Health threat from cosmic rays: Difference between revisions
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#REDIRECT[[Effects of ionizing radiation in spaceflight]] |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}} |
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The '''health threat from cosmic rays''' is the danger posed by [[galactic cosmic rays]] and [[solar energetic particles]] to astronauts on [[interplanetary mission]]s.<ref name="THREE - Space Radiation Introduction">{{cite web|last=Schimmerling|first=Walter|title=The Space Radiation Environment: An Introduction|url=http://three.usra.edu/concepts/SpaceRadiationEnviron.pdf|work=The Health Risks of Extraterrestrial Environments|publisher=Universities Space Research Association Division of Space Life Sciences|accessdate=12/05/2011}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref> Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) consist of high energy [[proton]]s (85%), helium (14%) and other high energy [[Atomic nucleus|nuclei]] ([[HZE ions]]).<ref name="THREE - Space Radiation Introduction" /> Solar energetic particles consist primarily of protons accelerated by the Sun to high energies via proximity to [[solar flares]] and [[coronal mass ejections]]. They are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by [[human spaceflight|crewed spacecraft]].<ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=http://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014|work=[[Wired (magazine)]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/17feb_radiation.htm Can People go to Mars?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref> |
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{{Citation |
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| last = Shiga |
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| first = David |
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| title = Too much radiation for astronauts to make it to Mars |
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| journal = [[New Scientist]] |
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| issue = 2726 |
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| date = 16 September 2009 |
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| url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327266.100-too-much-radiation-for-astronauts-to-make-it-to-mars.html |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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==The deep-space radiation environment== |
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[[File:PIA16938-RadiationSources-InterplanetarySpace.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space.]] |
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The radiation environment of deep space is different from that on the Earth's surface or in [[low Earth orbit]], due to the much larger flux of high-energy galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), along with radiation from [[solar proton event]]s (SPEs) and the [[radiation belt]]s. |
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Galactic cosmic rays create a continuous radiation dose throughout the [[Solar System]] that increases during solar minimum and decreases during solar maximum ([[Solar variation|solar activity]]). The inner and outer radiation belts are two regions of trapped particles from the solar wind that are later accelerated by dynamic interaction with the Earth's magnetic field. While always high, the radiation dose in these belts can increase dramatically during [[geomagnetic storms]] and [[substorm]]s. Solar proton events are bursts of energetic protons accelerated by the Sun. They occur relatively rarely and can produce extremely high radiation levels. Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong to cause acute [[radiation poisoning]] and death.<ref>[http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm Biomedical Results From Apollo - Radiation Protection and Instrumentation]</ref> |
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Life on the Earth's surface is protected from galactic cosmic rays by a number of factors: |
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# The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to primary cosmic rays with energies below about 1 gigaelectron volt (GeV), so only secondary radiation can reach the surface. The secondary radiation is also attenuated by absorption in the atmosphere, as well as by radioactive decay in flight of some particles, such as muons. Particles entering from a direction close to the horizon are especially attenuated. The world's population receives an average of 0.4 milli[[sievert]]s (mSv) of cosmic radiation annually (separate from other sources of radiation exposure like inhaled radon) due to atmospheric shielding. At 12 km altitude, above most of the [[atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere's]] protection, radiation as an annual rate rises to 20 mSv at the equator to 50–120 mSv at the poles, varying between solar maximum and minimum conditions.<ref>[http://cordis.europa.eu/documents/documentlibrary/75331981EN6.pdf Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew]</ref><ref>[http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008]</ref><ref>{{cite web| last =Phillips| first =Tony| title =The Effects of Space Weather on Aviation| work =Science News| publisher =NASA| date =25 October 2013| url =http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/25oct_aviationswx/}}</ref> |
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# Except for the very highest energy galactic cosmic rays, the [[Gyroradius|radius of gyration]] in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] is small enough to ensure that they are deflected away from Earth. Missions beyond low Earth orbit leave the protection of the geomagnetic field, and transit the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s. Thus they may need to be shielded against exposure to cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation, or solar flares. The region between two to four Earth radii lies between the two radiation belts and is sometimes referred to as the "safe zone".<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=Earth's Radiation Belts with Safe Zone Orbit |
