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{{short description|Public university in Palaiseau, France}}
{{About|the university in France|the 2009 film|Polytechnique (film){{!}}''Polytechnique'' (film)|other uses|École Polytechnique (disambiguation)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Expand French|date=December 2021}}
{{advert|date=September 2022}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{other uses}}
{{expand French|École polytechnique (France)|date=October 2014|fa=yes|topic2=mil|topic3=sci|topic=hist}}
{{advert|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox university
{{Infobox university
|image = [[File:Logo_of_the_École_Polytechnique.svg]]
| image = [[File:POLYTECHNIQUE-IP PARIS.png|130px]]
|name = '''''École polytechnique'''''
| name = {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}}
| former_name = {{Lang|fr|École centrale des Travaux publics|italic=no}} (Central School of Public Works)
|motto = ''Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire''
|mottoeng = For the Homeland, Science and Glory
| motto = ''Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire''
| mottoeng = For the Homeland, Science, and Glory
|established = 1794
| established = {{Start date and age|1794}}
|type = [[Grandes écoles|Grande école]], formally [[Military academy|Military college]]
| parent = [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]]
|head_label = Ingénieur Général
|head = Yves Demay
| type = ''[[Grandes écoles|Grande école]]''
|city = [[Palaiseau]]
| head_label = Director
|country = France
| head = Laura Chaubard
| president = [[Laura Chaubard]] (by interim)
|coor = {{Coord|48.713|N|2.209|E|type:edu_region:FR|display=inline,title}}
|nickname = L'X
| city = [[Palaiseau]]
|undergrad =
| country = France
| coor = {{Coord|48.7125|N|2.2100|E|type:edu_region:FR|display=inline,title}}
|students = 2,888<ref name="WebsiteAbout">{{cite web|url=http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/about-ecole-polytechnique/|title=About École Polytechnique |work=École Polytechnique}}</ref>
| other_name = l'X
|postgrad = 500 polytechnic engineers,<br />439 masters<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
| students = 3,370<ref name="WebsiteAbout">{{cite web |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/study-at-ecole-polytechnique/ |title=Study at École polytechnique |work=École polytechnique}}</ref>
|doctoral = 572<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
|colors = {{color box|#002A3A}} [[Imperial Blue]]<ref name="Polytechnique Logotype">{{cite web|url=https://gargantua.polytechnique.fr/siatel-web/linkto/mICYYYSI62YK|title=Guide d'utilisation du logol}}</ref><br />{{color box|Crimson}} Red<br/>{{color box|Gold}} Yellow
| undergrad = 480<ref name="LaunchBachelorProgram">{{cite web |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/content/applications-bachelor-program-open-november-25th |title=Applications for the Bachelor program open on November 25th |work=École polytechnique}}</ref>
| postgrad = 2,000 engineer candidates<br />500 masters<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
|affiliations = [[ParisTech]], [[Université Paris-Saclay]], [[CGE]], [[CDEFI]]
| doctoral = 390<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
|website= [http://www.polytechnique.edu/jsp/accueil.jsp?CODE=36392593&LANGUE=1 Polytechnique.edu]
| colors = {{color box|Crimson}}{{color box|Gold}} Red & yellow
|footnotes =
| academic_affiliations = [[Conférence des grandes écoles (CGE)|CGE]], [[Conference of the Directors of French Engineering Schools|CDEFI]]
|logo = [[File:École polytechnique signature.svg|250px]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.polytechnique.edu/en|polytechnique.edu}}
| logo =
}}
}}
{{Infobox military unit
'''École polytechnique''' (also known by the nickname " '''X''' ") is a French public institution of higher education and research, located in [[Palaiseau]] near Paris. It is one of the French [[Grandes écoles]],<ref name="MIT">{{cite web|title=École Polytechnique|url=http://www-math.mit.edu/academics/undergrad/opportunities/international/ecole.php|publisher=Boston MIT|accessdate=2 November 2013|quote=École Polytechnique (also called "X") is the most prestigious institution in Science and Engineering in France}}</ref><ref name="Columbia University">{{cite web|title=École Polytechnique|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alliance/aboutalliance-polytechnique.html|publisher=Columbia University|accessdate=2 November 2013|quote=For more than two hundred years, ''Ecole Polytechnique'', the most prestigious educational establishment in France, has been dedicated to educating students in Science and Technology and in advanced research, at the highest level.}}</ref> and is renowned for its four-year<ref>{{cite web|title=Ingénieur Polytechnicien Program|url=http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/education-and-programs/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/|publisher=Ecole Polytechnique|accessdate=2 November 2013|quote=The Ingénieur Polytechnicien program covers 4 years}}</ref> undergraduate ''Ingénieur Polytechnicien'' degree in science and engineering.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Ingénieur Polytechnicien program|url=http://www.admission.polytechnique.edu/home/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/|publisher=Ecole Polytechnique|accessdate=2 November 2013|quote=Degrees awarded: Diplôme de l'École Polytechnique, an Advanced MSc in Science and Engineering}}</ref> Students are usually admitted after two years of selective [[classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles|university-level preparation]] in mathematics and physics or after a Bachelor of Sciences (Licence in French educative system).
| unit_name = Battalion of {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}}
| native_name = {{Lang|fr|Bataillon de l'École polytechnique|italic=no}}
| image = [[File:POLYTECHNIQUE-IP PARIS.png|130px]]
| start_date = September 28, 1794
| country = [[France]]
| allegiance = France
| type = [[Public university|Public]] [[research university]]
| command_structure = [[French Armed Forces]]
| motto = ''Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire''
| battles_label = Wars
| battles = [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]]
[[World War I]]
[[World War II]]
| battle_honours = [[Legion of Honour]]
[[Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)|Croix de guerre 1914–1918]]
[[Croix de Guerre 1939–1945|Croix de guerre 1939–1945]]
citation to the order of the army
| commander1_label = Commanding Officer
| commander1 = Senior General Armament Engineer François Bouchet
| commander2_label = Colonel of the Regiment
| commander2 = Thibault Capdeville head of corps and director of human and military training
}}
[[File:Arms of the École Polytechnique.svg|thumb|upright|Emblem of the school]]
[[File:Statue X DSC08329.JPG|thumb|upright|A statue in the courtyard of the school commemorates the cadets of ''Polytechnique'' rushing to the [[Battle of Paris (1814)|defence of Paris]] in 1814. A copy was installed in [[West Point]].]]


