Occultation (Islam): Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Shia doctrine on the disappearance and return of the Mahdi}} |
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{{refimprove|date=June 2011}} |
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{{Shia Islam}} |
{{Shia Islam}} |
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{{for multi|the classical Shia works on this topic|Kitab al-Ghayba (disambiguation){{!}}Kitab al-Ghayba|the first period of occultation|Minor Occultation|the second period|Major Occultation}} |
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'''The Occultation''' ({{lang-ar|غيبة}} ''Ghaybah'') in [[Shia Islam]] refers to a belief that the messianic figure, or [[Mahdi]], who in Shi'i thought is an [[ismah|infallible]] male descendant of the founder of [[Islam]], [[Muhammad]], was born but disappeared, and will one day return and fill the world with justice and peace. Some Shi'is, such as the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Nizari]] [[Ismailism|Ismaili]], do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups that do believe in it differ on the succession of the Imamate, and therefore which individual is in Occultation. The Hidden Imam is still considered to be the [[Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)|Imam of the Time]], to hold authority over the community, and to guide and protect individuals and the Shi'i community. |
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'''Occultation''' ({{langx|ar|غَيْبَة}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ghayba}}'') in [[Shia Islam]] refers to the [[Islamic eschatology|eschatological belief]] that the [[Mahdi]], a descendant of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], has already been born and he was subsequently concealed, but he will reemerge and he will establish justice and peace on earth at the end of time.{{Sfn|Sobhani|2001|p=116}} The signs of his (re)appearance are largely common in Shia and Sunni,{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=168}} (although Sunni do not believe the Mahdi has already been born and is in occultation), |
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== Twelver == |
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and the belief in the eschatological Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims, possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources.{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}} |
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In [[Twelver]] Shia Islam, the largest branch of the Shia faith, [[The Twelve Imams|twelfth imam]], [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]], went into Occultation in 873. The Occultation is split into the Minor Occultation and the Major Occultation. |
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However, the [[Islamic schools and branches#Shīʿa Islam|branches of Shia Islam]] that believe in it differ with regard to the identity of the Mahdi. The [[#Twelver_Shia|mainstream Shia]] identifies him as [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]], the twelfth imam,{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}} who is believed to be responsible for the affairs of men and, in particular, their inward spiritual guidance during the occultation.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=165}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|pp=194-5}} |
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=== Minor Occultation === |
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The '''Minor Occultation''' (''Ghaybat al-Sughra'') refers to the period when the [[Twelver]] [[Shia]] believe the Imam still maintained contact with his followers via deputies ([[Arabic language|Arab.]] ''an-nuwāb al-arbaʻa''). During this period, from 874-941, the deputies represented him and acted as agents between him and his followers. |
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==Twelver Shia== |
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Shia believe that in 873, after the death of his father [[Hasan al-Askari|al-`Askari]], the eleventh Imam, the 12th Imam was hidden from the authorities of the `Abbasid caliphate as a precaution. His whereabouts were disclosed only to a select few. Four close associates of his father became mediators known as ''Saf’ir'', or between the Imam and his followers, until the year 941. This period is considered by Twelvers to be the first, or Minor Occultation (''al-Ghayba''). |
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{{Further|Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi|The Fourteen Infallibles}} |
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[[File:Jamkaran Mosque مسجد جمکران قم 21.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Jamkaran Mosque]] in [[Qom]], [[Iran]], is a popular pilgrimage site for Shia Muslims. Local belief holds that the [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|twelfth Imam]]—the eschatological [[Mahdi]] in [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shia]]—once appeared and prayed in Jamkaran.]] |
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[[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shia]] is the mainstream branch of Shia Islam, accounting for 85 percent of the Shia population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2017 |title=Shia Islam's Holiest Sites |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/shia-islam-s-holiest-sites.html |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=Worldatlas.com}}</ref> The Twelvers believe that their twelfth Imam, [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]], is in occultation. During his [[Minor Occultation]] (874-941), the twelfth Imam is believed to have remained in regular contact with four successive agents,{{Sfn|Nanji|Daftary|2006|pp=223-4}} collectively known as the [[Four Deputies]] ({{Transliteration|ar|al-nuwwab al-arba'}}).{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=96}} During the [[Major Occultation]] (941-present), however, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam on earth,{{Sfn|Nanji|Daftary|2006|pp=223-4}} though it is believed that he remains providentially living in his physical body until his reappearance in the end of time.{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2007}} |
