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{{Short description|Caregiver of offspring in their own species}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:François-René Moreaux - O imperador D. Pedro II, sua esposa Teresa Cristina e suas filhas, princesas Isabel e Leopoldina, 1857.JPG|thumb|The [[Brazilian imperial family]], 1857]]
A '''parent''' is a caretaker of the [[offspring]] in their own species. In humans, a parent is of a child (where "child" refers to offspring, not necessarily age). A ''biological parent'' consists of a person whose [[gamete]] resulted in a child, a male through his sperm, and a woman through her ovum. Parents are first-degree relatives and have 50% genetic overlap. A woman can also become a parent through [[surrogacy]]. However, some parents may not be biologically related to their children. An [[adoption|adoptive]] parent is one who nurtures and raises the offspring of the biological parents but is not actually biologically related to the child. Children without adoptive parents can be raised by their grandparents or other family members.
A '''parent''' is either the progenitor of a child or, in [[human]]s, it can refer to a caregiver or [[legal guardian]], generally called an '''adoptive parent''' or '''step-parent'''. The [[gametes]] of a parent result in a child, a male through the sperm, and a female through the ovum. Parents who are progenitors are [[First-degree relative|first-degree relatives]] and have 50% genetic meet. A [[female]] can also become a parent through [[surrogacy]]. Some parents may be [[Adoption|adoptive]] parents, who nurture and raise an offspring, but are not related to the child. [[Orphan]]s without adoptive parents can be raised by their [[grandparent]]s or other [[family member]]s.


A parent can also be elaborated as an [[ancestor]] removed one [[generation]]. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-23079276 UK government backs three-person IVF] retrieved 30 June 2013</ref><ref>The Law of Sex Discrimination - Page 374, Nadine Taub, Beth Anne Wolfson, Carla M. Palumbo</ref><ref>Browne C. Lewis - 2012, Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination, Page 136</ref>
A parent can also be elaborated as an [[ancestor]] removed one [[generation]]. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-23079276 | title = UK government backs three-person IVF | access-date = 30 June 2013| work = BBC News | date = 2013-06-28 | last1 = Gallagher | first1 = James }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Nadine Taub]]|title=The Law of Sex Discrimination|author2=Beth Anne Wolfson|author3=Carla M. Palumbo|page=374}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = Browne C. Lewis | date = 2012 | title = Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination | page = 136}}</ref> Examples of [[Third-party reproduction|third biological parents]] include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Reproductive Technologies | page =25 | author = Louise I. Gerdes |date = 2009}}</ref>


The most common types of parents are [[mothers]], [[fathers]], [[step-parents]], and [[grandparents]]. A mother is "a woman in relation to a child or children to whom she has given birth."<ref>{{cite web|title=mother definition|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010013824/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 10, 2012|website=www.oxforddictionaries.com|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref> The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved in their offspring's life varies from culture to culture, however one that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit [[child neglect]],<ref>{{Cite book | title = Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare | page =2 | author = Marian S Harris | date =2014}}</ref> while one that is too involved is sometimes said to be [[overprotective]], cosseting, [[:wikt:nosy|nosey]], or [[intrusiveness|intrusive]].<ref>{{Cite book | title = Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners | author = Bernard Roberts | date = 2005 | page = 149}}</ref>
==Biological and non-biological parentage==
Like mothers, fathers may be categorized according to their biological, [[Sociology of fatherhood|social]] or legal [[personal relationship|relationship]] with the child. Historically, the biological relationship paternity has been determinative of fatherhood. However, [[Evidence (law)|proof]] of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother


== Types ==
==Biological parents and parental testing==
The term ''biological parent'' refers to a parent who is the [[reproduction|biological]] mother or father of an individual. While an individual's parents are often also their biological parents, it is seldom used unless there is an explicit difference between who acted as a parent for that individual and the person from whom they inherit half of their [[gene]]s. For example, a person whose father has remarried may call his new wife their [[stepmother]] and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their [[foster parent]] as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name.