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| publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA | url=http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003000/a003052/index.html |
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| accessdate=2009-04-27 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |
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| first=Rachel A. | last=Weintraub |
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| title=Earth's Safe Zone Became Hot Zone During Legendary Solar Storms | publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/safe_zone.html |
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| accessdate=2009-04-27 }}</ref> See the [[Van Allen radiation belt#Implications for space travel|implications of the Van Allen belts for space travel]] for more information. |
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# The [[interplanetary magnetic field]], embedded in the [[solar wind]], also deflects cosmic rays. As a result, cosmic ray fluxes within the [[heliopause (astronomy)|heliopause]] are inversely correlated with the [[solar cycle]].<ref>{{cite journal| last =Schwadron| first =N.| title =Does the worsening galactic cosmic radiation environment observed by CRaTER preclude future manned deep space exploration?| journal =Space Weather| publisher =AGU| date =8 November 2014| url =http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/enhanced/doi/10.1002/2014SW001084/| doi =10.1002/2014SW001084| accessdate =6 December 2014 }}</ref> |
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As a result, the energy input of GCRs to the atmosphere is negligible – about 10<sup>−9</sup> of [[solar radiation]] – roughly the same as starlight.<ref name=CRC>Jasper Kirkby; [http://arxiv.org/abs/0804.1938v1 Cosmic Rays And Climate] CERN-PH-EP/2008-005 26 March 2008</ref> |
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Of the above factors, all but the first one apply to [[low Earth orbit]] craft, such as the [[Space Shuttle]] and the [[International Space Station]]. Exposures on the [[International Space Station|ISS]] average 150 mSv per year, although frequent crew rotations minimize individual risk.<ref name = historicalexposure>[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20070010704_2007005310.pdf Space Radiation Organ Doses for Astronauts on Past and Future Missions] Table 4</ref> Astronauts on [[Project Apollo|Apollo]] and [[Skylab]] missions received on average 1.2 mSv/day and 1.4 mSv/day respectively.<ref name = historicalexposure/> Since the durations of the Apollo and Skylab missions were days and months, respectively, rather than years, the doses involved were smaller than would be expected on future long-term missions such as to a near-Earth asteroid or to Mars<ref name="WIRED-20140212" /> (unless far more shielding could be provided). |
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On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible [[manned mission to Mars]]<ref name="WIRED-20140212" /> may involve a great [[radiation|radiation risk]] based on the amount of [[radiation|energetic particle radiation]] detected by the [[radiation assessment detector]] (RAD) on the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] while traveling from the [[Earth]] to [[Mars]] in 2011–2012.<ref name="SCI-20130531a" /><ref name="SCI-20130531b" /><ref name="NYT-20130530" /> |
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==Human health effects== |
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[[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|250px|left|Comparison of radiation doses, includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the RAD on the MSL (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr|first=Richard|title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6136/1031.summary |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |number=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |accessdate=31 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="SCI-20130531b">{{cite journal |authors=Zeitlin, C. et al. |title=Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6136/1080.abstract |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=31 May 2013 |volume=340 |number=6136 |pages=1080–1084 |doi=10.1126/science.1235989 |accessdate=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20130530">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Data Point to Radiation Risk for Travelers to Mars|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/31/science/space/data-show-higher-cancer-risk-for-mars-astronauts.html|date=30 May 2013 |publisher=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=31 May 2013 }}</ref> ]] |
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The potential acute and chronic health effects of space radiation, as with other ionizing radiation exposures, involve both direct damage to DNA and indirect effects due to generation of reactive oxygen species. Acute (or early radiation) effects result from high radiation doses, and these are most likely to occur after solar particle events (SPEs).<ref name="THREE - Acute Effects">{{cite web|last=Seed|first=Thomas|title=Acute Effects|url=http://three.usra.edu/articles/SeedAcuteEffects.pdf|work=The Health Effects of Extraterrestrial Environments|publisher=Universities Space Research Association, Division of Space Life Sciences|accessdate=5 December 2011}}</ref> Likely chronic effects of space radiation exposure include both stochastic events such as radiation [[carcinogenesis]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cucinotta|first=F.A.