'''{{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}}''' ({{IPA|fr|ekɔl pɔlitɛknik}}, {{Literal translation|Polytechnic School}}; also known as '''Polytechnique''' or '''l'X''' {{IPA|fr|liks|}}) is a ''[[grande école]]'' located in [[Palaiseau]], [[France]]. It specializes in science and engineering and is a founding member of the [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Arrêté du 25 février 2021 fixant la liste des écoles accréditées à délivrer un titre d'ingénieur diplômé – Légifrance |url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legifrance.gouv.fr%2FWAspad%2FUnTexteDeJorf%3Fnumjo%3DESRS2036012A |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref>
''Polytechnique'' was established in 1794 by the mathematician [[Gaspard Monge]] during the [[French Revolution]],<ref>[http://www.bretagne.ens-cachan.fr/version-francaise/l-ecole/histoire/les-ecoles-de-l-an-iii-106752.kjsp?RH=1189690570769 Michel Nusimovici, ''Les écoles de l'an III'', 2010.]</ref> and became a military academy under [[Napoleon I]] in 1804. Today, the institution still runs under the supervision of the French ministry of Defence. Initially located in the [[Quartier Latin|Latin Quarter]] of central Paris, the establishment was moved in 1976 to Palaiseau on the [[plateau de Saclay|Saclay Plateau]], southwest of Paris.<ref name="WebsiteHistory">{{cite web|title=École Polytechnique – History and heritage|url=http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/about-ecole-polytechnique/history-and-heritage/|publisher=École Polytechnique|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref>


