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Coordinates: 37°10′N 12°43′E / 37.167°N 12.717°E / 37.167; 12.717
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{{short description|Submerged volcanic island south of Sicily}}
{{Infobox Seamount
| Name = Ferdinandea Island
{{Redirect|Ferdinandea|the insect genus|Ferdinandea (fly)}}
{{Infobox Seamount
| Depth = Roughly {{convert|6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
|name = Graham Island<br />{{native name|it|Isola Ferdinandea}}<br />{{native name|fr|Ile Julia}}
| Height = {{convert|63|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (maximum)<ref name ="Siclian Almanac">[http://www.grifasi-sicilia.com/isolaferdinandeagbr.html Siclian Almanac] Accessed on February 11th, 2009</ref>
|depth = Roughly {{convert|8|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="Maryann Bird"/>
| Map = [[Image:Map of Graham Island.jpg|300px]]
|height = {{convert|63|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (maximum)<ref name ="Sicilian Almanac">"[http://www.grifasi-sicilia.com/isolaferdinandeagbr.html Ferdinandea - The Disappeared Isle]". Almanacco Siciliano. Accessed 11 February 2009.</ref>
| Map caption = Approximate location of Graham Island
|map = [[File:Map of Graham Island.jpg|300px]]
| Summit area = Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily)<ref name="coinage">[http://chiefacoins.com/Database/Micro-Nations/Ferdinandea.htm Coinage Database Entry]. Accessed February 11th, 2009</ref>
|map_caption = Approximate location of Graham Island
| Location = Between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]]
|summit_area = [[Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia]] (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily)<ref>{{cite report|first=Peter|last=Hedervári|title=Catalog of Submarine Volcanoes and Hydrological Phenomena Associated with Volcanic Events, 1500 B.C. to December 31, 1899|number=SE6|location=Boulder, Colorado|publisher=National Geophysical Data Center|year=1984|page=A2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-QKAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>
| Group =
|location = Between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]]
| Coordinates = {{coord|37|10|N|12|43|E|type:isle|display=title,inline}}
| Type = [[Submarine volcano]]
|group =
|coordinates = {{coord|37|10|N|12|43|E|type:isle|display=title,inline}}
| Volcanic group =
| Age =
|type = [[Submarine volcano]]
|volcanic_group =
| Last eruption = 1831
|age =
| Discovered = First eruption 10 B.C.<ref name="Maryann Bird"/><ref name="Bourbons"/>
|last_eruption = 1863
| Discovered by = Ancient Romans
| First visit =
|discovered =
| Translation =
|discovered_by =
| Language = Italian
|first_visit =
|translation =
| Pronunciation =
| Photo =
|language =
| Photo caption =
|pronunciation =
|photo =
|photo_caption =
}}
}}


'''Graham Island''' or '''Isola Ferdinandea''' (also ''Graham Bank'', ''Graham Shoal'', {{langx|fr|Île Julia}}) was an island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] near [[Sicily]] that has, on more than one occasion, risen above the surface of the Mediterranean via volcanic action and soon thereafter been washed away. Since 300&nbsp;BC this cycle of events has occurred four times.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/26/science/volcanic-island-could-rise-after-170-years-under-sea.html | title= Volcanic Island Could Rise After 170 Years Under Sea | agency = [[Reuters]] | work = [[New York Times]] | date = 2002-11-26 | access-date = 2021-07-10}}</ref> The island was part of the [[submarine volcano]] [[Empedocles (volcano)|Empedocles]], {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} south of [[Sicily]], which is one of a number of underwater volcanoes known as the [[Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia]].
[[File:19th Century Flag of Malta.svg|thumb|Right|300px|Flag of the Crown Colony of Malta in 1831 to which Graham Island belonged.]]


[[Seamount]] [[eruption]]s have raised the island above [[sea level]] several times before [[erosion]] submerged it again. The island's most recent "appearance" occurred in July 1831, but then by January 1832 the portion of the island above sea level had been entirely washed away again by the wind and the waves of the Mediterranean Sea. During the brief six-month lifespan of the island, a four-way dispute over the island's sovereignty arose, which was still unresolved when the island again disappeared beneath the waves.
'''Ferdinandea''' ([[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]: '''''Ìsula Firdinandèa''''') is a submerged volcanic island discovered when it last appeared on August 1 1831 by Humphrey Senhouse, the captain of the Royal Navy flag Ship St Vincent and named after [[Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet|Sir James Graham]], the [[Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]]. It was claimed by the United Kingdom. It forms part of the underwater volcano [[Empedocles (volcano)|Empedocles]], {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} south of [[Sicily]], and which is one of a number of submarine volcanoes known as the [[Campi Flegrei Mar Sicilia|Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia]]. Currently a [[seamount]], [[eruption]]s have raised it above [[sea level]] several times before [[erosion]] has caused it to submerge again. When it last rose above sea level after erupting in 1831, a four-way dispute over its sovereignty began, which was still unresolved when it disappeared beneath the waves again in early 1832. During its brief life, the French geologist [[Constant Prévost]] was on hand, accompanied by an artist, to witness it in July 1831; he named it ''Île Julia'', for its July appearance, and reported in the ''Bulletin de la [[Société Géologique de France]]''.<ref>"Notes sur l’ile Julia pour servir a l’histoire de la formation des montagnes volcaniques" in ''Mémoires de la Soc. Géol. de France'', 1835 ([http://decobed.club.fr/Julia.html "L’exploration de île Julia"])</ref><ref name="London Geological Society"/> Some observers at the time wondered if a chain of mountains would spring up, linking Sicily to Tunisia and thus upsetting the geopolitics of the region.<ref name="coinage"/> More recently, it has showed signs of volcanic activity in 2000 and 2002, forecasting a possible appearance; however, {{as of|2006|lc=on}} it remains {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} under sea level.