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The Twelver theory of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century based on rational and textual arguments.{{Sfn|Daftary|2013|p=67}} This theory, for instance, sets forth that the life of Muhammad al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged, arguing that the earth cannot be void of the imam as the highest proof ({{Transliteration|ar|hujja}}) of God. As another example, while the Abbasid threat might have initially forced the twelfth imam into occultation,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=162, 163}} according to this doctrine, his absence continues until initial conditions are met for his reappearance, including humankind's readiness for the message of the Hidden Imam.{{Sfn|Sobhani|2001|pp=118-9}} |
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When believers faced difficulty, they would write their concerns and send them to his deputy. The deputy would receive the decision of the Imam, endorse it with his seal and signature, and return it to the concerned parties. The deputies also collected [[zakat]] and [[khums]] on his behalf. For the Shia, the idea of consulting a hidden Imam was not something new, because the two prior [[Shia Imam]]s had, on occasion, met with their followers from behind a curtain. |
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===Minor Occultation=== |
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Shi'a tradition holds that [[The Four Deputies|four deputies]] acted in succession: |
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{{Main|Minor Occultation}}Immediately after the death of [[Hasan al-Askari]] in 260 (873-874),{{Sfn|Modarressi|1993|p=77}} [[Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi|Uthman al-Amri]] ({{Died in|874-875}}) claimed that the eleventh Imam had a young son, named Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation due to the threat to his life from the Abbasids.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=162, 163}} As the special representative of al-Askari, Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of the eleventh Imam.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=162}} Possibly the only public appearance of Muhammad was to lead the funeral prayer for his father instead of his uncle, [[Ja'far al-Zaki|Ja'far]].{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=161}}{{Sfn|Donaldson|1933|p=234}} |
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In his new capacity, Uthman received petitions and made available their responses, sometimes in writing.{{Sfn|Daftary|2013|p=64}} As the closest associate of al-Askari,{{Sfn|Modarressi|1993|p=92}} most of al-Askari's local representatives continued to support Uthman.{{Sfn|Modarressi|1993|pp=79, 80}} He later introduced his son, [[Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Uthman|Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Uthman]] ({{Died in|916-17}}), as the next representative of al-Mahdi.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=162-164}}{{Sfn|Klemm|2007}} In turn, as his replacement, Abu Ja'far nominated [[Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti]] ({{Died in|937-38}}).{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=92}} |
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# [[Uthman ibn Sa’id al-Asadi]] |
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# [[Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Uthman]] |
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# [[Abul Qasim Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti]] |
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# [[Abul Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri]] |
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This period, later termed the [[Minor Occultation]] ({{Transliteration|ar|al-ghaybat al-sughra}}),{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=84}} ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent, [[Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri]] ({{Died in|940-41}}),{{Sfn|Daftary|2013|p=66}} who is said to have received a [[The signed letter of Hujjat-Allah al-Mahdi|letter from al-Mahdi]] shortly before his death.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=162-164}} The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete ({{Transliteration|ar|tamma}}) occultation,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=164}}{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=96}}{{Sfn|Daftary|2013|p=66}} later called the [[Major Occultation]] ({{Transliteration|ar|al-ghaybat al-kubra}}).{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=84}} The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=164}} This and similar letters to the four agents and other Shia figures are said to have had the same handwriting, suggesting that they were written by the Hidden Imam.{{Sfn|Hussain|1986|p=|pp=90, 139, 140}} |
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In 941 (329 AH), the fourth deputy announced an order by Muhammad al-Mahdi that the deputy would soon die, the deputyship would end, and the Major Occultation would begin. |
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===Major Occultation=== |
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The fourth deputy died six days later, and [[twelvers]] continue to await the reappearance of the Mahdi. In the same year, many notable Shi'a scholars such as [[Ali ibn Babwayh Qummi]] and [[Muhammad ibn Yaqub Kulayni]], the learned compiler of [[al-Kafi]] also died. |
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{{Main|Major Occultation}} |
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<ref name="Occultation">{{cite book|last =Hussain| first =Hussain M.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Holy Qur'an| publisher = The Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain & Northern Ireland | year = 1982 | location = | pages = | url = http://www.al-islam.org/occultation_12imam/| doi = | id = 0-907794-01-7 }}</ref> |