The school was founded in 1794 by mathematician [[Gaspard Monge]] during the [[French Revolution]]<ref>[http://www.bretagne.ens-cachan.fr/version-francaise/l-ecole/histoire/les-ecoles-de-l-an-iii-106752.kjsp?RH=1189690570769 Michel Nusimovici, ''Les écoles de l'an III'', 2010.]</ref> and was militarized under [[Napoleon I]] in 1804. It is still supervised by the [[Ministry of Armed Forces (France)|French Ministry of Armed Forces]]. Originally located in the [[Latin Quarter, Paris|Latin Quarter]] in central Paris, the institution moved to Palaiseau in 1976, in the [[Paris-Saclay|Paris-Saclay technology cluster]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History - École polytechnique |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/school/history |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=www.polytechnique.edu |language=en}}</ref>
''Polytechnique'' is a founding member of [[ParisTech]], a grouping of leading Paris-area engineering colleges established in 2007. In 2014 it became a founding member as well as the head of multidisciplinary technology and innovation institute, the confederal "[[Université Paris-Saclay|University of Paris in Saclay]]". Among its [[List of École Polytechnique alumni|alumni]] are three [[Nobel prize]] winners,<ref>[[Henri Becquerel|Becquerel]], [[Maurice Allais|Allais]] and [[Jean Tirole|Tirole]].</ref> one [[Fields Medal]]ist,<ref>[[Pierre-Louis Lions]] (1994)</ref> three [[Presidents of France]]<ref>[[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] (who was the nephew of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Carnot the physicist]] and the grandson of [[Lazare Carnot|Carnot the ''École'' founder]]), [[Albert Lebrun|Lebrun]] and [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing|Giscard]].</ref> and many CEOs of French and international companies.


French engineering students undergo initial military training and have the status of paid [[Aspirant|officer cadets]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Les élèves |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/ecole/gouvernance/actes-officiels/textes-officiels/les-eleves |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=École polytechnique, école d'ingénieur |language=fr}}</ref> The school has also been awarding doctorates since 1985, masters since 2005 and bachelors since 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bachelor of Science |url=https://programmes.polytechnique.edu/en/bachelor/bachelor-of-science |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=programmes.polytechnique.edu |language=EN}}</ref> Most Polytechnique engineering graduates go on to become top executives in companies, senior civil servants, military officers, or researchers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Career Paths |url=https://programmes.polytechnique.edu/en/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/about-the-ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/career-paths |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=programmes.polytechnique.edu |language=EN}}</ref>
== History==
[[File:Statue X DSC08329.JPG|thumb|The cadets of ''Polytechnique'' rushed to the [[Battle of Paris (1814)|defence of Paris]] against the foreign armies in 1814. A statue set in the honour courtyard of the school commemorates this deed. A copy was installed in [[West Point]].]]


[[List of École Polytechnique alumni|Its alumni]] from the engineering graduate program include three [[Nobel prize|Nobel Prize]] winners,<ref>[[Henri Becquerel|Becquerel]], [[Maurice Allais|Allais]] and [[Jean Tirole|Tirole]].</ref> a [[Fields Medal]]ist,<ref>[[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz]] (1994) ; Yoccoz was not a student at Polytechnique because he chose to be educated at [[École Normale Supérieure]] (1975–1979), but he completed his Ph.D. under [[Michael Herman (mathematician)|Michael Herman]] in 1985 in the {{Interlanguage link|Centre de mathématiques Laurent Schwartz|fr}} of École polytechnique, a research centre which had been created by another Field medalist and a professor at Polytechnique : [[Laurent Schwartz]].</ref> three [[Presidents of France]]<ref>[[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] (who was the nephew of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Carnot the physicist]] and the grandson of [[Lazare Carnot|Carnot the ''École'' founder]]), [[Albert Lebrun|Lebrun]] and [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing|Giscard]].</ref> and many CEOs of French and international companies. The school has produced renowned mathematicians such as [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy|Cauchy]], [[Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis|Coriolis]], [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Laurent Schwartz]] and [[Benoit Mandelbrot|Benoît Mandelbrot]], physicists such as [[Henri Becquerel|Becquerel]], [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Carnot]], [[André-Marie Ampère|Ampère]] and [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel|Fresnel]], and economists [[Maurice Allais]] and [[Jean Tirole]]. French [[Marshal of France|Marshals]] [[Joseph Joffre|Joffre]], [[Ferdinand Foch|Foch]], [[Émile Fayolle|Fayolle]] and [[Michel-Joseph Maunoury|Maunoury]] were also notable Polytechnique engineering graduates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Présentation de l'École |url=https://programmes.polytechnique.edu/a-propos |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=programmes.polytechnique.edu}}</ref>
Polytechnique has more than 200 years of tradition:<ref name="WebsiteHistory" />
* 1794: The ''École centrale des travaux publics'' is founded by [[Lazare Carnot]] and [[Gaspard Monge]], during the [[French Revolution]], at the time of the [[National Convention]]. It is renamed "''École polytechnique''" one year later.
* 1805: Emperor [[Napoléon Bonaparte]] settles the École on [[Montagne Sainte-Geneviève]], in the [[Quartier Latin]], in central Paris ({{Coord|48.847747|2.349043|region:FR_type:edu|name=1805 location}}), as a military academy and gives its motto ''Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire'' (For the Nation, science and glory).
* 1814: Students took part in the fights to defend Paris from the [[Sixth Coalition]].
* 1830: Fifty students participated the [[July Revolution]].
* 1914–1918: Students are mobilised and the school is transformed into a hospital. More than two hundred students were killed during the war.
* 1939–1945: ''Polytechnique'' is moved away to Lyon in the free zone. More than four hundred polytechnicians died for France during the [[Second World War]] ([[Free French]], [[French Resistance]], [[Nazi concentration camps|Nazi camps]]).
* 1970: The ''École'' becomes a state supported civilian institution, under the auspice of the Ministry of Defence.
* 1972: Women are admitted to the ''Polytechnique'' for the first time.
* 1976: The ''École'' moves from Paris to Palaiseau (approx 25&nbsp;km / 15 miles from Paris)
* 1985: The ''École'' starts awarding PhD degrees.
* 1994: Celebration of the bicentennial chaired by President [[François Mitterrand]]
* 2000: A new cursus is set in place, passing to 4 years and reforming the ''polytechnicien'' curriculum
* 2005: The ''École'' starts delivering Master's degrees.
* 2007: The ''École'' is a founding member of ''[[UniverSud Paris]]'' and [[ParisTech]].