|author2=Durante, M.|title=Cancer risk from exposure to galactic cosmic rays: implications for space exploration by human beings|journal=Lancet Oncol.|year=2006|volume=7|pages=431–435|doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70695-7|pmid=16648048|issue=5}}</ref> and deterministic degenerative tissue effects. To date, however, the only pathology associated with space radiation exposure is a higher risk for [[Cataract#Radiation|radiation cataract]] among the astronaut corps.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cucinotta|first=F.A.|coauthors=Manuel, F.K., Jones, J., Iszard, G., Murrey, J., Djojonegro, B. and Wear, M.|title=Space radiation and cataracts in astronauts.|journal=Rad. Res.|year=2001|volume=156|pages=460–466|doi=10.1667/0033-7587(2001)156[0460:sracia]2.0.co;2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rastegar|first=Z.N.|coauthors=Eckart, P. and Mertz M.|title=Radiation cataracts in astronauts and cosmonauts|journal=Graefe. Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol|year=2002|volume=240|pages=543–547|doi=10.1007/s00417-002-0489-4}}</ref> |
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The health threat depends on the flux, energy spectrum, and nuclear composition of the radiation. The flux and energy spectrum depend on a variety of factors: short-term solar weather, long-term trends (such as an apparent increase since the 1950s<ref name="icrc2005.tifr.res.in">[http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/ASC/DATA/bibliography/ICRC2005/usa-mewaldt-RA-abs1-sh35-oral.pdf The Cosmic Ray Radiation Dose in Interplanetary Space – Present Day and Worst-Case Evaluations] R.A. Mewaldt et al., page 103, 29th International Cosmic Ray Conference Pune (2005) 00, 101-104</ref>), and position in the Sun's magnetic field. These factors are incompletely understood.<ref>{{cite journal | author=John Dudley Miller |title=Radiation Redux | journal=Scientific American | date=November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |author=Space Studies Board and Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences|publisher=NAP |year=2006}}</ref> |
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The [[Mars Radiation Environment Experiment]] (MARIE) was launched in 2001 in order to collect more data. |
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Estimates are that humans unshielded in interplanetary space would receive annually roughly 400 to 900 mSv) (compared to 2.4 mSv on Earth) and that a Mars mission (12 months in flight and 18 months on Mars) might expose shielded astronauts to roughly 500 to 1000 mSv.<ref name="icrc2005.tifr.res.in"/> These doses approach the 1 to 4 Sv career limits advised by the [[National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements]] for [[low Earth orbit]] activities. |
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The quantitative biological effects of cosmic rays are poorly known, and are the subject of ongoing research. Several experiments, both in space and on Earth, are being carried out to evaluate the exact degree of danger. Experiments in 2007 at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]'s [[NSRL|NASA Space Radiation Laboratory]] (NSRL) suggest that biological damage due to a given exposure is actually about half what was previously estimated: specifically, it turns out that low energy protons cause more damage than high energy ones.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Radiat Environ Biophys |date=Jun 2007 | volume=46 |issue=2 | pages=119–23 | PMID=17256176 | title=Split-dose exposures versus dual ion exposure in human cell neoplastic transformation | author= Bennett PV, Cutter NC, Sutherland BM | doi=10.1007/s00411-006-0091-y}}</ref> This is explained by the fact that slower particles have more time to interact with molecules in the body. This may be interpreted as an acceptable result for space travel as the cells affected end up with greater energy deposition and are more likely to die without proliferating into tumors. This is in contrast to the current dogma on radiation exposure to human cells which considers lower energy radiation of higher weighting factor for tumor formation. |
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=== Central nervous system === |
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{{see also|Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight}} |
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Hypothetical early and late effects on the central nervous system are of great concern to NASA and an area of active current research interest. It is postulated short and long term effects of CNS exposure to galactic cosmic radiation are likely to pose significant neurological health risks to human long-term space travel.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vazquez|first=M.E.|title=Neurobiological problems in long-term deep space flights|journal=Adv. Space Res.|year=1998|volume=22|pages=171–173|bibcode = 1998AdSpR..22..171V |doi = 10.1016/S0273-1177(98)80009-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Blakely|first=E.A.|author2=Chang, P.Y.|title=A review of ground-based heavy ion radiobiology relevant to space radiation risk assessment: Cataracts and CNS effects|journal=Adv. Space Res.|year=2007|volume=40|pages=1307–1319|bibcode = 2007AdSpR..40.1307B |doi = 10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.070 }}</ref> Estimates suggest considerable exposure to high energy heavy (HZE) ions as well as protons and secondary radiation during Mars or prolonged Lunar missions with estimates of whole body effective doses ranging from 0.17 to greater than 1.0 Sv.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hellweg|first=CE|author2=Baumstark-Kahn, C|journal=Naturwissenschaften|year=2007|volume=94|pages=517–519|bibcode = 2007NW.....94..517H |doi = 10.1007/s00114-006-0204-0 }}</ref> Given the high [[linear energy transfer]] potential of such particles, a considerable proportion of those cells exposed to HZE radiation are likely to die. Based on calculations of heavy ion fluences during space flight as well as various experimental cell models, as many as 5% of an astronaut’s cells might be killed during such missions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Badwhar|first=G.D.