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The Major Occultation, a later term, began with the death of the fourth agent in 329 (940-941), who did not designate a successor. In this period, which continues today, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam on earth.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=164}}{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|pp=106, 107}} There were likely early traditions among the Shia that had already predicted the two periods of occultation.{{Sfn|Hussain|1986|p=141}} These hadiths were previously cited, for instance, by the [[Waqifite Shia|Waqifites]] in reference to the two arrests of [[Musa al-Kazim]], the seventh Imam.{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}}{{Sfn|Hussain|1986|p=141}} |
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=== Major Occultation === |
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{{main|Major Occultation}} |
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The '''Major Occultation''' denotes the second, longer portion of the Occultation, which continues to the present day. Shia believe, based on the last Saf’ir's deathbed message, that the Twelfth Imam had decided not to appoint another deputy. Thus, al-Samarri's death marked the beginning of the second or Major Occultation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-islam.org/occultation_12imam/|title=The Occultation of the Twelfth Imam (A Historical Background)|work=Al-Islam.org}}</ref> According to the last letter of Muhammad al-Mahdi to Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri,<blockquote>from the day of your death [the last deputy] the period of my major occultation will begin. Henceforth, no one will see me, unless and until Allah makes me appear. My reappearance will take place after a very long time when people will have grown tired of waiting and those who are weak in their faith will say: What! Is he still alive?"{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}</blockquote> |
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In the absence of the Hidden Imam, the leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by the jurists in their new capacity as general deputy ({{Transliteration|ar| na'ib al-amm}}) to the Hidden Imam. It is also popularly held that the Hidden Imam occasionally appears to the pious in person or, more commonly, in dreams and visions. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread among the Twelvers.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=65}}{{Sfn|Corbin|2014|p=70}}{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2007}}{{sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=181}} |
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<blockquote>Rest assured, no one has a special relationship with God. Whoever denies me is not from my (community). The appearance of the Relief depends solely upon God. Therefore, those who propose a certain time for it are liars. As to the benefit of my existence in occultation, it is like the benefit of the sun behind the clouds where the eyes do not see it. - ''[[Kitab al-Kafi]]'', [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni]] {{citation needed|date=April 2011}}</blockquote> |
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==Isma'ili Shia== |
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With regard to advice for his followers during his absence, he is reported to have said: "Refer to the transmitters of our traditions, for they are my ''hujja'' (proof) unto you and I am God’s proof unto them."<ref name="Occultation"/> |
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{{main|Satr (Isma'ilism)}} |
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[[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili Shia]] branched off from mainstream Shia over the succession of [[Isma'il ibn Ja'far|Isma'il]], who predeceased his father, [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]], the sixth imam.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=39}} This group either believed that Isma'il was still alive but in concealment or instead recognized the imamate of Isma'il's son, [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il|Muhammad]], and his descendants.{{Sfn|Gleave|2012a}}{{Sfn|Haywood|2022}}{{Sfn|Daftary|2007}} Today, Isma'ilis are divided into two groups, [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]] and [[Musta'li Ismailism|Musta'li]]. The Nizarite imam is the present [[Aga Khan IV]], their forty-ninth imam in the line of succession. The Musta'lis, however, believe that their twenty-first imam and his progeny went into occultation.{{Sfn|Nanji|Daftary|2006|p=163}} In the absence of their imam, Musta'lis take guidance from Da'i al-Mutlaq ({{Lit|supreme authority}}). Different branches of Musta'li Shia differ on who the current [[Da'i al-Mutlaq]] is.{{Sfn|Nanji|Daftary|2006|p=238}} |
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Before the rise of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]], as a major Isma'ili Shia dynasty,{{Sfn|Daftary|1999}} the terms Mahdi and Qa'im were used interchangeably for the messianic imam anticipated in Shia traditions. With the rise of the Fatimids in the tenth century CE, however, [[al-Qadi al-Nu'man]] argued that some of these predictions had materialized by the first Fatimid caliph, [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah]], while the rest would be fulfilled by his successors. Henceforth, their literature referred to the awaited eschatological imam only as Qa'im (instead of Mahdi).{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}} |
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== Ismaili == |
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== Zaydi Shia == |
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In [[Zaydism|Zaydi]] view, imams are not endowed with superhuman qualities, and expectations for their mahdiship are thus often marginal.{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}}{{Sfn|Nanji|Daftary|2006|p=240}} One exception is the extinct Husaynites in [[Yemen]], who denied the death of al-Husayn ibn al-Qasim al-Iyani and awaited his return.{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}} |