== Name ==
<gallery>
Image:Polytechnique logo.png|The Arms of the ''École polytechnique''
Image:Ecole Polytechnique France seen from lake DSC03389.JPG|The main hall seen from the lake
File:0119-14juillet preview ecran.jpg|Cadets of ''Polytechnique'' at the [[Bastille Day Military Parade]]
File:Bicorne hat Ecole Polytechnique.jpg|The ''[[Bicorne]]'' hat of ''Polytechnique''
</gallery>


Founded in 1794 as the {{Lang|fr|École centrale des travaux publics|italic=no}} (Central School of Public Works), the school initially provided teaching limited to technical knowledge. In 1795, the school was renamed the "{{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}}" (Polytechnic School). The neologism {{lang|fr|polytechnique}}, appearing for the first time in a document published by Claude Prieur at the beginning of 1795,<ref>{{cite book | title = Programmes de l'enseignement polytechnique de l'École centrale des travaux publics | trans-title = Polytechnic Education Programs of the Central School of Public Works | date = 1795 | place = Paris}}</ref> means "many arts", referring to the plurality of applied arts, sciences, technology, engineering and other academic subjects taught at the school.<ref name=":0" />
== Locations==

[[File:Entrée Ecole polytechnique.JPG|thumb|right|Historical entrance of the École Polytechnique Paris' campus at the junction of the rue de la Montagne Saint-Genevieve and rue Descartes]]
Under the Restoration and the July Monarchy, the school was officially renamed the "École royale polytechnique".{{sfn | Callot et al. | loc = "Le séminaire de la rue Descartes" ["The Seminar on Rue Descartes"]}} Under the First and the Second Empire, it was renamed the "École impériale polytechnique".<ref name=":0" /> The students, alumni, and graduates were called "Polytechnicians". The school was often simply called "Polytechnique".
[[File:Campus Polytechnique.svg|thumb|right|École Polytechnique Saclay's campus map]]

