]'' <small>Gribodo, 1884</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa scioensis]]'' <small>Gribodo, 1884</small>
Line 383: Line 395:
* ''[[Xylocopa sogdiana]]'' <small>Popov & Ponomareva, 1961</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa sogdiana]]'' <small>Popov & Ponomareva, 1961</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa somalica]]'' <small>Magretti, 1895</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa somalica]]'' <small>Magretti, 1895</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa sonorina]]'' <small>[[Frederick Smith (entomologist)|Smith]], 1874</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa sphinx]]'' <small>Vachal, 1899</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa sphinx]]'' <small>Vachal, 1899</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa splendidula]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa splendidula]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
Line 432: Line 445:
* ''[[Xylocopa varians]]'' <small>Smith, 1874</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa varians]]'' <small>Smith, 1874</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa varipes]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa varipes]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa varipuncta]]'' <small>Patton, 1879</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa velutina]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1957</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa velutina]]'' <small>Lieftinck, 1957</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa versicolor]]'' <small>Alfken, 1930</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa versicolor]]'' <small>Alfken, 1930</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa vestita]]'' <small>Hurd & Moure, 1963</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa vestita]]'' <small>Hurd & Moure, 1963</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa villosa]]'' <small>Friese, 1909</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa villosa]]'' <small>Friese, 1909</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa violacea]]'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa violacea]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1771)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa virginica]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1771)</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa viridigastra]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa viridigastra]]'' <small>Lepeletier, 1841</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa viridis]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
* ''[[Xylocopa viridis]]'' <small>Smith, 1854</small>
Line 454: Line 466:
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


==Gallery==
== References ==<!-- ZoolSci25:838. -->
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160" style="font-size:100%; line-height:130%">
{{reflist|2}}


Carpenter bee head and compound eyes.jpg|Carpenter bees have large [[compound eyes]]. Their mandibles, when closed, cover the labrum.
==External links==
Carpenter-bee.JPG|{{center|Carpenter bee nest in a tree trunk}}
{{Commons category|Xylocopa}}
Xylocopa (Biluna) tranquebarorum flapping.webm|''[[Xylocopa tranquebarorum|X. tranquebarorum]]'' flight in slow motion
{{wikispecies|Xylocopa}}
Xylocopa caffra female, Anthophoridae, at Orphium fruitescens.jpg|''[[Xylocopa caffra]]'' female foraging
File:Carpenter bee uploaded by vijayanRajapuram.jpg|Carpenter bee at [[Kanhangad]]
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Xylocopa}}
*[http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Xylocopa United States ''Xylocopa'' Identification Guide]
*[http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Xylocopa United States ''Xylocopa'' Identification Guide]
*[http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Xylocopa List of Species]
*[http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Xylocopa List of Species]
Line 466: Line 487:
*[http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/xylocopa.htm Carpenter bees, ''Xylocopa'' spp.] on the [[University of Florida|UF]] / [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences|IFAS]] Featured Creatures Web site
*[http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/xylocopa.htm Carpenter bees, ''Xylocopa'' spp.] on the [[University of Florida|UF]] / [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences|IFAS]] Featured Creatures Web site


{{Taxonbar|from1=Q1165550|from2=Q11094578}}
[[Category:Apidae]]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Pollinators]]

[[Category:Xylocopinae]]
<!-- [[Category:Pollinator Hymenoptera]] "category:Bees" is already listed here -->
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Xylocopa]]
[[Category:Apoidea genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille]]

Latest revision as of 20:09, 21 September 2024

This article is about large carpenter bees. For small bees sometimes referred to as "small carpenter bees", see Ceratina.

Carpenter bees
Foraging female X. micans and sounds emitted from a nest of X. pubescens
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Subfamily: Xylocopinae
Tribe: Xylocopini
Genus: Xylocopa
Latreille, 1802
Type species
Xylocopa violacea
Species

See text

Carpenter bees are species in the genus Xylocopa of the subfamily Xylocopinae. The genus includes some 500 bees in 31 subgenera.[1] The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant material such as dead wood or bamboo. The main exceptions are species in the subgenus Proxylocopa, which dig nesting tunnels in suitable soil.