The island is still referenced on marine charts, as its top is only {{convert|6|m|sp=|abbr=off}} short of breaking the surface, it thus becomes a potentially dangerous hidden obstacle for many seafaring vessels whose keels most often run deeper than this.<ref name="Independent" /> It is also a small shoal on which near-surface maritime creatures dwell.
== Early history ==


== History ==
Graham Island lies in a [[volcanic]] area known as the ''Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia'' (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily), in between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Many submarine volcanoes ([[seamount]]s) exist in the region, as well as some volcanic islands such as [[Pantelleria]]. Volcanic activity at Graham Island was first reported during the [[First Punic War]], and the island has appeared and disappeared four or five times.<ref name="iol">[http://www.iol.co.za/scitech/technology/scientists-discover-huge-underwater-volcano-1.282755 Scientists discover huge underwater volcano], [[Independent Online (South Africa)|The Independent Online]]</ref> Several eruptions have been reported since the 17th century.<ref>''[http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-07= Campi Flegrei Mar Sicilia]'', Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program, accessed 9 May 2006</ref>
== 1831 eruption and British possession ==
[[File:HMS Melville and Graham Island.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Graham Island (Sicily), guarded by [[HMS Melville (1817)]].]]


=== Early history ===
Graham Island's most recent appearance as an island was in July 1831. The first sign of an eruption was a period of high [[Earthquake|seismic activity]] spanning from June 28 to July 10 reported by the nearby town of [[Sciacca]].<ref name="Siclian Almanac"/> On July 4 an odor of [[sulfur]] spread through the town reportedly in such quantities that it blackened silver.<ref name="Siclian Almanac"/> On July 13, a column of smoke was clearly seen from St. Domenico. The residents believed it to be a ferry on fire.<ref name="Siclian Almanac"/> On the same day, the [[brig]] ''[[Gustavo]]'' passed through the area, confirming a bubbling in the sea that the captain thought was a [[sea monster]]. Another ship reported dead fish floating in the water. By July 17, a fully grown islet had formed.<ref name ="Siclian Almanac"/>
Volcanic activity at Graham Island was first recorded during the [[First Punic War]] during the 3rd century BC. The island is believed to have appeared and disappeared four or five times since then.<ref name="iol">{{cite news|url=https://www.iol.co.za/technology/scientists-discover-huge-underwater-volcano-282755|title=Scientists discover huge underwater volcano|last=Stewart|first=Phil|work=[[Independent Online (South Africa)|Independent Online]]|location=South Africa|date=23 June 2006|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> Several eruptions have been reported since the 17th century AD.<ref>{{cite gvp|vn=211070 |name=Campi Flegrei Mar Sicilia |access-date=2018-01-04}}</ref> The island is located in a [[volcanic]] area known as the ''Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia'' (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily), in between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Many submarine volcanoes ([[seamount]]s) exist in the region, as well as some volcanic islands such as [[Pantelleria]].


=== 1831 appearance ===
On August 1 1831 [[Humphrey Fleming Senhouse]], the captain of the Royal Navy flag Ship [[HMS St Vincent (1815)]] claimed the Island for the British Crown and named it after [[Sir James Graham]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]. The eruptions of 1831 resulted in the island increasing in size to about {{convert|4|km|abbr=on}}. However, it was composed of loose [[tephra]], easily eroded by wave action, and when the eruptive episode ended it rapidly subsided, disappearing beneath the waves in January 1832, before the issue of its sovereignty could be resolved. Fresh eruptions in 1863 caused the island to reappear briefly before again sinking below sea level. At its maximum (in July and August 1831), it was {{convert|4800|m|abbr=on}} in circumference and {{convert|63|m|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name ="Siclian Almanac"/> It sported two small lakes, the larger of which was {{convert|20|m}} in circumference and {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} in depth.<ref name ="Siclian Almanac"/>
[[File:HMS Melville and Graham Island.jpg|thumb|left|Graham Island guarded by [[HMS Melville (1817)|HMS ''Melville'']]]]
Graham Island's most recent appearance as an island was in July 1831.<ref>{{cite book|first=Élisée|last=Reclus|title=The Earth: a Descriptive History of the Phenomena of the Life of the Globe|publisher=Verlag|location=Frankfurt|year=2023|isbn=978-3-38212-029-0|page=495}}</ref> The first reports of high [[Earthquake|seismic activity]] and/or eruptions occurred during a period spanning from 28 June to 10 July 1831. These reports came from the nearby town of [[Sciacca]].<ref name="Sicilian Almanac"/> On 28 June, the [[Royal Navy]] ships {{HMS|Britannia|1820|2}} and {{HMS|Rapid|1829|2}} were shaken by an earthquake between Sciacca and Pantelleria.<ref name=Gerkens>{{cite journal|last=Gerkens|first=Jean-François|year=2022|title=The Graham Island Case. Acquiring by Occupatio|journal=Sartoniana|issue=34|pages=83–104}}</ref> On 4 July an odour of [[sulfur]] spread through the town reportedly in such quantities that it blackened silver.<ref name="Sicilian Almanac"/> On 12 July, Ferdinando Caronna, captain of the ''Psyche'' from Naples, reported seeing smoke coming out of the sea.<ref name=Gerkens/> On 13 July, a column of smoke was clearly seen from St. Domenico. The residents believed it to be a ferry on fire.<ref name="Sicilian Almanac"/> On the same day, the [[brig]] ''[[Gustavo (ship)|Gustavo]]'' passed through the area, confirming a bubbling in the sea that the captain thought was a [[sea monster]]. Another ship reported dead fish floating in the water.<ref name=Gerkens/>


By 17 July, a fully grown islet had formed enough to where Sicilian customs official Michele Fiorini was able to land there and to claim the island for the Kingdom of Sicily.<ref name="Sicilian Almanac" /><ref name="first_claim" /> He planted an oar there to claim the newly emerged island for the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]].<ref name = "first_claim">{{cite web | url = http://guide.supereva.it/sicilia/interventi/2005/09/226219.shtml | title = Ferdinandea: L'isola che non c'è (Ferdinandea: The island that no longer exists) | last = Gallo | first = Emanuela | publisher = Supereva | date = 2005-09-24 | access-date = 2021-07-08 | archive-date = 2021-07-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190532/http://guide.supereva.it/sicilia/interventi/2005/09/226219.shtml | url-status = dead }} Historical description of brief appearance of island.</ref>
== Dispute ==


The eruptions of 1831 resulted in the island increasing in size to about ({{convert|4|km2|spell=in|disp=output only|frac=4}}). At its maximum (in July and August 1831), it was {{convert|4800|m|abbr=on}} in circumference and {{convert|63|m|abbr=on}} in height. It sported two small lakes, the larger of which was {{convert|20|m}} in circumference and {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} in depth.<ref name ="Sicilian Almanac"/>
[[File:Ferdinando II delle Due Sicilie.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies]], after whom the island was named, circa 1850.]]