The school has been nicknamed "l'X" or the "X" since the middle of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book | title = Les Français peints par eux-mêmes. L'Armée, les écoles militaires, le garde national | trans-title = The French Painted by Themselves: The Army, Military Schools, the National Guard | publisher = Curmer | place = Paris | year = 1840 | url = https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8426948d | at = View 155}}</ref> Two explanations have been put forward. One points to the two crossed canons on the school's badge. The other attributes it to the preeminence of mathematics in the training of Polytechnicians.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.polytechnique.edu/accueil/l-ecole-polytechnique/histoire-et-patrimoine/histoire-et-patrimoine-6637.kjsp?RF=1253804523522 | title = Histoire et patrimoine | trans-title = History and Heritage | publisher = École polytechnique}}</ref> According to ''L'Argot de l'X'', published in 1894: "It is from the very importance given to the teaching of ''ana'' [<nowiki/>[[mathematical analysis|analysis]]], the whole language of which is made up of x and y, that the nickname X came, universally accepted to designate Polytechnicians. Not all of them are mathematicians, but all have sufficient knowledge of differential and integral calculus for public service applications. Let us further say that in troubled times, such as 1830 and 1848, this knowledge particularly helped them to avoid being confused with all the individuals who disguised themselves as Polytechnicians to give themselves the appearance of defenders of order. When they were encountered, they were asked the differential of sin x or log x, and if they did not answer, they were immediately locked up."<ref>{{cite book | author1 = Albert Lévy | author2 = Gaston Pinet | others = Preface by [[Armand Silvestre]] | title = L'argot de l'X illustré par les X | trans-title = The Argot of the X Illustrated by the Xs | publisher = Émile Testard | place = Paris | year = 1894 | id = {{BNF|34077236m}} | oclc = 803689559 | url = https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k205446n | access-date = 2013-01-06}}</ref> However, in the 1994 edition, the origin of the nickname was again reported to be the crossing of the canons on the coat of arms.<ref>{{cite book | first = Fabrice | last = Mattatia | others = Illustrated by Laurent Di Cesare and Jérémie Wainstain | title = Dictionnaire d'argot de l'X: Tout sur le langage des polytechniciens | trans-title = Dictionary of the Argot of X: Everything about the Language of Polytechnicians | edition = 2nd | publisher = Lavauzelle | place = Paris | year = 2004 | isbn = 2702512305}}.</ref> The nickname "X" also applies to Polytechnicians. Female Polytechnicians are sometimes nicknamed "Xettes" or "X7",<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.admission.polytechnique.edu/home/exchange-programs/international-exchange-program/international-exchange-program-29070.kjsp | archive-url = https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.admission.polytechnique.edu%2Fhome%2Fexchange-programs%2Finternational-exchange-program%2Finternational-exchange-program-29070.kjsp | archive-date = 2015-11-01 | title = Admissions and Entrance Exams — International Exchange Program | publisher = École polytechnique}}</ref> which is pronounced {{ipa|fr|iksɛt|}}.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the school and its students and alumni were nicknamed "pipo". In the early 20th century, the school was also nicknamed "Carva".<ref>{{cite web | title = Foire aux questions | url = http://www.polytechnique.org/Xorg/FAQ | trans-title = "Frequently Asked Questions" | archive-date = 2013-02-20 | archive-url = https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polytechnique.org%2FXorg%2FFAQ | url-status = live | website = Polytechnique.org}}</ref>

== History ==

[[File:Paris, École polytechnique, Amphithéâtre de Chimie (J David, 1904) - 1.jpg|thumb|The chemistry auditorium in the old building in the {{Lang|fr|[[Quartier Latin]]|italic=no}}, photographed by [[Jules David (photographer)|Jules David]] in 1904]]
[[File:École_polytechnique,_place_Jacqueline-de-Romilly,_Paris_5e.jpg|thumb|Pediment of historical buildings, rue Descartes in [[Paris]]]]