===Parental problems===
===Biological ===
[[File: Barack Obama family portrait 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Obama family]] portrait, 2011]]
{{Main|Parental testing}}
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of [[Fathers' rights movement|rights]] and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during [[childbirth]] and [[pregnancy]], except in the case of a pregnancy involving [[embryo transfer]] or [[egg donation]], it is obvious who the [[mother]] is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.


A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their [[gene]]s. The term is generally only used if there is a need to distinguish an individual's parents from their biological parents, For example, an individual whose father has remarried may call the father's new wife their [[stepmother]] and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their [[foster parent]] as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name. {{citation needed|date=December 2019}}
Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several [[List of Mendelian traits in humans|congenital traits]] such as attached [[earlobe]]s, the [[widow's peak]], or the [[cleft chin]], may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via [[Dominance relationship|autosomal-dominant]] genes.
=== Mother ===
{{main article|Mother}}
[[File:Postpartum baby2.jpg|thumb|Postpartum baby]]


A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from [[Pregnancy|conception]], by giving [[Childbirth|birth]] to, or [[Parenting|raising]] the individual in the role of a parent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allwords.com/word-mother.html |title=Definition from |publisher=Allwords.com |date=2007-09-14 |access-date=2011-11-04}}</ref> More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bromham|first1=David|title=Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine|date=1990|page=57}}</ref>
A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as [[genetic fingerprinting]] of individuals, although older methods have included [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[human leukocyte antigen]]s. The current techniques for paternity testing are using [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]] (RFLP). For the most part however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.
<!--Please make these sections visible as they are written;


=== Father ===
===Sperm/egg donation and surrogate mothers==
{{main article|Father}}
==Foster care and adoption==
[[File:Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama LCCN2010638252.jpg|thumb|Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.]]
==Stepparents==
{{Main|Stepfamily}}
==Child abuse and infanticide==
==Parental investment and parent–offspring conflict==
===Parental investment===
{{Main|Parental investment}}-->


A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/father |title=TheFreeDictionary |access-date=2014-10-07}}</ref> It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the [[sperm]], which results in the birth of the child.
==Mother==
{{main|Mother}}


=== Grandparent ===
{{main article|Grandparent}}
Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a [[genetic chimera]] has a maximum of four [[gene]]tic grandparents, eight genetic [[Great grandparents|great-grandparents]], sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents and so on. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling [[incest]], these [[pedigree collapse|numbers are lower]].


== Paternity issues ==
Mothers were invented sometime, in a city that is not underwater. A mother is a woman who does a large amount of laundry on Tuesdays (for women who do a large amount of water on Wednesday, see [[Wednesday Hoes|Wednesday Hoes]]). There are two different classes of mothers. The two classes consist of mothers who wash clothes by themselves, and mothers who wash clothes and people at the same time. The conventional method used for the second option is to either go into the washing machine with your clothes on or to shower with your clothes on. "Statistics Made-Up" says that over 100% of human/clothes washing mothers choose to put their family in the washing machine. For restless children, this can be portrayed as a type of game or an enjoyable carousel ride. Encouraging cries of "weeeeeee" but most likely just regular cries has been unscientifically proven to make the process more effective. Mothers are an endangered species and are thus under the protection of the [[MMF (Monopoly Money Fund]]. They have all been sent helmets, sunglasses, and make-up remover to protect them. In recent years and after rigorous research and experimentation, it has been discovered by world-class scientists that there have been no recent discoveries. However, there have been discoveries on moths which is close enough. For more information, see [[moth(er)s]].
{{Main article|DNA paternity testing}}
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of [[Fathers' rights movement|rights]] and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during [[childbirth]] and [[pregnancy]], except in the case of a pregnancy involving [[embryo transfer]] or [[egg donation]], it is obvious who the [[mother]] is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.


Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several [[List of Mendelian traits in humans|congenital traits]] such as attached [[earlobe]]s, a [[widow's peak]], or the [[cleft chin]], may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via [[Dominance relationship|autosomal-dominant]] genes.
==Father==
{{main|Father}}
A father is defined as a [[male]] parent of any type of offspring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=father |title=WordNet |accessdate=2007-12-14}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The [[adjective]] "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for [[mother]]. The [[verb]] "to father" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the gerund "fathering".