In the months ahead, Graham Island eventually became the subject of a four-way dispute over its [[sovereignty]]:
Graham Island was subject to a four-way dispute over its [[sovereignty]], originally claimed for the [[United Kingdom]] and given the name Graham Island. The King of [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|the Two Sicilies]], [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand II]], after whom Sicilian's named the island Ferdinandea, sent ships to the nascent island to claim it for the [[House of Bourbon#Bourbons of Spain and Italy|Bourbon crown]]. The [[French Navy]] also made a landing, and called the island Julia. [[Spain]] also declared its territorial ambitions.<ref name="coinage"/> Each wanted the island for its useful position in the [[Mediterranean]] trade route (to England and France) and its close position to Spain and Italy.<ref name="coinage"/>
* On 2 August 1831, [[Humphrey Fleming Senhouse]], the captain of the [[first rate]] Royal Navy [[ship of the line]] [[HMS St Vincent (1815)|HMS ''St Vincent'']] claimed the island for the British Crown and named it after [[Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet|Sir James Graham]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], and planted their flag, the [[Union Jack]].<ref name="Maryann Bird"/> Although still only a couple of rocks, the Royal Navy thought it was very suitable as a base to control the traffic in the [[History of the Mediterranean region#Modern era|Mediterranean]], as it was closer to the European continent than the island of [[Malta]], a [[Crown Colony of Malta|Crown Colony]].<ref name ="Sicilian Almanac"/>
* [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand]], the ruler of [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|the Two Sicilies]], also realized its strategic significance, and dispatched the [[corvette]] ''Etna'' to claim the new land and dub it Ferdinandea in honour of [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|King Ferdinand II]].<ref name="Maryann Bird"/> Nobles of the [[House of Bourbon]] reportedly planned to set up a holiday resort on its beaches.<ref name="Independent">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-island-that-time-remembered-5364331.html|title=The Island that Time Remembered|work=[[The Independent]]|first=Rose|last=George|date=26 September 2001|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>
* [[Spain]] also declared its territorial ambitions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Isla Ferdinandea {{!}} La guía de Geografía |url=https://geografia.laguia2000.com/geografia-regional/europa/isla-ferdinandea |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=geografia.laguia2000.com |language=Spanish}}</ref>
* Last on the scene was [[Constant Prévost]], a co-founder of the [[French Geological Society]], who compared the eruption to a bottle of champagne being uncorked. He named the island ''Julia'', because it was born in July, and probably also in reference to France's [[July Monarchy]].


Diplomatic disputes over the island's status ensued.<ref name=Gerkens/> Some observers at the time wondered if a chain of mountains would spring up, linking Sicily to Tunisia and thus upsetting the geopolitics of the region.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Jan|last1=Kozák|first2=Vladimir|last2=Cermák|title=The Illustrated History of Natural Disasters|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht|year=2010|isbn=978-9-04813-325-3|page=77|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUcX4-WFxOYC}}</ref> During the island's brief lifespan tourists began to travel to the island to see its two small lakes.
=== Initial conflict ===


None of these ideas came to fruition, however, as the island soon sank back beneath the waters. The island was composed of loose [[tephra]], easily eroded by wave action, and when the eruptive episode ended it rapidly subsided, disappearing beneath the waves in January 1832, before the issue of its sovereignty could be resolved. By 17 December 1831, officials reported no trace of it. As dynamically as the seamount appeared, it disappeared, defusing the conflict with it.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2516655.stm|title=Volcano may emerge from the sea|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=26 November 2002|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>
In August 1831 the volcano had risen to above sea level, although still only a couple of rocks, but the Royal Navy thought it was very suitable as a base to control the traffic in the [[History_of_the_Mediterranean_region#Modern_era|Mediterranean]], as it was closer to the European continent than the island of [[Malta]]{{fact|date=March 2013}}. The small volcanic point was an important strategic point in the Mediterranean to the world's premier maritime power of the time, being closer to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]] than [[Malta]], the next closest.<ref name ="Siclian Almanac"/> The British fleet landed, named it Graham Island, after [[Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet|Sir James Graham]], the [[Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]], and planted their flag, the [[Union Jack]].<ref name="Maryann Bird"/>