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Ismaili before the rise of the [[Fatimid Empire]] believed that [[Muhammad ibn Ismail]] had gone into Occultation, and were called Sevener to reflect their belief in only seven imams, Muhammad's father Ismail being the last until his return. The [[Qarmatian]] Sevener branch accepted a Persian prisoner by the name of Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani from [[Isfahan]], who claimed to be the descendant of the Persian kings, as the returned Muhammad ibn Ismail <ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book| title = Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse | author = Abbas Amanat, Magnus Thorkell | page = 123}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>{{cite book| title = Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam | page = 26 | author = Delia Cortese, Simonetta Calderini}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Early Philosophical Shiism: The Ismaili Neoplatonism | author = Abū Yaʻqūb Al-Sijistānī | page = 161 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=The Other God: Dualist Religions from Antiquity to the Cathar Heresy| author=by Yuri Stoyanov}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Classical Islam: A History, 600-1258 | page = 113| author= Gustave Edmund Von Grunebaum}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=The Other God: Dualist Religions from Antiquity to the Cathar Heresy | author= Yuri Stoyanov}}</ref> |
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and also as their Mahdi. They rampaged violently across the Middle-East in the 10th century, climaxing their bloody campaign with the stealing of the [[Black Stone]] from the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] in 930 under [[Abu Tahir Al-Jannabi]]. After the arrival of the Mahdi they changed their [[qiblah]] from the Kaaba to the Zoroastrian-influenced fire. After their return of the Black Stone in 951 and defeat by the Abbasids in 976 they slowly faded out of history and no longer have any adherents.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/qarma.html | title = Qarmatiyyah| accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref> |
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==Other views== |
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Historically, various Muslim figures were identified with the eschatological Mahdi or used the name as an honorific title with messianic significance. These include the Umayyad [[Umar II]] and the Abbasid [[al-Mahdi]], among many others.{{Sfn|Madelung|2022}} Similarly, mahdism and occultation are recurring themes in the history of Shia.{{Sfn|Lewis|2011|pp=23, 35, 49}} For instance, long-standing Shia traditions were appropriated by the now-extinct [[Waqifite Shia|Waqifites]] to argue that [[Musa al-Kazim]], the seventh imam, had not died but was in occultation.{{Sfn|Modarressi|1993|pp=87-8}} Even earlier, the now-extinct [[Kaysanites]] denied the death of [[Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya|Muḥammad ibn al-Hanafiyya]] and awaited his return as the Mahdi. {{Sfn|Madelung|2022}}{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=151}} The [[Qarmatians]], an extinct branch of Isma'ili Shia, believed in the mahdiship of [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il]] and his imminent return. {{Sfn|Amanat|Bernhardsson|2001|pp=122-4}}{{Sfn|von Grunebaum|2017|pp=112-3}} Similar figures in Shia history are [[Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya]], [[Muhammad Ibn Qasim (al-Alawi)|Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Alawi]], [[Yahya ibn Umar]], and [[Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi]].{{Sfn|Lewis|2011|pp=23, 35, 49}} |
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{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2008}} |
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According to the [[Taiyabi|Tayyebi branch]] of [[Mustaali]] [[Ismaili]] Shi'a [[Islam|Muslims]], during the Occultation of the twenty-first imam, [[Taiyab abi al-Qasim]], a [[Da'i al-Mutlaq]], meaning ''unrestricted missionary'', maintains contact with him. The several branches of the Mustaali differ on who the current Da'i al-Mutlaq is. |
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==See also== |
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*[[Eschatology]] |
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The [[Nizari]] [[Ismaili]] believe that there is no occultation at all, that H.H. [[Karim Aga Khan]] is the visible 49th Imam. They believe that the Imam's authority is no different from the authority of Imam Ali the first Imam; he currently provides guidance to Nizari Ismailis with worldly and spiritual matters. |
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**[[Islamic eschatology]] |
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=== Druze === |
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The [[Druze]] believe the imam [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] has gone into the Occultation after he disappeared in 1021 followed by the four founding [[Dawah|Da'i]] of the Druze sect including [[Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad]] leaving the leadership to a fifth leader called Baha Al-Din. The Druze refused to acknowledge the successor of Al-Hakim as an [[Imam]] but accepted him as a [[Caliph]].<ref>The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography by Samy Swayd, Kirkland WA USA: ISES Publications(1998). ISBN 0-9662932-0-7.</ref> The faith further split from Ismailism as it developed unique doctrines which often classes it separately from both Ismailism and Islam, these include the belief that [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] was God incarnate. |
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== Other views == |
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=== Scholarly observations === |
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Some scholars, including [[Bernard Lewis]] also point out, that the idea of an Imam in occultation was not new in 873 but that it was a recurring factor in Shia history. Examples of this include the cases of [[Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah]] (according to the [[Kaysanites Shia]]), [[Muhammad ibn Abdallah|Muhammad ibn Abdallah An-Nafs Az-Zakiyya]], [[Musa al-Kadhim]] (according to the [[Waqifite Shia]]), [[Muhammad ibn Qasim (al-Alawi)]], [[Yahya ibn Umar]] and [[Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi]].<ref>The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam, Bernard Lewis, pp. 23, 35, 49.</ref> |