|coauthors=Nachtwey, D.S. and Yang, T.C.-H.|title=Radiation issues for piloted Mars mission|journal=Adv. Space Res.|year=1992|volume=12|pages=195–200}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cucinotta|first=F.A.|coauthors=Nikjoo, H. and Goodhead, D.T.|title=The effects of delta rays on the number of particle-track traversals per cell in laboratory and space exposures|journal=Radiat. Res.|year=1988|volume=150|pages=115–119}}</ref> With respect to cells in critical [[brain regions]], as many as 13% of such cells may be traversed at least once by an iron ion during a three-year Mars mission.<ref name="WIRED-20140212" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Curtis|first=S.B.|coauthors=Vazquez, M.E., Wilson, J.W., Atwell, W., Kim, M. and Capala, J.|title=Cosmic ray hit frequencies in critical sites in the central nervous system.|journal=Adv. Space Res.|year=1988|volume=22|pages=197–207.}}</ref> Several [[Apollo program|Apollo]] astronauts reported seeing light [[Cosmic ray visual phenomena|flashes]], although the precise biological mechanisms responsible are unclear. Likely pathways include heavy ion interactions with [[retina|retinal photoreceptors]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=L.S.|coauthors=Osborne, W.Z., Bailey, J.V., Benson, R.E. and Thompson, L.F.|title=Light flashes observed by astronauts on Apollo 11 through Apollo 17|journal=Science|volume=183|pages=957–959.|doi=10.1126/science.183.4128.957|issue=4128}}</ref> and [[Cerenkov radiation]] resulting from particle interactions within the [[vitreous humor]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=McNulty|first=P.J.|coauthors=Pease, V.P. and Bond, V.P.|title=Visual Sensations Induced by Cerenkov Radiation|journal=Science|year=1975|volume=189|pages=453–454|bibcode = 1975Sci...189..453M |doi = 10.1126/science.1154020 }}</ref> This phenomenon has been replicated on Earth by scientists at various institutions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McNulty|first=PJ|coauthors=Pease, VP, Bond, VP|title=Comparison of the light-flash phenomena observed in space and in laboratory experiments|journal=Life Sci. Space Res.|year=1977|volume=15|pages=135–140|doi=10.2172/7312082}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tobias|first=CA|coauthors=Budinger, TF, Lyman, JT|title=Biological effects due to single accelerated heavy particles and the problems of nervous system exposure in space|journal=Life Sci. Space Res.|year=1973|volume=11|pages=233–245|doi=10.2172/4617388}}</ref> As the duration of the longest Apollo flights was less than two weeks, the astronauts had limited cumulative exposures and a corresponding low risk for radiation [[carcinogenesis]]. In addition, there were only 24 such astronauts, making [[statistical analysis]] of any potential health effects problematic. |
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On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that manned spaceflight may harm the brains of astronauts and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0053275 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |number=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |accessdate=7 January 2013 |bibcode = 2012PLoSO...753275C |pmid=23300905 |pmc=3534034}}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref> This research is problematic due to many factors, inclusive of the intensity of which mice were exposed to radiation which far exceeds normal mission rates. |
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==Mitigation== |
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===Shielding=== |
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[[File:Cosmic ray shielding with secondary radiation.jpg|thumb|Standard spacecraft shielding, integrated into hull design, is strong protection from most solar radiation, but defeats this purpose with high-energy cosmic rays, as it simply splits this into showers of secondary particles [NASA].]] This shower of secondary and fragmented particles may be reduced by the use of hydrogen or light elements for shielding. |
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Material shielding can be effective against galactic cosmic rays, but thin shielding may actually make the problem worse for some of the higher energy rays, because more shielding causes an increased amount of [[Bremsstrahlung|secondary radiation]], although thick shielding could counter such too.<ref name = mass_shielding>NASA SP-413 [http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendE.html Space Settlements: A Design Study. Appendix E Mass Shielding] Retrieved 3 May 2011.</ref> The aluminium walls of the ISS, for example, are believed to produce a net reduction in radiation exposure. In interplanetary space, however, it is believed that thin aluminium shielding would give a net increase in radiation exposure but would gradually decrease as more shielding is added to capture generated secondary radiation.<ref name="islandone.org">{{cite web | url=http://www.islandone.org/Settlements/MagShield.html | title=Magnetic Radiation Shielding: An Idea Whose Time Has Returned? | author=G.Landis |year=1991}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal=Popular Science | title=Juno Probe, Built to Study Jupiter's Radiation Belt, Gets A Titanium Suit of Interplanetary Armor | author=Rebecca Boyle | date=13 Jul 2010 | url=http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-07/juno-probe-built-study-jupiters-radiation-belt-gets-coat-armor}}</ref> |
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Several strategies are being studied for ameliorating the effects of this radiation hazard for planned human interplanetary spaceflight: |