In August 1831, observers around the world reported a discolored sun in the sky, tinted blue, purple, or green. Researchers have attempted to discover what volcanic activity was responsible for the stratospheric discharge that caused the discoloration, with an early consensus that [[Babuyan Claro Volcano|Babuyan Claro]] in the [[Philippines]] was the most likely source. Yet, later research has concluded there was no 1831 eruption at Babuyan Claro,<ref name="Garrison Kilburn Edwards p.">{{cite journal | last1=Garrison | first1=Christopher S. | last2=Kilburn | first2=Christopher R. J. | last3=Edwards | first3=Stephen J. | title=The 1831 eruption of Babuyan Claro that never happened: has the source of one of the largest volcanic climate forcing events of the nineteenth century been misattributed? | journal=Journal of Applied Volcanology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=5 September 2018 | issn=2191-5040 | doi=10.1186/s13617-018-0078-9 | page=8| s2cid=52222449 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2018JApV....7....8G }}</ref> and some have argued the smaller activity at Graham was the likely culprit.<ref name="Garrison Kilburn Smart Edwards 2021 pp. 1–56">{{cite journal | last1=Garrison | first1=Christopher | last2=Kilburn | first2=Christopher | last3=Smart | first3=David | last4=Edwards | first4=Stephen | title=The blue suns of 1831: was the eruption of Ferdinandea, near Sicily, one of the largest volcanic climate forcing events of the nineteenth century? | journal=Climate of the Past Discussions | date=5 August 2021 | issn=1814-9324 | doi=10.5194/cp-2021-78 | pages=1–56 | s2cid=237525956 | url=https://cp.copernicus.org/preprints/cp-2021-78/ | access-date=1 November 2021| doi-access=free }}</ref> Even later research ruled out a larger 1831 eruption of the [[Zavaritski Caldera]], as the phenomenon predominated in a limited geographic range and lasted only a month.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hutchison|first1=William|last2=Sugden|first2=Patrick|last3=Burke|first3=Andrea|last4=Abbott|first4=Peter|last5=Ponomareva|first5=Vera V.|last6=Dirksen|first6=Oleg|last7=Portnyagin|first7=Maxim V.|last8=MacInnes|first8=Breanyn|last9=Bourgeois|first9=Joanne |last10=Fitzhugh |first10=Ben|last11=Verkerk|first11=Magali|last12=Aubry|first12=Thomas J.|last13=Engwell|first13=Samantha L.|last14=Svensson|first14=Anders|last15=Chellman|first15=Nathan J.|last16=McConnell|first16=Joseph R.|last17=Davies|first17=Siwan|last18=Sigl|first18=Michael|last19=Plunkett|first19=Gill|title=The 1831 CE mystery eruption identified as Zavaritskii caldera, Simushir Island (Kurils)|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=7 January 2025|volume=122|issue=1|pages=e2416699122|doi=10.1073/pnas.2416699122|display-authors=5|url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2416699122|access-date=5 January 2025}}</ref> [[Nat Turner]], an enslaved preacher in [[Southampton County, Virginia]], took the bluish-green sun as a divine sign to begin what became known as [[Nat Turner's slave rebellion]], which ended with the deaths of more than 200 people and led to new laws across the South further restricting the liberties of slaves, including banning their education and limiting their religious freedom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gray-White|first1=Deborah|last2=Bay|first2=Mia|last3=Martin Jr|first3=Waldo E.|title=Freedom on my mind: A History of African Americans|date=2013|publisher=New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013|page=225}}</ref>
But the King of Sicily also realized its strategic significance, and dispatched the [[corvette]] ''Etna'' to claim the new land and dub it Ferdinandea in honor of [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|King Ferdinand II]]. Last on the scene was [[Constant Prévost]], a co-founder of the [[French Geological Society]], who compared the eruption to a bottle of champagne being uncorked. He named the island Julia, because it was born in July. Diplomatic wrangling broke out.<ref name="Maryann Bird"/>


=== Extended conflict ===
=== Recent seismic activity ===
[[File:Sigmografo ferdinandea.jpg|right|thumb|A [[seismograph]], placed on the former island in 2006, is recovered in 2007]]
Fresh eruptions in 1863 caused the island to reappear briefly before again sinking below sea level.<ref name ="Sicilian Almanac"/> After 1863, the volcano lay dormant for many decades, its summit just {{convert|8|m|abbr=on}} below sea level.


In 2000, renewed [[seismology|seismic]] activity around Graham Island led [[volcanologist]]s to speculate that a new eruptive episode could be imminent, and the seamount might once again become an island.<ref name="Bourbons">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/nov/13/rorycarroll1|title=Bourbons surface to retake island|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Rory|last=Carroll|date=13 November 2000|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> In November 2002 the Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Rome observed minor seismic activity and gas emissions.<ref name="BBC"/> They put the time of resurfacing at a couple of weeks or months. Italian sailors put an Italian flag on the top of the bank to avoid other nations' claims if the former island resurfaced. Despite showing signs in both 2000 and 2002, the seismicity did not lead to volcanic eruptions and {{As of|2000|lc=y}} Graham's summit remains about {{convert|8|m}} below sea level.<ref name="Maryann Bird">{{cite magazine|url=https://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2051367,00.html|title=Fire from the Sea|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|first=Maryann|last=Bird|date=20 March 2000|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>
For five months conflict raged in newspapers and elsewhere as the different nations fought over a roughly {{convert|60|m|adj=on|abbr=on}} high piece of [[basalt]].<ref name="volcanoes">[http://www.vulkaner.no/v/volcan/etna/ferdinan_e.html Volcanoes and Volcanism Entry]. Accessed February 10, 2009</ref> Tourists traveled to the island to see its two small lakes. Sailors watched it when passing by, and nobles of the [[House of Bourbon]] reportedly planned to set up a holiday resort on its beaches. None of these ideas came to light, however, as the island soon sank back beneath the waters. By December 17, 1831, officials reported no trace of it. As dynamically as the seamount appeared, it disappeared, defusing the conflict with it. <ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2516655.stm BBC News Story]"The last time the island surfaced, diplomatic arguments arose over its ownership;" Direct Quote accessed on February 10th, 2009</ref>


To forestall a renewal of the sovereignty disputes, in November 2000 Italian divers planted a Sicilian flag on the top of the volcano in advance of its expected resurfacing.<ref name="BBC"/> In a ceremony attended by [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro]] (a descendent of [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand II]]) and his wife Princess Camilla, a marble plaque was lowered into the water, with Prince Carlo proclaiming that the island "will always be Sicilian".<ref name="Bourbons"/> The marble plaque, weighing {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, was inscribed "This piece of land, once Ferdinandea, belonged and shall always belong to the Sicilian people."<ref name="Independent" /> Within six months, it had fractured into twelve pieces.<ref name="London Geological Society">{{cite web|url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Geoscientist/Media-Monitor/From-out-the-azure-main|title=From out the azure main|work=[[Geoscientist (magazine)|Geoscientist]]|publisher=[[Geological Society of London]]|first=Ted|last=Nield|date=February 2003|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>
== Recent activity ==


== Scientific study ==
[[File:Flag of Sicily.svg|thumb|left|200px|A model of the Flag of Sicily, which was lowered into the water.]]
[[File:Ferdinadea historical.jpg|thumb|left|A page out of the field journal of French geologist [[Constant Prévost]]. Illustrations by a French artist.]]