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=== Bahá'í views === |
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In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], which sees the [[Báb]] as fulfilling the Islamic prophecy of al-Mahdi, [[Bahá'u'lláh]] and [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] considered the story of the Occultation of the twelfth imam in [[Twelver]] belief to have been a [[pious fraud]] conceived by a number of the leading Shí`ahs in order to maintain the coherence and continuity of the Shí`ah movement after the death of the 11th Imam, Hasan al-`Askarí.<ref>Momen, Moojan. [http://www.momen.org/relstud/shiislam.htm#6 Shi`i Islam and the Baha'i Faith]</ref> [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] believe that Sayyid `Alí Muhammad-i-Shírází, known as the Báb, is the promised Twelfth Imam, the Mahdi, who had already made his advent and fulfilled all the prophecies. The [[Shaykhism|Shaykhi movement]] of the early 19th century claimed to have made preparations for the Mahdi. In 1848 the Báb and his followers began to teach more openly, and the Báb was [[Execution of the Báb|publicly executed]] in July 9, 1850 A.D (twenty-eighth of Sha’bán, in the year 1266 A.H).<ref>{{cite book| title = The Dawn-Breakers: Nabíl’s Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá’í Revelation | author = Nabil | page = 515 | url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/nz/DB/db-42.html}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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*[[End time]] |
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*[[Islamic eschatology]] |
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*[[The Fourteen Infallibles]] |
*[[The Fourteen Infallibles]] |
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*[[Du'a Nudba]] |
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*[[Kitab al-Ghayba (al-Nu'mani)|''Kitab al-Ghayba'' (al-Nu'mani)]], a work on the topic by the 10th-century Twelver Shia scholar [[Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Nu'mani]] |
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*[[Kitab al-Ghayba (al-Tusi)|''Kitab al-Ghayba'' (al-Tusi)]], a work on the topic by the 11th-century Twelver Shia scholar [[Shaykh Tusi|al-Shaykh al-Tusi]] |
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*[[Raj'a|Rajʿa]] ('return'), the concomitant concept of return after occultation |
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**[[Reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi]], the concept of return in Twelver Shi'ism |
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**[[Signs of the appearance of Mahdi|Signs of the appearance of the Mahdi]] (in broader Islam) |
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== |
==References== |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
{{reflist|30em}} |
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== Bibliography == |
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*{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2022 |title=Al-Mahdī |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill Reference Online |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |edition=Second |author-last=Madelung |author-first=W.}} |
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*{{cite book |author-last=Daftary |author-first=Farhad |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013/mode/2up |title=A History of Shi'i Islam |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2013 |isbn=9780755608669}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=MUSA AL-KAZIM (ABU'L-HASAN MUSA IBN JA'FAR) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0000unse_h2t8/page/n7/mode/2up |editor-last=Netton |editor-first=Ian Richard |pages=456, 457 |isbn=978-0-7007-1588-6 |author-first=Edward D. A. |author-last=Hulmes}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2022 |title=Mūsā Al-Kāẓim |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill Reference Online |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/musa-al-kazim-SIM_5563?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&s.q=%22M%C5%ABs%C4%81+al-K%C4%81%E1%BA%93im%22 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |edition=Second |author-last=Kohlberg |author-first=E.}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Kazim, Musa al- |encyclopedia=Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5cQH17-HnMC&q=sadiq |editor-last=Jestice |editor-first=Phyllis G. |volume=3 |pages=469, 470 |isbn=9781576073551 |author-last=Rahim |author-first=Habibeh}} |
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*{{cite book |author-last=Momen |author-first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1985 |isbn=9780300034998}} |
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*{{cite book|title=Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America|author1-first=Abbas|author1-last= Amanat|author2-first= Magnus T.|author2-last= Bernhardsson|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year= 2001|isbn= 9780755626168|url=https://www.academia.edu/40404990}} |
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*{{cite book|title=Classical Islam: A History, 600 A.D. to 1258 A.D.|author-first=G.E.|author-last= von Grunebaum|publisher=Routledge|year= 2017|isbn= 9781351528092|url=https://archive.org/details/classicalislamhi0000grun_s9h4/mode/2up}} |