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* Spacecraft can be constructed out of hydrogen-rich plastics, rather than aluminium.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25aug_plasticspaceships.htm NASA - Plastic Spaceships<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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* Material shielding has been considered: |
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** Liquid hydrogen, which would be brought along as fuel in any case, tends to give relatively good shielding, while producing relatively low levels of secondary radiation. Therefore, the fuel could be placed so as to act as a form of shielding around the crew. However, as fuel is consumed by the craft, the crew's shielding decreases. |
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** Water, which is necessary to sustain life, could also contribute to shielding. But it too is consumed during the journey unless waste products are utilized.<ref name = newscientist>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7753 Cosmic rays may prevent long-haul space travel - space - 1 August 2005 - New Scientist<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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** Asteroids could serve to provide shielding for truly long flights, though first you have to survive to reach the asteroid belt beyond Mars or have a mission to capture a suitable candidate during a rare close earth encounter.<ref>Morgan, P. (2011) [http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2011/02/11/to-hitch-a-ride-to-mars-just-flag-down-an-asteroid/ "To Hitch a Ride to Mars, Just Flag Down an Asteroid"] ''Discover'' magazine blog</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Matloff G.L., Wilga M. | year = 2011 | title = NEOs as stepping stones to Mars and main-belt asteroids | doi = 10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.02.026 | journal = Acta Astronautica | volume = 68 | issue = 5-6| pages = 599–602 }}</ref> |
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* Magnetic deflection of charged radiation particles and/or electrostatic repulsion is a hypothetical alternative to pure conventional mass shielding under investigation. In theory, power requirements for the case of a 5 meter torus drop from an excessive 10 [[Gigawatt|GW]] for a simple pure electrostatic shield (too discharged by space electrons) to a moderate 10 [[kilowatt]]s (kW) by using a hybrid design.<ref name="islandone.org"/> However, such complex active shielding is untried, with workability and practicalities more uncertain than material shielding.<ref name="islandone.org"/> |
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Special provisions would also be necessary to protect against a solar proton event, which could increase fluxes to levels that would kill a crew in hours or days rather than months or years. Potential mitigation strategies include providing a small habitable space behind a spacecraft's water supply or with particularly thick walls or providing an option to abort to the protective environment provided by the Earth's magnetosphere. The Apollo mission used a combination of both strategies. Upon receiving confirmation of an SPE, astronauts would move to the Command Module, which had thicker aluminium walls than the Lunar Module, then return to Earth. It was later determined from measurements taken by instruments flown on Apollo that the Command Module would have provided sufficient shielding to prevent significant crew harm.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} |
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None of these strategies currently provide a method of protection that would be known to be sufficient<ref name="parker" /> while conforming to likely limitations on the mass of the payload at present (around $10,000/kg) launch prices. Scientists such as University of Chicago professor emeritus Eugene Parker are not optimistic it can be solved any time soon.<ref name="parker">{{cite journal | author=Eugene N. Parker | title=Shielding Space Travelers | journal=Scientific American | date=March 2006}}</ref> For passive mass shielding, the required amount could be too heavy to be affordably lifted into space without changes in economics (like hypothetical [[non-rocket spacelaunch]] or usage of extraterrestrial resources) — many hundreds of metric tons for a reasonably-sized crew compartment. For instance, a NASA design study for an ambitious large spacestation envisioned 4 metric tons per square meter of shielding to drop radiation exposure to 2.5 mSv annually (± a factor of 2 uncertainty), less than the tens of millisieverts or more in some populated [[Background Radiation#Natural background radiation|high natural background radiation areas]] on Earth, but the sheer mass for that level of mitigation was considered practical only because it involved first building a lunar [[mass driver]] to launch material.<ref name = mass_shielding/> |
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Several active shielding methods have been considered that might be less massive than passive shielding, but they remain speculative.<ref name="islandone.org"/><ref>[http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~simon_g_shepherd/research/Shielding/docs/ToMaSS.pdf Simulations of Magnetic Shields for Spacecraft]. Retrieved 3 May 2011.</ref> Since the type of radiation penetrating farthest through thick material shielding, deep in interplanetary space, is GeV positively charged nuclei, a repulsive electrostatic field has been proposed, but this has problems including plasma instabilities and the power needed for an accelerator constantly keeping the charge from being neutralized by deep-space electrons.<ref>NASA SP-413 [http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/4appendD.html Space Settlements: A Design Study. Appendix D The Plasma Core Shield] Retrieved 3 May 2011.</ref> A more common proposal is magnetic shielding generated by superconductors (or plasma currents). Among the difficulties with this proposal is that, for a compact system, magnetic fields up to 10–20 teslas could be required around a manned spacecraft, higher than the several teslas in [[MRI]] machines. Such high fields can produce headaches and migraines in MRI patients, and long-duration exposure to such fields has not been studied. Opposing-electromagnet designs might cancel the field in the crew sections of the spacecraft, but would require more mass. It is also possible to use a combination of a magnetic field with an electrostatic field, with the spacecraft having zero total charge. The hybrid design would theoretically ameliorate the problems, but would be complex and possibly infeasible.<ref name="islandone.org"/> |