The sudden geologic phenomenon was observed and studied by numerous scientists. Among the Germans were [[Friedrich Hoffmann (geologist)|Hoffmann]], Schultz, and Philippi. Among the English were [[Edward Davy]] and [[Warington Wilkinson Smyth]].<ref name="London Geological Society"/> Among the French was [[Constant Prévost]], who visited the island with an artist, and presented his findings in the ''Bulletin de la [[Société Géologique de France]]''.<ref>"Notes sur l'ile Julia pour servir a l'histoire de la formation des montagnes volcaniques" in ''Mémoires de la Soc. Géol. de France'', 1835 ([http://decobed.club.fr/Julia.html "L'exploration de île Julia"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060501002151/http://decobed.club.fr/Julia.html |date=2006-05-01 }}).</ref> Among the Italians was [[Scinà Domenico]] (1765–1837) who published his observations in the "Effeméridi Sicilians" (1832, vol. 2), and [[Carlo Gemmellaro]] (1787–1866), teacher of geology and mineralogy at [[Catania University]], who published "Actions of the Gioenia Academy of Catania" (1831, vol.8).<ref name ="Sicilian Almanac"/> In 2006, further study revealed Graham Island to be just one part of the larger volcanic cone [[Empedocles (volcano)|Empedocles]].<ref name="iol" />
[[File:Sigmografo ferdinandea.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A seismograph, placed on the underwater island in 2006, is recovered in 2007.]]


== In popular culture ==
After 1863 the volcano lay dormant for many decades, its summit just {{convert|8|m|abbr=on}} below sea level.
During its emergence it was visited by [[Sir Walter Scott]], and it provided inspiration for [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s ''[[The Crater (novel)|The Crater, or Vulcan's Peak]]'', [[Alexandre Dumas, père]]'s ''The Speronara'', [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Captain Antifer]]'' and ''[[The Survivors of the Chancellor]]'' and [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''.
Following the [[1986 bombing of Libya|1986 US bombing of Libya]], American warplanes mistook the shoal for a Libyan submarine and dropped [[depth charges]] on it.<ref>{{cite web |last=Owen |first=Richard |title=Italy stakes early claim to submerged island |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article1181110.ece |date=November 27, 2002 |work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd. |accessdate=5 August 2009 | location=London}}</ref>
In 2000, renewed [[seismology|seismic]] activity around Graham Island led [[volcanologist]]s to speculate that a new eruptive episode could be imminent, and the seamount might once again become an island.<ref name="Bourbons">http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,396512,00.html ''Bourbons surface to retake island'' - Guardian Unlimited</ref> To forestall a renewal of the sovereignty disputes, Italian divers planted a flag on the top of the volcano in advance of its expected resurfacing.<ref name="BBC">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2516655.stm Volcano may emerge from the sea]'', BBC news online, accessed 9 May 2006</ref> To bolster their case, Sicilians, who call it Ferdinandea, summoned the descendant of the Bourbon King of Naples. In a ceremony filmed by a flotilla of camera crews, Prince Carlo di Bourbon lowered a plaque into the waves and told cheering locals: "It will always be Sicilian." Lobbied by fishermen and sailors, [[Ignazio Cucchiara]], the mayor of [[Sciacca]], invited [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro|Prince Carlo]] to attend the ceremony with his wife, Countess [[Princess Camilla, Duchess of Castro|Camilla Cruciani]]. To accommodate television crews the plaque was lowered well before reaching the shoal, which is a danger to shipping. Choppy waters forced divers to postpone the operation a week, until November 13, 2000.<ref name="Bourbons"/> The diving crew planted Sicily's flag, which features a Medusa's head surrounded by three naked legs&nbsp;– a sign traditionally interpreted as "keep away."


The island was also the subject of an episode of ''Citation Needed'', a panel show made and hosted by British content creator [[Tom Scott (presenter)|Tom Scott]].
The marble plaque, weighing {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, was inscribed “This piece of land, once Ferdinandea, belonged and shall always belong to the Sicilian people."<ref name="coinage"/> The Prince told cheering locals: “It will always be Sicilian.” But within six months it had been fractured into 12 pieces, mostly likely by fishing gear but possibly by vandalism.<ref name="coinage"/><ref name="London Geological Society">[http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/null/lang/en/page571.html From out the azure main], Media monitor, London Geological Society, February 2003. Accessed February 20th, 2009.</ref>
In November 2002, Professor Enzo Boschi, from the Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Rome, told [[BBC News Online]]:<blockquote>We have observed minor seismic activity, gas emissions but this is quite normal.<ref name="BBC"/> </blockquote> He put the time of resurfacing at a couple of weeks or months. However, in an interview with ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, [[Boris Behncke]], a German researcher at the [[University of Catania]]'s department of geological sciences in Sicily, said: <blockquote>Geologically speaking, it's a possibility, But geology has a very long time scale&nbsp;... We really should not be too worried.<ref name="Maryann Bird"/></blockquote> Despite showing signs in both 2000 and 2002, the seismicity did not lead to volcanic eruptions and as of 2006 Ferdinandea's summit remains about {{convert|6|m}} below sea level. Should it reappear, [[Federico Eichberg]], an international relations expert based in Rome, believes it would do so within Italian territorial waters — and in all probability would be formally claimed by Italy. Eichberg does not expect that a renewed international rumpus would arise, noting: <blockquote>“If it's just a little island, we're not going to have a big fight over it.”<ref name="Maryann Bird">{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2051367,00.html |title=Fire from The Sea |work=Time Magazine |accessdate=2011-10-01 |author=Maryann Bird |date=March 20, 2000}}</ref></blockquote>