=== Foundation and early years ===
After the Revolution of 1789, the royal engineering schools were closed. The First Republic faced a shortage of engineers and military officers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Grattan-Guinness |first=Ivor |date = March 2005 |title=The "Ecole Polytechnique", 1794–1850: Differences over Educational Purpose and Teaching Practice |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/30037440 |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=233–250 |doi=10.2307/30037440 |jstor=30037440 |issn=0002-9890 | archive-date = 2020-11-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201104034854/http://www.jstor.org/stable/30037440}}</ref>{{sfn | Callot et al. | loc = "Évolutions récentes de l'enseignement" ["Recent Developments in Education"]}} [[:fr:Jacques-Élie Lamblardie|Jacques-Élie Lamblardie]], [[Gaspard Monge]] and [[Lazare Carnot]], the founding fathers of the School, were charged with organizing a new "{{Lang|fr|École centrale des travaux publics|italic=no}}" (Central School of Public Works)<ref name=":0" /> which was officially created on 7 [[Vendémiaire]], Year III (September 28, 1794) and opened to students on 1 Nivôse, Year III (December 21, 1794).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stein |first=Henri |date=1889 |title=Recherches sur les débuts de l'imprimerie à Provins. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/bec.1889.447566 |journal=Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=218–228 |doi=10.3406/bec.1889.447566 |issn=0373-6237}}</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Langins |first=Janis |date=1991 |title=La préhistoire de l'Ecole polytechnique |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23632816 |journal=Revue d'histoire des sciences |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=61–89 |doi=10.3406/rhs.1991.4174 |jstor=23632816 |issn=0151-4105}}</ref> The aim of the school was to train civil and military engineers. The school quickly welcomed 400 students of different levels. During the first three months, "revolutionary courses" were given in [[physics]], [[mathematics]] and [[chemistry]], after which they took exams to see if they could enter the civil service directly, or if they should continue their studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Capecchi |first1=Danilo |last2=Ruta |first2=Giuseppe |date=2014-01-01 |title=European polytechnic schools in nineteenth century and Karlsruhe's exemplary case |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-013-9866-9 |journal=Meccanica |language=en |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=13–21 |doi=10.1007/s11012-013-9866-9 |s2cid=254798029 |issn=1572-9648}}</ref> The school was renamed the "{{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}}" a year later. The change of name reflects the change of vocation of the school, which now prepares students for other specialized schools such as the [[École du génie]], the [[Mines Paris - PSL|École des mines]] and the [[École des ponts ParisTech|École des ponts et chaussées]]. The curriculum lasted 3 years, the "regular courses" replaced the "revolutionary courses" and there were only 120 new students each year. The school was placed under the supervision of the Ministries of War and the Interior.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1794–1804: Revolution and Napoleonic Period |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/school/history/1794-1804-revolution-and-napoleonic-period |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=École polytechnique |language=en}}</ref><sup>,</sup><ref name=":0" /> A ''Journal Polytechnique'' (former name of "''Journal de l'École polytechnique"'' ) was created in 1795.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Journal de l'École polytechnique |url=https://jep.centre-mersenne.org/ |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=jep.centre-mersenne.org}}</ref> In 1799, the course was reduced from three to two years.

In 1805, Emperor [[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoléon]] I transferred the school to [[Montagne Sainte-Geneviève]] in the {{Lang|fr|[[Quartier Latin]]|italic=no}} of central Paris to become a [[military academy]] and gave it its motto: {{Lang|fr|Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire}} (For the Nation, Science, and Glory).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=19th century: thrust into the upheaval of the times |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/school/history/19th-century-thrust-upheaval-times |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=École polytechnique |language=en}}</ref> In 1804, after the militarization of the school, its atmosphere changed significantly from a rather free spirit to a meticulous bureaucracy. Militarization was motivated by Napoleon's favorable opinion of Polytechnicians who had contributed to the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|Egyptian expedition]] and by his admiration for [[Gaspard Monge|Monge]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]].<ref name=":3" /> Militarization was accompanied by a specialization of teaching towards mathematics.<ref name="Chappey 223–227">{{Cite journal |last=Chappey |first=Jean-Luc |date=2004-09-01 |title=La Formation d'une technocratie. L'École polytechnique et ses élèves de la Révolution au Second Empire |url=https://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/1564 |journal=Annales historiques de la Révolution française |language=fr |issue=337 |pages=223–227 |doi=10.4000/ahrf.1564 |issn=0003-4436 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In 1814, students participated in the fighting to defend Paris against the [[Sixth Coalition]]. After [[Bourbon Restoration in France|the restoration]] of 1816, the number of students was reduced to about seventy-five and the 'military arts' course was abolished.<ref name=":0" /> In 1817, King Louis XVIII demilitarized the {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}} and placed it under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior. In 1830, fifty students participated in the [[July Revolution]].<ref name=":1" /> Various decrees were issued until 1832.<ref>Organisation de l'Ecole Polytechnique. Ordonnance du 13 novembre 1830, Mon. univ. (15 November 1830) 1465–1466; also in Le globe (18 November 1830) 1085–1086 [with editorial remarks]; also in J. gén. civil 10 (1831) 87–97.</ref> Above all, the school came under the administration of the Ministry of War,<ref name=":0" /> thus regaining its military status. The republican ideal prevailed at the school, as shown by the active participation of students in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