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*{{cite book|title=Voices of Islam|volume=1|editor-first=Vincent J.|editor-last= Cornell|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year= 2006|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0001unse/mode/|isbn= 9780275987329|chapter=What is Shiite Islam?|author1-first=Azim|author1-last=Nanji|author2-first=Farhad|author2-last=Daftary}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume= IX/4| pages= 423–6|author-first=Farhad|author-last= Daftary|year=1999|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids|title= FATIMIDS}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia|title=ISMAʿILISM iii. ISMAʿILI HISTORY|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica|year=2007|volume= XIV/2|pages= 178–195|author-first=Farhad|author-last=Daftary|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-iii-ismaili-history}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia| author-last=Haywood|author-first= John A.|title=Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|year= 2022|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jafar-ibn-Muhammad}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2012a |title=JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ i. Life |pages=349–351 |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/jafar-al-sadeq-i-life |last=Gleave |first=Robert|volume=XIV}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Be5DeNM8d1EC|page=258}} |title=Shi'ite Islam |publisher=State University of New York Press |others=Translated by [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr|Sayyid Hossein Nasr]] |year=1975 |isbn=0-87395-390-8 |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei}} |
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* {{cite book |author-last=Sobhani |author-first=Ja'far |url=http://ijtihadnet.com/wp-content/uploads/Doctrines-of_Shii-Islam.pdf |title=Doctrines of Shi'i Islam |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2001 |isbn=((01860647804)) |translator-last=Shah-Kazemi |translator-first=Reza |author-link=Ja'far Sobhani}} |
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* {{cite book |author-last=Corbin |author-first=Henry |url=https://archive.org/details/byhenrycorbin/Henry%20Corbin%20-%20History-of-Islamic-Philosophy/mode/2up |title=History Of Islamic Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=9781135198893 |translator-last=Sherrard |translator-first=Liadain}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/islam-in-iran-vii-the-concept-of-mahdi-in-twelver-shiism |volume=XIV/2 |pages=136–143 |author-first=Mohammad Ali |author-last=Amir-Moezzi}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein |title=Islamic Messianism: The Idea of Mahdī in Twelver Shīʻism |publisher=Suny press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0873954426 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam|author-first=Bernard|author-last= Lewis|publisher=Hachette| year= 2011 |isbn= 9780297863335|url=https://archive.org/details/assassinsradical00lewi/mode/2up}} |
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* {{cite book |author-last=Modarressi |author-first=Hossein |url=https://ebookshia.com/upload/bookFiles/2752/Crisis_and_Consolidation_in_the_Formative_Period_of_Shi'ite_Islam_Abu_Ja'far_ibn_Qiba_al-Razi_and_His_Contribution_to_Imamite_Shi'ite_Thought_-_Hossein_Modarres.pdf |title=Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shi'ite Islam: Abū Ja'far Ibn Qiba Al-Rāzī and His Contribution to Imāmite Shī'ite Thought |publisher=Darwin Press |year=1993 |isbn=9780878500956}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Donaldson |first=Dwight M. |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZpV7QwAACAAJ|page=190}} |title=The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ |publisher=AMS Press |year=1933}} |
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* {{cite book |author-last=Hussain |author-first=Jassim M. |url=https://www.al-islam.org/occultation-twelfth-imam-historical-background-jassim-m-hussain |title=Occultation of the Twelfth Imam: A Historical Background |publisher=Routledge Kegan & Paul |year=1986 |isbn=9780710301581}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=ISLAM IN IRAN ix. THE DEPUTIES OF MAHDI |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/islam-in-iran-ix-the-deputies-of-mahdi |volume=XIV/2 |pages=143–6 |author-first=Verena |author-last=Klemm}} |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi]] |
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[[Category:Islamic terminology]] |
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[[Category:Mahdism]] |
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[[Category:Shia eschatology]] |
[[Category:Shia eschatology]] |
Latest revision as of 12:48, 22 October 2024
Part of a series on Shia Islam |
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Occultation (Arabic: غَيْبَة, ghayba) in Shia Islam refers to the eschatological belief that the Mahdi, a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, has already been born and he was subsequently concealed, but he will reemerge and he will establish justice and peace on earth at the end of time.[1] The signs of his (re)appearance are largely common in Shia and Sunni,[2][3] (although Sunni do not believe the Mahdi has already been born and is in occultation), and the belief in the eschatological Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims, possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources.[2]
However, the branches of Shia Islam that believe in it differ with regard to the identity of the Mahdi. The mainstream Shia identifies him as Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth imam,[2] who is believed to be responsible for the affairs of men and, in particular, their inward spiritual guidance during the occultation.[4][5]
Twelver Shia
[edit]Twelver Shia is the mainstream branch of Shia Islam, accounting for 85 percent of the Shia population.[6] The Twelvers believe that their twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, is in occultation. During his Minor Occultation (874-941), the twelfth Imam is believed to have remained in regular contact with four successive agents,[7] collectively known as the Four Deputies (al-nuwwab al-arba').[8] During the Major Occultation (941-present), however, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam on earth,[7] though it is believed that he remains providentially living in his physical body until his reappearance in the end of time.[9]
The Twelver theory of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century based on rational and textual arguments.[10] This theory, for instance, sets forth that the life of Muhammad al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged, arguing that the earth cannot be void of the imam as the highest proof (hujja) of God. As another example, while the Abbasid threat might have initially forced the twelfth imam into occultation,[11] according to this doctrine, his absence continues until initial conditions are met for his reappearance, including humankind's readiness for the message of the Hidden Imam.[12]