A number of [[Cinderella stamp|Cinderella stamps]] and art coins have been issued over the years, under fictional names such as ''Poste Isola Ferdinandea.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stampboards |title=Have you ever heard about "Poste Isola Ferdinandea"? |url=https://www.stampboards.com/viewtopic.php?t=77247 |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=www.stampboards.com}}</ref>
== Continuing UK sovereignty? ==


In 2000, an unofficial minting of a penny was produced by a Sicilian artist, featuring the former island on one side and, unusually, a bust of [[Elizabeth II]] on the other. [[David Mannucci]], the designer of the coin, had the idea to produce it after he "found out the existence of the ghost island" from a newspaper article. Besides the copper piece, he minted varieties in silver, copper "with protective enamel", and in silver "with protective enamel". While this Italian-made coin fittingly bears the Italian name for the former island, the art coin also features a bust of "Elizabeth II D.G.R." and bears a British denomination.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tædivm - Ferdinandea |url=http://www.taedivm.org/coin-ferdinandea.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=www.taedivm.org}}</ref>
The UK has not given up it claim to Graham Island, either on Maltese independence or to Italy. When questioned on the subject a spokeswoman for Britain's [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]], kept all options open saying the British government “would look at this if and when any island were to emerge,” she said, adding: “We don't want to make waves now."<ref name="Maryann Bird"/>

== Significance ==

=== Scientific study ===

[[File:Ferdinadea historical.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A page out of the field journal of French geologist [[Constant Prévost]]. Illustrations by a French artist.]]
[[File:Constant-Prévost-1787-1836.jpg|thumb|120px|French geologist [[Constant Prévost]]|right]]
[[File:Cgemmellaro2.jpg|thumb|120px|Italian geologist [[Carlo Gemmellaro]] [[:it:Carlo Gemmellaro|(Italian wiki article)]]|right]]

The sudden geologic phenomenon was observed and studied by numerous scientists. Among the Germans were [[Friedrich Hoffmann (geologist)|Hoffmann]], Schultz, and Philippi. Among the English were [[Edward Davy]] and [[Warington Wilkinson Smyth]]. Among the French was [[Constant Prévost]]. Among the Italians there was [[Scinà Domenico]] (1765-1837) who published his observations in the "Effem&eacute;ridi Sicilians" (1832- Vol. 2), and [[Carlo Gemmellaro]] (1787–1866), teacher of geology and mineralogy at [[Catania University]], who published "Actions of the Gioenia Academy of Catania" (1831- Vol.8).<ref name ="Siclian Almanac"/>

In 2006, further study revealed Graham Island to be just one part of the larger volcanic cone [[Empedocles (volcano)|Empedocles]].<ref name="iol" />

=== Marine significance ===

Graham Island is still referenced on marine charts, as its top is only 6 meters short of breaking the surface, much higher than the [[Draft (hull)|draft]] of most seafaring vessels.<ref name="volcanoes"/> It is also a small shoal on which near-surface [[sea|maritime]] creatures dwell.

=== Coinage ===

In Sicily in 2000 there was produced an unofficial minting of a penny, featuring the island of Graham Island on one side and, unusually, a bust of [[Elizabeth II]] on the other. (Italy, including Sicily, was using the [[italian lira]] by this time and the coin did not circulate.) The designer of the coin is [[David Mannucci]]. The idea to make this coin occurred to Mannucci after he "found out the existence of the ghost island" from a newspaper article. Besides the copper piece, varieties exist in silver, copper "with protective enamel", and in silver "with protective enamel". While this Italian-made coin fittingly bears the Italian name for the island, the conflicted piece also features a bust of “Elizabeth II D.G.R.” and bears a British denomination.<ref name="coinage"/>

=== In popular culture ===

During its emergence it was visited by [[Sir Walter Scott]], and it provided inspiration for [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s ''The Crater, or Vulcan's Peak'', [[Alexandre Dumas, père]]'s ''The Speronara'' and [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Captain Antifer]]'' and ''[[The Survivors of the Chancellor]]''. It also provided the inspiration for the isle of Leshp in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''.


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[List of islands of Italy]]

* [[List of volcanoes in Italy]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Italy]]
* [[Volcanism in Italy]]
* [[Volcanism in Italy]]
* [[Sabrina Island (Azores)]], an earlier volcanic island and diplomatic incident analogous to that of Graham Island
* [[Seamount]]
* [[Submarine volcanoes]]
* [[Empedocles (volcano)|Empedocles]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}


== External links ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{commons category-inline|Ferdinandea (volcanic island)|'''Graham Island'''}}


{{Portalbar|Geography|Islands|Italy}}
[[Category:Volcanoes of Italy]]
{{Islands of Italy in the Mediterranean}}

{{good article}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Disputed islands of Europe]]
[[Category:Ephemeral islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Sicily]]
[[Category:Islands of Sicily]]
[[Category:Reefs of the Mediterranean Sea]]
[[Category:Seamounts of the Mediterranean]]
[[Category:Sciacca]]
[[Category:Submarine volcanoes]]
[[Category:Submarine volcanoes]]
[[Category:Seamounts of the Mediterranean]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Italy]]
[[Category:Reefs of the Mediterranean]]
[[Category:Former islands from the last glacial maximum]]
[[Category:New islands]]
[[Category:Disputed islands]]
[[Category:Ephemeral islands]]
[[Category:Mediterranean islands]]
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Latest revision as of 04:00, 7 January 2025

"Ferdinandea" redirects here. For the insect genus, see Ferdinandea (fly).
Graham Island
Isola Ferdinandea (Italian)
Ile Julia (French)
Approximate location of Graham Island
Summit depthRoughly 8 m (26 ft)[1]
Height63 m (207 ft) (maximum)[2]
Summit areaCampi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily)[3]
Location
LocationBetween Sicily and Tunisia
Coordinates37°10′N 12°43′E / 37.167°N 12.717°E / 37.167; 12.717
Geology
TypeSubmarine volcano
Last eruption1863

Graham Island or Isola Ferdinandea (also Graham Bank, Graham Shoal, French: Île Julia) was an island in the Mediterranean Sea near Sicily that has, on more than one occasion, risen above the surface of the Mediterranean via volcanic action and soon thereafter been washed away. Since 300 BC this cycle of events has occurred four times.[4] The island was part of the submarine volcano Empedocles, 30 km (19 mi) south of Sicily, which is one of a number of underwater volcanoes known as the Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia.