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Part of the uncertainty is that the effect of human exposure to galactic cosmic rays is poorly known in quantitative terms. The [[NASA Space Radiation Laboratory]] is currently studying the effects of radiation in living organisms as well as protective shielding. |
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===Drugs=== |
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Another line of research is the development of drugs that mimic or enhance the body's natural capacity to repair damage caused by radiation. Some of the drugs that are being considered are [[retinoids]], which are [[vitamins]] with [[antioxidant]] properties, and molecules that retard cell division, giving the body time to fix damage before harmful mutations can be duplicated. |
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===Timing of missions=== |
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Due to the potential negative effects of astronaut exposure to cosmic rays, solar activity may play a role in future space travel. Because galactic cosmic ray fluxes within the Solar System are lower during periods of strong solar activity, interplanetary travel during solar maximum should minimize the average dose to astronauts. |
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Although the [[Forbush decrease]] effect during coronal mass ejections can temporarily lower the flux of galactic cosmic rays, the short duration of the effect (1–3 days) and the approximately 1% chance that a CME generates a dangerous solar proton event limits the utility of timing missions to coincide with CMEs. |
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===Orbital selection=== |
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Radiation dosage from the Earth's radiation belts is typically mitigated by selecting orbits that avoid the belts or pass through them relatively quickly. For example, a [[low Earth orbit]], with low inclination, will generally be below the inner belt. |
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The orbits of the Earth-Moon system [[Lagrange Points|Lagrange points]] {{L2}} - {{L5}} take them out of the protection of the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] for approximately two-thirds of the time. |
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The orbits of Earth-Sun system Lagrange Points {{L1}} and {{L3}} - {{L5}} are always outside the protection of the Earth's magnetosphere. |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Space}} |
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*[[Electromagnetic radiation and health]] |
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*[[Background radiation]] |
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*[[Effect of spaceflight on the human body]] |
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*[[Heliosphere]] |
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*[[Lagrange point colonization]] |
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*[[List of microorganisms tested in outer space]] |
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*[[Magnetosphere]] |
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*[[NASA Space Radiation Laboratory]] |
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*[[Proton#Exposure|Proton: Exposure]] |
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*[[Solar flare#Hazards|Solar flare: Hazards]] |
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*[[Solar proton event]] |
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*[[Solar wind]] |
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*[[Space medicine]] |
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*[[Van Allen belt]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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*[http://three.usra.edu/#section=main The Health Risks of Extraterrestrial Environments - an encyclopedic site] |
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*[http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/facilities/Booster.asp Booster Accelerator] at [http://www.bnl.gov/world/ Brookhaven National Laboratory]. |
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*[http://www.bnl.gov/medical/NASA/NSRL_description.asp Space Radiation Laboratory] at BNL. |
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{{Space medicine}} |
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{{Spaceflight}} |
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{{Use American English|date=January 2014}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Health Threat From Cosmic Rays}} |
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[[Category:Cosmic rays]] |
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[[Category:Human spaceflight]] |
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[[Category:Radiation health effects]] |
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[[Category:Space medicine]] |
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Latest revision as of 18:05, 14 September 2024
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