A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as [[genetic fingerprinting]] of individuals), although older methods have included [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[human leukocyte antigen]]s. The current techniques for paternity testing are using [[polymerase chain reaction]] and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]]. For the most part, however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.
==Grandparent==
{{main|Grandparent}}
Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a [[genetic chimera]] has a maximum of four [[gene]]tic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents, etc. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling [[incest]], these [[pedigree collapse|numbers are lower]].


== Roles and responsibilities ==
==Parent–offspring conflict==
{{Main|Parent–offspring conflict}}
Parent–offspring conflict describes the [[evolutionary conflict]] arising from differences in optimal [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of parents and their [[offspring]]. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of [[parental investment]] often by competing with their [[sibling]]s. The theory was proposed by [[Robert Trivers]] in 1974 and extends the more general [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish gene theory]] and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Trivers, R.L.|title=Parent–offspring conflict|doi=10.1093/icb/14.1.249|jstor=3881986|year=1974|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=14|pages=249}}</ref> For example, in some [[bird]] species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as [[siblicide]].


=== Guardianship ===
David Haig has argued that human [[fetus|fetal]] genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The [[placenta]], for example, secretes allocrine [[hormone]]s that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to [[insulin]] and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading [[enzyme]]s which counteract this effect.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Haig, D.|title=Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy|pmid=8115596|jstor=3037249|url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf|year=1993|volume=68|issue=4|pages=495–532|journal=The Quarterly review of biology|doi=10.1086/418300}}</ref>
{{Main article|Legal guardian}}


A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for [[Developmental disability|developmentally disabled]] adults.
==Optimal gender mix==
While a child has a biological [[father]] and a biological [[mother]], not every [[family]] is a traditional [[nuclear family]]. There are many variants, such as [[adoption]], [[shared parenting]], [[Stepfamily|stepfamilies]], and [[LGBT parenting]], over which there has been controversy.


Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child.
The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with [[LGBT parenting|same-sex parents]] suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.<ref>Lamb, Michael (2009). [http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf#page=13 Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]</ref><ref name=apsp>{{cite web|author=Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda and Kane, Graeme |url=http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |title=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society|accessdate=2011-11-04}}</ref> The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |title=In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499 |date= |accessdate=2011-11-04}}</ref> The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes," rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.<ref name="apsp"/>

=== Parenting ===
{{Main article|Parenting}}

[[Parenting]] or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the [[physical fitness|physical]], [[Emotional development|emotional]], social, financial, and [[intellectual development]] of a [[child]] from [[infant|infancy]] to [[adult]]hood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.<ref name="Davies">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Martin|title=The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iQAy9lZy9YC&pg=PA245|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2000|page=245|isbn=978-0-631-21451-9}}</ref>

== Gender and gender mix ==
A child has at least one biological [[father]] and at least one biological [[mother]], but not every [[family]] is a traditional [[nuclear family]]. There are many variants, such as [[adoption]], [[shared parenting]], [[Stepfamily|stepfamilies]], and [[LGBT parenting]], over which there has been controversy.

The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with [[LGBT parenting|same-sex parents]] suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.<ref>Lamb, Michael (2009). [http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf#page=13 Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=apsp>{{cite web |author1=Short, Elizabeth |author2=Riggs, Damien W. |author3=Perlesz, Amaryll |author4=Brown, Rhonda |author5=Kane, Graeme |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |title=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society |access-date=2011-11-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304014530/http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |archive-date=2011-03-04 }}</ref> The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229034140/http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-12-29 |title=In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499 |access-date=2011-11-04 }}</ref> The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes", rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.<ref name="apsp"/>

== Genetics ==

=== Parent–offspring conflict ===
{{Main article|Parent–offspring conflict}}

An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.<ref>Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8.</ref><ref>Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385.</ref> Parent–offspring conflict describes the [[evolutionary conflict]] arising from differences in optimal [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of parents and their [[offspring]]. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of [[parental investment]] often by competing with their [[sibling]]s. The theory was proposed by [[Robert Trivers]] in 1974 and extends the more general [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish gene theory]] and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trivers, R.L.|title=Parent–offspring conflict|doi=10.1093/icb/14.1.249 |jstor=3881986 |year=1974 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=14 |issue=1|pages=249–264|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, in some [[bird]] species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as [[siblicide]].