Seamount eruptions have raised the island above sea level several times before erosion submerged it again. The island's most recent "appearance" occurred in July 1831, but then by January 1832 the portion of the island above sea level had been entirely washed away again by the wind and the waves of the Mediterranean Sea. During the brief six-month lifespan of the island, a four-way dispute over the island's sovereignty arose, which was still unresolved when the island again disappeared beneath the waves.

The island is still referenced on marine charts, as its top is only 6 metres (20 feet) short of breaking the surface, it thus becomes a potentially dangerous hidden obstacle for many seafaring vessels whose keels most often run deeper than this.[5] It is also a small shoal on which near-surface maritime creatures dwell.

History

[edit]

Early history

[edit]

Volcanic activity at Graham Island was first recorded during the First Punic War during the 3rd century BC. The island is believed to have appeared and disappeared four or five times since then.[6] Several eruptions have been reported since the 17th century AD.[7] The island is located in a volcanic area known as the Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia (Phlegraean Fields of the Sea of Sicily), in between Sicily and Tunisia in the Mediterranean Sea. Many submarine volcanoes (seamounts) exist in the region, as well as some volcanic islands such as Pantelleria.

1831 appearance

[edit]
Graham Island guarded by HMS Melville

Graham Island's most recent appearance as an island was in July 1831.[8] The first reports of high seismic activity and/or eruptions occurred during a period spanning from 28 June to 10 July 1831. These reports came from the nearby town of Sciacca.[2] On 28 June, the Royal Navy ships Britannia and Rapid were shaken by an earthquake between Sciacca and Pantelleria.[9] On 4 July an odour of sulfur spread through the town reportedly in such quantities that it blackened silver.[2] On 12 July, Ferdinando Caronna, captain of the Psyche from Naples, reported seeing smoke coming out of the sea.[9] On 13 July, a column of smoke was clearly seen from St. Domenico. The residents believed it to be a ferry on fire.[2] On the same day, the brig Gustavo passed through the area, confirming a bubbling in the sea that the captain thought was a sea monster. Another ship reported dead fish floating in the water.[9]

By 17 July, a fully grown islet had formed enough to where Sicilian customs official Michele Fiorini was able to land there and to claim the island for the Kingdom of Sicily.[2][10] He planted an oar there to claim the newly emerged island for the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.[10]

The eruptions of 1831 resulted in the island increasing in size to about (1+1⁄2 sq mi). At its maximum (in July and August 1831), it was 4,800 m (15,700 ft) in circumference and 63 m (207 ft) in height. It sported two small lakes, the larger of which was 20 metres (66 ft) in circumference and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in depth.[2]

In the months ahead, Graham Island eventually became the subject of a four-way dispute over its sovereignty:

Diplomatic disputes over the island's status ensued.[9] Some observers at the time wondered if a chain of mountains would spring up, linking Sicily to Tunisia and thus upsetting the geopolitics of the region.[12] During the island's brief lifespan tourists began to travel to the island to see its two small lakes.

None of these ideas came to fruition, however, as the island soon sank back beneath the waters. The island was composed of loose tephra, easily eroded by wave action, and when the eruptive episode ended it rapidly subsided, disappearing beneath the waves in January 1832, before the issue of its sovereignty could be resolved. By 17 December 1831, officials reported no trace of it. As dynamically as the seamount appeared, it disappeared, defusing the conflict with it.[13]

In August 1831, observers around the world reported a discolored sun in the sky, tinted blue, purple, or green. Researchers have attempted to discover what volcanic activity was responsible for the stratospheric discharge that caused the discoloration, with an early consensus that Babuyan Claro in the Philippines was the most likely source. Yet, later research has concluded there was no 1831 eruption at Babuyan Claro,[14] and some have argued the smaller activity at Graham was the likely culprit.[15] Even later research ruled out a larger 1831 eruption of the Zavaritski Caldera, as the phenomenon predominated in a limited geographic range and lasted only a month.[16] Nat Turner, an enslaved preacher in Southampton County, Virginia, took the bluish-green sun as a divine sign to begin what became known as Nat Turner's slave rebellion, which ended with the deaths of more than 200 people and led to new laws across the South further restricting the liberties of slaves, including banning their education and limiting their religious freedom.[17]

Recent seismic activity

[edit]
A seismograph, placed on the former island in 2006, is recovered in 2007

Fresh eruptions in 1863 caused the island to reappear briefly before again sinking below sea level.[2] After 1863, the volcano lay dormant for many decades, its summit just 8 m (26 ft) below sea level.

In 2000, renewed seismic activity around Graham Island led volcanologists to speculate that a new eruptive episode could be imminent, and the seamount might once again become an island.[18] In November 2002 the Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Rome observed minor seismic activity and gas emissions.[13] They put the time of resurfacing at a couple of weeks or months. Italian sailors put an Italian flag on the top of the bank to avoid other nations' claims if the former island resurfaced. Despite showing signs in both 2000 and 2002, the seismicity did not lead to volcanic eruptions and as of 2000 Graham's summit remains about 8 metres (26 ft) below sea level.[1]

To forestall a renewal of the sovereignty disputes, in November 2000 Italian divers planted a Sicilian flag on the top of the volcano in advance of its expected resurfacing.[13] In a ceremony attended by Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro (a descendent of Ferdinand II) and his wife Princess Camilla, a marble plaque was lowered into the water, with Prince Carlo proclaiming that the island "will always be Sicilian".[18] The marble plaque, weighing 150 kg (330 lb), was inscribed "This piece of land, once Ferdinandea, belonged and shall always belong to the Sicilian people."[5] Within six months, it had fractured into twelve pieces.[19]

Scientific study

[edit]
A page out of the field journal of French geologist Constant Prévost. Illustrations by a French artist.