Characteristics

[edit]

Many species in this enormous genus are difficult to tell apart; most species are all black, or primarily black with some yellow or white pubescence. Some differ only in subtle morphological features, such as details of the male genitalia. Males of some species differ confusingly from the females, being covered in greenish-yellow fur. The confusion of species arises particularly in the common names; in India, for example, the common name for any all-black species of Xylocopa is bhanvra (or bhomora - ভোমোৰা - in Assamese), and reports and sightings of bhanvra or bhomora are commonly misattributed to a European species, Xylocopa violacea; however, this species is found only in the northern regions of Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab, and most reports of bhanvra, especially elsewhere in India, refer to any of roughly 15 other common black Xylocopa species in the region, such as X. nasalis, X. tenuiscapa, or X. tranquebarorum.[2]

Non-professionals commonly confuse carpenter bees with bumblebees;[3] the simplest rule of thumb for telling them apart is that most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, whereas bumblebee abdomens are completely covered with dense hair. Males of some species of carpenter bees have a white or yellow face, unlike bumblebees, while females lack the bare corbicula of bumblebees; the hind leg is entirely hairy.

The wing venation is characteristic; the marginal cell in the front wing is narrow and elongated, and its apex bends away from the costa. The front wing has small stigma. When closed, the bee's short mandibles conceal the labrum. The clypeus is flat.[3] Males of many species have much larger eyes than the females, which relates to their mating behavior.

In the United States, two eastern species, Xylocopa virginica and X. micans, occur. Three more species are primarily western in distribution, X. sonorina, X. tabaniformis orpifex, and X. californica. X. virginica is by far the more widely distributed species.[4]

Xylocopa caerulea, the blue carpenter bee, engaged in nectar robbing

Ecological significance

[edit]

In several species, the females live alongside their own daughters or sisters, creating a small social group. They use wood bits to form partitions between the cells in the nest. A few species bore holes in wood dwellings. Since the tunnels are near the surface, structural damage is generally minor or superficial.[5] However, carpenter bee nests are attractive to woodpeckers, which may do further damage by drilling into the wood to feed on the bees or larvae.[6]

Carpenter bees have short mouthparts and are important pollinators on some open-faced or shallow flowers; for some they even are obligate pollinators, for example the maypop (Passiflora incarnata) and Orphium, which are not pollinated by any other insects. They also are important pollinators of flowers with various forms of lids, such as Salvia species and some members of the Fabaceae. However many carpenter bees "rob" nectar by slitting the sides of flowers with deep corollae. Xylocopa virginica is one example of a species with such nectar robbing behavior. With their short labia the bees cannot reach the nectar without piercing the long-tubed flowers; they miss contact with the anthers and perform no pollination. In some plants, this reduces fruit and seed production, while others have developed defence mechanisms against nectar robbing. When foraging for pollen from some species with tubular flowers however, the same species of carpenter bees still achieve pollination, if the anthers and stigmata are exposed together.[7]

A carpenter bee on abelia flowers, Tokyo, Japan

Many Old World carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their first metasomal tergite called the acarinarium where certain mites (Dinogamasus species) reside as commensals. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites, they are beneficial, feeding either on fungi in the nest, or on other harmful mites.

Behavior

[edit]
Xylocopa virginica in the United States
Cross-section of the brood chambers of X. violacea, illustrated by Theo Carreras; tunnels are excavated in wooden posts, divided into chambers which are provisioned, and an egg is laid in each; each cell initially contains a mass of pollen with the egg, on which the grub will feed; the pupa (lower left) is seen from back and front[8]

As a subfamily, they nest in a wide range of host plants, but any one species may show definite adaptations or preferences for particular groups of plants. Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. Examples of this type of social nesting can be seen in the species Xylocopa sulcatipes[9] and Xylocopa nasalis.[10] When females cohabit, a division of labor between them occurs sometimes. In this type of nesting, multiple females either share in the foraging and nest laying, or one female does all the foraging and nest laying, while the other females guard.[9]

Solitary species differ from social species. Solitary bees tend to be gregarious and often several nests of solitary bees are near each other. In solitary nesting, the founding bee forages, builds cells, lays the eggs, and guards. Normally, only one generation of bees live in the nest.[9] Xylocopa pubescens is one carpenter bee species that can have both social and solitary nests.[9]

Carpenter bees make nests by tunneling into wood, bamboo, and similar hard plant material such as peduncles, usually dead. They vibrate their bodies as they rasp their mandibles against hard wood, each nest having a single entrance which may have many adjacent tunnels. The entrance is often a perfectly circular hole measuring about 16 mm (0.63 in) on the underside of a beam, bench, or tree limb. Carpenter bees do not eat wood. They discard the bits of wood, or reuse particles to build partitions between cells. The tunnel functions as a nursery for brood and storage for the pollen/nectar upon which the brood subsists. The provision masses of some species are among the most complex in shape of any group of bees; whereas most bees fill their brood cells with a soupy mass and others form simple spheroidal pollen masses, Xylocopa species form elongated and carefully sculpted masses that have several projections which keep the bulk of the mass from coming into contact with the cell walls, sometimes resembling an irregular caltrop. The eggs are very large relative to the size of the female, and are some of the largest eggs among all insects.[11] Carpenter bees can be timber pests, and cause substantial damage to wood if infestations go undetected for several years.[12]