===Empathy===
David Haig has argued that human [[fetus|fetal]] genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The [[placenta]], for example, secretes allocrine [[hormone]]s that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to [[insulin]] and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading [[enzyme]]s which counteract this effect.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Haig, D. |title=Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy |pmid=8115596 |jstor=3037249 |url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |year=1993 |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=495–532 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |doi=10.1086/418300 |s2cid=38641716 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719154120/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref>

==Having children and happiness==
[[File:Sinatra family 1949.jpg|thumb|Sinatra family 1949]]
In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.<ref name=balbo2013>{{cite journal|title=Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research|author1=Nicoletta Balbo |author2=Francesco C. Billari |author3=Melinda Mills |journal=European Journal of Population|year=2013|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–38|doi=10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y|pmid=23440941 |pmc=3576563}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
{{commons category|Childbirth}}
<!--Please order alphabetically-->
<!--Please order alphabetically-->
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Bateman's principle]] – the theory that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and that therefore in most species females are a [[limiting resource]] over which the other sex will compete.
* [[Adoption]]
* [[Borderline personality disorder#Borderline parents|Borderline parents]]
* [[Bateman's principle]]
* [[Child abuse]]
* [[Child abuse]]
* [[Cinderella effect]]
* [[Cinderella effect]]
* [[Egg donation|Egg]] and [[sperm donation]]
* [[Egg donation|Egg]] and [[sperm donation]]
* [[Foster care]]
* [[Infant]]
* [[Infant]]
* [[Infanticide]]
* [[Narcissistic parent]]
* [[Narcissistic parent]]
* [[Non-paternity event]]
* [[Non-paternity event]]
* [[Parental abuse by children]]
* [[Parental abuse by children]]
* [[Parental age (disambiguation)]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->
* [[Parental bullying of children]]
* [[Parental investment]]
* [[Parental investment]]
* [[Parental narcissistic abuse]]
* [[Parenting]]
* [[Parents bullying teachers]]
* [[Parents bullying teachers]]
* [[Paternal bond]]
* [[Paternal bond]]
* [[Paternity (law)]]
* [[Paternity (law)]]
* [[Reciprocal socialization]]
* [[Reciprocal socialization]]
* [[Stepparent]]
* [[Surrogate mother]]
* [[Surrogate mother]]
* [[Teachers bullying parents]]
* [[Teachers bullying parents]]
* [[Honour thy father and thy mother]]
}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category|Parents}}
{{wiktionary|parent}}
{{wiktionary|parent}}
* [http://www.neni.us National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI)] – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, afterschool, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
* [http://www.neni.us National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI)] – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, after-school, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Parents}} – A [[Roman Catholic]] view of the position of parents.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Parents}} – A [[Roman Catholic]] view of the position of parents.


{{Family}}
{{Family}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Infants and their care}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Divorce]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Motherhood]]
[[Category:Motherhood]]
[[Category:Fatherhood]]
[[Category:Fatherhood]]
[[Category:Infancy]]
[[Category:Infancy]]
[[Category:Parenting| ]]
[[Category:Parenting| ]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]

Latest revision as of 07:08, 16 December 2024

For other uses, see Parent (disambiguation).
The Brazilian imperial family, 1857

A parent is either the progenitor of a child or, in humans, it can refer to a caregiver or legal guardian, generally called an adoptive parent or step-parent. The gametes of a parent result in a child, a male through the sperm, and a female through the ovum. Parents who are progenitors are first-degree relatives and have 50% genetic meet. A female can also become a parent through surrogacy. Some parents may be adoptive parents, who nurture and raise an offspring, but are not related to the child. Orphans without adoptive parents can be raised by their grandparents or other family members.