The sudden geologic phenomenon was observed and studied by numerous scientists. Among the Germans were Hoffmann, Schultz, and Philippi. Among the English were Edward Davy and Warington Wilkinson Smyth.[19] Among the French was Constant Prévost, who visited the island with an artist, and presented his findings in the Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France.[20] Among the Italians was Scinà Domenico (1765–1837) who published his observations in the "Effeméridi Sicilians" (1832, vol. 2), and Carlo Gemmellaro (1787–1866), teacher of geology and mineralogy at Catania University, who published "Actions of the Gioenia Academy of Catania" (1831, vol.8).[2] In 2006, further study revealed Graham Island to be just one part of the larger volcanic cone Empedocles.[6]

[edit]

During its emergence it was visited by Sir Walter Scott, and it provided inspiration for James Fenimore Cooper's The Crater, or Vulcan's Peak, Alexandre Dumas, père's The Speronara, Jules Verne's Captain Antifer and The Survivors of the Chancellor and Terry Pratchett's Jingo.

The island was also the subject of an episode of Citation Needed, a panel show made and hosted by British content creator Tom Scott.

A number of Cinderella stamps and art coins have been issued over the years, under fictional names such as Poste Isola Ferdinandea.[21]

In 2000, an unofficial minting of a penny was produced by a Sicilian artist, featuring the former island on one side and, unusually, a bust of Elizabeth II on the other. David Mannucci, the designer of the coin, had the idea to produce it after he "found out the existence of the ghost island" from a newspaper article. Besides the copper piece, he minted varieties in silver, copper "with protective enamel", and in silver "with protective enamel". While this Italian-made coin fittingly bears the Italian name for the former island, the art coin also features a bust of "Elizabeth II D.G.R." and bears a British denomination.[22]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Bird, Maryann (20 March 2000). "Fire from the Sea". Time. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Ferdinandea - The Disappeared Isle". Almanacco Siciliano. Accessed 11 February 2009.
  3. ^ Hedervári, Peter (1984). Catalog of Submarine Volcanoes and Hydrological Phenomena Associated with Volcanic Events, 1500 B.C. to December 31, 1899 (Report). Boulder, Colorado: National Geophysical Data Center. p. A2.
  4. ^ "Volcanic Island Could Rise After 170 Years Under Sea". New York Times. Reuters. 2002-11-26. Retrieved 2021-07-10.
  5. ^ a b c George, Rose (26 September 2001). "The Island that Time Remembered". The Independent. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  6. ^ a b Stewart, Phil (23 June 2006). "Scientists discover huge underwater volcano". Independent Online. South Africa. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  7. ^ "Campi Flegrei Mar Sicilia". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2018-01-04.
  8. ^ Reclus, Élisée (2023). The Earth: a Descriptive History of the Phenomena of the Life of the Globe. Frankfurt: Verlag. p. 495. ISBN 978-3-38212-029-0.
  9. ^ a b c d Gerkens, Jean-François (2022). "The Graham Island Case. Acquiring by Occupatio". Sartoniana (34): 83–104.
  10. ^ a b Gallo, Emanuela (2005-09-24). "Ferdinandea: L'isola che non c'è (Ferdinandea: The island that no longer exists)". Supereva. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2021-07-08. Historical description of brief appearance of island.
  11. ^ "Isla Ferdinandea | La guía de Geografía". geografia.laguia2000.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  12. ^ Kozák, Jan; Cermák, Vladimir (2010). The Illustrated History of Natural Disasters. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 77. ISBN 978-9-04813-325-3.
  13. ^ a b c "Volcano may emerge from the sea". BBC News. 26 November 2002. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  14. ^ Garrison, Christopher S.; Kilburn, Christopher R. J.; Edwards, Stephen J. (5 September 2018). "The 1831 eruption of Babuyan Claro that never happened: has the source of one of the largest volcanic climate forcing events of the nineteenth century been misattributed?". Journal of Applied Volcanology. 7 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 8. Bibcode:2018JApV....7....8G. doi:10.1186/s13617-018-0078-9. ISSN 2191-5040. S2CID 52222449.
  15. ^ Garrison, Christopher; Kilburn, Christopher; Smart, David; Edwards, Stephen (5 August 2021). "The blue suns of 1831: was the eruption of Ferdinandea, near Sicily, one of the largest volcanic climate forcing events of the nineteenth century?". Climate of the Past Discussions: 1–56. doi:10.5194/cp-2021-78. ISSN 1814-9324. S2CID 237525956. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
  16. ^ Hutchison, William; Sugden, Patrick; Burke, Andrea; Abbott, Peter; Ponomareva, Vera V.; et al. (7 January 2025). "The 1831 CE mystery eruption identified as Zavaritskii caldera, Simushir Island (Kurils)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 122 (1): e2416699122. doi:10.1073/pnas.2416699122. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
  17. ^ Gray-White, Deborah; Bay, Mia; Martin Jr, Waldo E. (2013). Freedom on my mind: A History of African Americans. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013. p. 225.
  18. ^ a b Carroll, Rory (13 November 2000). "Bourbons surface to retake island". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  19. ^ a b Nield, Ted (February 2003). "From out the azure main". Geoscientist. Geological Society of London. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  20. ^ "Notes sur l'ile Julia pour servir a l'histoire de la formation des montagnes volcaniques" in Mémoires de la Soc. Géol. de France, 1835 ("L'exploration de île Julia" Archived 2006-05-01 at the Wayback Machine).
  21. ^ Stampboards. "Have you ever heard about "Poste Isola Ferdinandea"?". www.stampboards.com. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  22. ^ "Tædivm - Ferdinandea". www.taedivm.org. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
[edit]

Media related to Graham Island at Wikimedia Commons

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