Minor Occultation
[edit]Immediately after the death of Hasan al-Askari in 260 (873-874),[13] Uthman al-Amri (d. 874-875) claimed that the eleventh Imam had a young son, named Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation due to the threat to his life from the Abbasids.[11] As the special representative of al-Askari, Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of the eleventh Imam.[14] Possibly the only public appearance of Muhammad was to lead the funeral prayer for his father instead of his uncle, Ja'far.[15][16]
In his new capacity, Uthman received petitions and made available their responses, sometimes in writing.[17] As the closest associate of al-Askari,[18] most of al-Askari's local representatives continued to support Uthman.[19] He later introduced his son, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Uthman (d. 916-17), as the next representative of al-Mahdi.[20][21] In turn, as his replacement, Abu Ja'far nominated Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti (d. 937-38).[22]
This period, later termed the Minor Occultation (al-ghaybat al-sughra),[23] ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent, Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri (d. 940-41),[24] who is said to have received a letter from al-Mahdi shortly before his death.[20] The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete (tamma) occultation,[25][8][24] later called the Major Occultation (al-ghaybat al-kubra).[23] The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny.[25] This and similar letters to the four agents and other Shia figures are said to have had the same handwriting, suggesting that they were written by the Hidden Imam.[26]
Major Occultation
[edit]The Major Occultation, a later term, began with the death of the fourth agent in 329 (940-941), who did not designate a successor. In this period, which continues today, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam on earth.[25][27] There were likely early traditions among the Shia that had already predicted the two periods of occultation.[28] These hadiths were previously cited, for instance, by the Waqifites in reference to the two arrests of Musa al-Kazim, the seventh Imam.[2][28]
In the absence of the Hidden Imam, the leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by the jurists in their new capacity as general deputy (na'ib al-amm) to the Hidden Imam. It is also popularly held that the Hidden Imam occasionally appears to the pious in person or, more commonly, in dreams and visions. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread among the Twelvers.[29][30][9][31]
Isma'ili Shia
[edit]Isma'ili Shia branched off from mainstream Shia over the succession of Isma'il, who predeceased his father, Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth imam.[32] This group either believed that Isma'il was still alive but in concealment or instead recognized the imamate of Isma'il's son, Muhammad, and his descendants.[33][34][35] Today, Isma'ilis are divided into two groups, Nizari and Musta'li. The Nizarite imam is the present Aga Khan IV, their forty-ninth imam in the line of succession. The Musta'lis, however, believe that their twenty-first imam and his progeny went into occultation.[36] In the absence of their imam, Musta'lis take guidance from Da'i al-Mutlaq (lit. 'supreme authority'). Different branches of Musta'li Shia differ on who the current Da'i al-Mutlaq is.[37]
Before the rise of the Fatimid Caliphate, as a major Isma'ili Shia dynasty,[38] the terms Mahdi and Qa'im were used interchangeably for the messianic imam anticipated in Shia traditions. With the rise of the Fatimids in the tenth century CE, however, al-Qadi al-Nu'man argued that some of these predictions had materialized by the first Fatimid caliph, Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah, while the rest would be fulfilled by his successors. Henceforth, their literature referred to the awaited eschatological imam only as Qa'im (instead of Mahdi).[2]
Zaydi Shia
[edit]In Zaydi view, imams are not endowed with superhuman qualities, and expectations for their mahdiship are thus often marginal.[2][39] One exception is the extinct Husaynites in Yemen, who denied the death of al-Husayn ibn al-Qasim al-Iyani and awaited his return.[2]
Other views
[edit]Historically, various Muslim figures were identified with the eschatological Mahdi or used the name as an honorific title with messianic significance. These include the Umayyad Umar II and the Abbasid al-Mahdi, among many others.[2] Similarly, mahdism and occultation are recurring themes in the history of Shia.[40] For instance, long-standing Shia traditions were appropriated by the now-extinct Waqifites to argue that Musa al-Kazim, the seventh imam, had not died but was in occultation.[41] Even earlier, the now-extinct Kaysanites denied the death of Muḥammad ibn al-Hanafiyya and awaited his return as the Mahdi. [2][42] The Qarmatians, an extinct branch of Isma'ili Shia, believed in the mahdiship of Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his imminent return. [43][44] Similar figures in Shia history are Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Alawi, Yahya ibn Umar, and Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi.[40]
See also
[edit]- Eschatology
- The Fourteen Infallibles
- Du'a Nudba
- Kitab al-Ghayba (al-Nu'mani), a work on the topic by the 10th-century Twelver Shia scholar Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Nu'mani
- Kitab al-Ghayba (al-Tusi), a work on the topic by the 11th-century Twelver Shia scholar al-Shaykh al-Tusi
- Rajʿa ('return'), the concomitant concept of return after occultation
- Reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi, the concept of return in Twelver Shi'ism
- Signs of the appearance of the Mahdi (in broader Islam)
References
[edit]- ^ Sobhani 2001, p. 116.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Madelung 2022.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 168.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 165.