Two very different mating systems appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, which they then pursue. In the other mating system, the males often have very small heads, but a large, hypertrophied glandular reservoir in the mesosoma releases pheromones into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.[13]

Male bees often are seen hovering near nests and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless, since they do not have a stinger.[14] Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked.[4]

Natural predators

[edit]

Woodpeckers eat carpenter bees, as do various species of birds, such as shrikes and bee-eaters as well as some mammals such as ratels. Other predators include large mantises and predatory flies, particularly large robber-flies of the family Asilidae. Woodpeckers are attracted to the noise of the bee larvae and drill holes along the tunnels to feed on them.[15]

Apart from outright predators, parasitoidal species of bee flies (e.g. Xenox) lay eggs in the entrance to the bee's nest and the fly maggots live off the bee larvae.

Species

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Minckley, R. L. (1998). "A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". Scientific Papers, Natural History Museum, University of Kansas. 9: 1–47. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.16168. hdl:1808/25427.
  2. ^ Gupta, R.K., Yanega, D. 2003. A taxonomic overview of the carpenter bees of the Indian region [Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Apidae, Xylocopinae, Xylocopini, Xylocopa Latreille]. pp. 79–100 in Gupta, R.K. (Ed.) Advancements in Insect Biodiversity. Agrobios, Jodhpur, India.
  3. ^ a b "Xylocopa Latreille Large Carpenter Bees". Discover Life. Retrieved 19 November 2014. Sourced from Mitchell, T.B. (1962). Bees of the Eastern United States, Volume II. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Tech. Bul. No.152, 557 p.
  4. ^ a b Yanega, D. "Carpenter Bees, Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae, Genus Xylocopa". U.C. Riverside Entomology Research Museum. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
  5. ^ Jones, Susan. "Fact Sheet Carpenter Bees". Ohio State University Extension. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  6. ^ Erler, Emma (January 2, 2018). "Why is a woodpecker knocking on the cedar shingles of my house and how do I make it stop?". NH Extension.
  7. ^ Keasar, Tamar (2010). "Large carpenter bees as agricultural pollinators". Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 2010: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2010/927463.
  8. ^ Step, Edward (1915). Marvels of insect life; a popular account of structure and habit. W. Briggs. p. 39. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.62864. ISBN 978-0-665-76534-6.
  9. ^ a b c d Gerling, Dan; Hurd, Paul David; Hefetz, Abraham (1983). "Comparative behavioral biology of two Middle East species of carpenter bees (Xylocopa Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)". Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 369: 1–33. doi:10.5479/si.00810282.369. hdl:10088/5359.
  10. ^ Gerling, D; Velthuis, H H W; Hefetz, A (1989). "Bionomics of the large carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa". Annual Review of Entomology. 34 (1): 163–190. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001115.
  11. ^ Salvatore Vicidomini (February 9, 2005). "Chapter 40 — Largest Eggs". Book of Insect Records. University of Florida.
  12. ^ Robert A. Zabel; Jeffrey J. Morrell (2 December 2012). Wood Microbiology: Decay and Its Prevention. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-323-13946-5.
  13. ^ Minckley, R. L.; Buchmann, S. L.; Wcislo, W. T. (1991). "Bioassay evidence for a sex attractant pheromone in the large carpenter bee, Xylocopa varipuncta (Anthophoridae: Hymenoptera)". Journal of Zoology. 224 (2): 285–291. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04805.x.
  14. ^ Potter, M. "Carpenter Bees". University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Department of Entomology. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
  15. ^ "Cornell Lab of Ornithology". cornell.edu. 24 February 2023.
  16. ^ Engel, M.S.; Alqarni, A.S.; Shebl, M.A.; Iqbal, J.; Hinojosa-Diaz, I.A. (2017). "A new species of the carpenter bee genus Xylocopa from the Sarawat Mountains in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". ZooKeys (716): 29–41. doi:10.3897/zookeys.716.21150. PMC 5740427. PMID 29290706.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Carpenter_bee&oldid=1246910316"