A parent can also be elaborated as an ancestor removed one generation. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.[1][2][3] Examples of third biological parents include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.[4]

The most common types of parents are mothers, fathers, step-parents, and grandparents. A mother is "a woman in relation to a child or children to whom she has given birth."[5] The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved in their offspring's life varies from culture to culture, however one that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit child neglect,[6] while one that is too involved is sometimes said to be overprotective, cosseting, nosey, or intrusive.[7]

Types

[edit]

Biological

[edit]
Obama family portrait, 2011

A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their genes. The term is generally only used if there is a need to distinguish an individual's parents from their biological parents, For example, an individual whose father has remarried may call the father's new wife their stepmother and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their foster parent as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name. [citation needed]

Mother

[edit]
Main article: Mother
Postpartum baby

A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from conception, by giving birth to, or raising the individual in the role of a parent.[8] More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.[9]

Father

[edit]
Main article: Father
Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.

A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.[10] It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the sperm, which results in the birth of the child.

Grandparent

[edit]
Main article: Grandparent

Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a genetic chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents and so on. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling incest, these numbers are lower.

Paternity issues

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Main article: DNA paternity testing

A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth and pregnancy, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.

Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several congenital traits such as attached earlobes, a widow's peak, or the cleft chin, may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via autosomal-dominant genes.

A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as genetic fingerprinting of individuals), although older methods have included ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. For the most part, however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.

Roles and responsibilities

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Guardianship

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Main article: Legal guardian

A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for developmentally disabled adults.

Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child.

Parenting

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Main article: Parenting

Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.[11]

Gender and gender mix

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A child has at least one biological father and at least one biological mother, but not every family is a traditional nuclear family. There are many variants, such as adoption, shared parenting, stepfamilies, and LGBT parenting, over which there has been controversy.

The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with same-sex parents suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.[12][13] The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.[14] The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes", rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.[13]

Genetics

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Parent–offspring conflict

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Main article: Parent–offspring conflict

An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.[15][16] Parent–offspring conflict describes the evolutionary conflict arising from differences in optimal fitness of parents and their offspring. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of parental investment often by competing with their siblings. The theory was proposed by Robert Trivers in 1974 and extends the more general selfish gene theory and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.[17] For example, in some bird species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as siblicide.

Empathy

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David Haig has argued that human fetal genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The placenta, for example, secretes allocrine hormones that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes which counteract this effect.[18]

Having children and happiness

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Sinatra family 1949

In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.[19]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Gallagher, James (2013-06-28). "UK government backs three-person IVF". BBC News. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  2. ^ Nadine Taub; Beth Anne Wolfson; Carla M. Palumbo. The Law of Sex Discrimination. p. 374.
  3. ^ Browne C. Lewis (2012). Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination. p. 136.
  4. ^ Louise I. Gerdes (2009). Reproductive Technologies. p. 25.
  5. ^ "mother definition". www.oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on October 10, 2012.
  6. ^ Marian S Harris (2014). Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare. p. 2.
  7. ^ Bernard Roberts (2005). Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners. p. 149.
  8. ^ "Definition from". Allwords.com. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  9. ^ Bromham, David (1990). Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine. p. 57.
  10. ^ "TheFreeDictionary". Retrieved 2014-10-07.
  11. ^ Davies, Martin (2000). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-631-21451-9.
  12. ^ Lamb, Michael (2009). Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts[permanent dead link‍]
  13. ^ a b Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda & Kane, Graeme. "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-04. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  14. ^ "In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  15. ^ Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8.
  16. ^ Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385.
  17. ^ Trivers, R.L. (1974). "Parent–offspring conflict". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 14 (1): 249–264. doi:10.1093/icb/14.1.249. JSTOR 3881986.
  18. ^ Haig, D. (1993). "Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology. 68 (4): 495–532. doi:10.1086/418300. JSTOR 3037249. PMID 8115596. S2CID 38641716. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-19.
  19. ^ Nicoletta Balbo; Francesco C. Billari; Melinda Mills (2013). "Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research". European Journal of Population. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y. PMC 3576563. PMID 23440941.
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