- ^ Tabatabai 1975, pp. 194–5.
- ^ "Shia Islam's Holiest Sites". Worldatlas.com. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ a b Nanji & Daftary 2006, pp. 223–4.
- ^ a b Sachedina 1981, p. 96.
- ^ a b Amir-Moezzi 2007.
- ^ Daftary 2013, p. 67.
- ^ a b Momen 1985, pp. 162, 163.
- ^ Sobhani 2001, pp. 118–9.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 77.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 162.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 161.
- ^ Donaldson 1933, p. 234.
- ^ Daftary 2013, p. 64.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 92.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, pp. 79, 80.
- ^ a b Momen 1985, pp. 162–164.
- ^ Klemm 2007.
- ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 92.
- ^ a b Sachedina 1981, p. 84.
- ^ a b Daftary 2013, p. 66.
- ^ a b c Momen 1985, p. 164.
- ^ Hussain 1986, pp. 90, 139, 140.
- ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 106, 107.
- ^ a b Hussain 1986, p. 141.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 65.
- ^ Corbin 2014, p. 70.
- ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 181.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 39.
- ^ Gleave 2012a.
- ^ Haywood 2022.
- ^ Daftary 2007.
- ^ Nanji & Daftary 2006, p. 163.
- ^ Nanji & Daftary 2006, p. 238.
- ^ Daftary 1999.
- ^ Nanji & Daftary 2006, p. 240.
- ^ a b Lewis 2011, pp. 23, 35, 49.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, pp. 87–8.
- ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 151.
- ^ Amanat & Bernhardsson 2001, pp. 122–4.
- ^ von Grunebaum 2017, pp. 112–3.
Bibliography
[edit]- Madelung, W. (2022). "Al-Mahdī". In Bearman, P. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
- Daftary, Farhad (2013). A History of Shi'i Islam. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780755608669.
- Hulmes, Edward D. A. (2008). "MUSA AL-KAZIM (ABU'L-HASAN MUSA IBN JA'FAR)". In Netton, Ian Richard (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. Routledge. pp. 456, 457. ISBN 978-0-7007-1588-6.
- Kohlberg, E. (2022). "Mūsā Al-Kāẓim". In Bearman, P. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
- Rahim, Habibeh (2004). "Kazim, Musa al-". In Jestice, Phyllis G. (ed.). Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. ABC-CLIO. pp. 469, 470. ISBN 9781576073551.
- Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300034998.
- Amanat, Abbas; Bernhardsson, Magnus T. (2001). Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780755626168.
- von Grunebaum, G.E. (2017). Classical Islam: A History, 600 A.D. to 1258 A.D. Routledge. ISBN 9781351528092.
- Nanji, Azim; Daftary, Farhad (2006). "What is Shiite Islam?". In Cornell, Vincent J. (ed.). Voices of Islam. Vol. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275987329.
- Daftary, Farhad (1999). "FATIMIDS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IX/4. pp. 423–6.
- Daftary, Farhad (2007). "ISMAʿILISM iii. ISMAʿILI HISTORY". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XIV/2. pp. 178–195.
- Haywood, John A. (2022). "Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- Gleave, Robert (2012a). "JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ i. Life". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XIV. pp. 349–351.
- Tabatabai, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1975). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Sayyid Hossein Nasr. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8.
- Sobhani, Ja'far (2001). Doctrines of Shi'i Islam (PDF). Translated by Shah-Kazemi, Reza. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 01860647804.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link) - Corbin, Henry (2014). History Of Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard, Liadain. Routledge. ISBN 9781135198893.
- Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2007). "ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XIV/2. pp. 136–143.
- Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1981). Islamic Messianism: The Idea of Mahdī in Twelver Shīʻism. Suny press. ISBN 978-0873954426.
- Lewis, Bernard (2011). The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam. Hachette. ISBN 9780297863335.
- Modarressi, Hossein (1993). Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shi'ite Islam: Abū Ja'far Ibn Qiba Al-Rāzī and His Contribution to Imāmite Shī'ite Thought (PDF). Darwin Press. ISBN 9780878500956.
- Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ. AMS Press.
- Hussain, Jassim M. (1986). Occultation of the Twelfth Imam: A Historical Background. Routledge Kegan & Paul. ISBN 9780710301581.
- Klemm, Verena (2007). ISLAM IN IRAN ix. THE DEPUTIES OF MAHDI. Vol. XIV/2. pp. 143–6.