=== The French Second Empire ===
Because of the tension between revolutionary ideas and the service of the state, the republican ideal gradually disappeared after 1851. Polytechnicians even found themselves on the side of the Versaillese when the [[Paris Commune]] was crushed in 1871. During the years 1871–1872, the number of students admitted per year doubled from 140 to 280.<ref name=":1" /> The Polytechnicians sought above all to strengthen their position in the spheres of power to compensate for their loss of influence in the technical field. While they could have turned to an engineering profession associated with industry, the Polytechnicians instead reinforced their sovereign vocation by joining the "state nobility" of the [[Second French Empire]], whose origins, interests and convictions they gradually shared. The years 1860–1870 marked an important evolution since the school became more of a "conservatory of sciences" than a center of research and innovation, while extending its hold on the management of the industrial apparatus.<ref name="Chappey 223–227"/>

=== The World Wars ===
During [[World War I]], the students were mobilized and the school building was transformed into a hospital. No national entrance exam was held in 1915. More than eight hundred students died during the war. In 1921, students of foreign nationalities were allowed to take the entrance exam for the first time. During the [[Second World War]], the {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}} was transferred to Lyon in the free zone, lost its military status, and its Parisian buildings were given to the Red Cross. More than four hundred students died during the war ([[Free French]], [[French Resistance]], [[Nazi concentration camps|Nazi camps]]).

=== From post-war to today ===
In 1944, the School was again placed under the administration of the Ministry of War.<ref>{{Cite web |title=20th century: wars lead to new orientations |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/school/history/20th-century-wars-lead-new-orientations |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=École polytechnique |language=en}}</ref> In 1970, the School became a state-sponsored civilian institution under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=From 1958 to 2018 |url=https://www.polytechnique.edu/en/school/history/1958-2018 |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=École polytechnique |language=en}}</ref> The first female students were admitted in 1972. One woman, Anne Chopinet, was class [[valedictorian]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1976, the School moved from the center of Paris to [[Palaiseau]], in the southern suburbs.<ref name=":2" /> In 1985, it began awarding doctoral degrees.<ref name=":2" /> In 1994, the bicentennial celebration was presided over by President [[François Mitterrand]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1995, a new entrance exam was set up for international students and in 2000, the ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' program was extended from 3 to 4 years.<ref name=":2" />

== Locations ==
[[File:Entrée Ecole polytechnique.JPG|thumb|right|Historical entrance of the {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}} Paris campus at the junction of the rue de la Montagne Saint-Genevieve and rue Descartes]]
[[File:Campus Polytechnique.svg|thumb|right|Map of the {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}} campus in Palaiseau]]


===Early locations===
===Early locations===
In 1794, ''Polytechnique'' was initially hosted in the [[Palais Bourbon]]. One year later, it moved to Hôtel de Lassay, an [[hôtel particulier]] in the [[7th arrondissement of Paris]].
In 1794, {{Lang|fr|École polytechnique|italic=no}} was first housed in the [[Palais Bourbon]]. A year later, it moved to the Hôtel de Lassay, a {{Lang|fr|[[hôtel particulier]]}} in the [[7th arrondissement of Paris]].


===Montagne Saint-Geneviève (1805-1976)===
===Montagne Saint-Geneviève (1805–1976)===
In 1805, when he placed the School under military administration, Napoleon transferred it to the {{Lang|fr|[[Quartier Latin]]|italic=no}}, in the former premises of the colleges of Navarre, Tournai and Boncourt, now the [[Minister of Higher Education, Research and Innovation (France)|Ministry of Higher Education and Research]]. The Paris campus was located near the [[Panthéon]], at 5 rue Descartes,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Histoire de l'École polytechnique |url=https://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/fr/histoire-de-l-ecole-polytechnique-45762 |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr |language=fr}}</ref> and was nicknamed "Carva" by the students.
Napoleon moved ''Polytechnique'' to the [[Quartier Latin]] in 1805 when he set the school under a military administration. The Paris' campus takes place near the [[Panthéon]], in Descartes Street, 5. It is nickmamed "Carva" by the students.


=== Palaiseau (from 1976)===
=== Palaiseau (from 1976) ===
Located in the suburbs of Paris, about {{cvt|9|miles|km|order=flip}} from the city center, École polytechnique is a campus-based institution. It offers teaching facilities, student housing, dining and hospitality services, and a range of sports facilities dedicated to the 4,600 people who live on campus.
At 15&nbsp;km from Paris, the campus of the ''École Polytechnique'' is a privileged setting. It offers about 164 ha (including 120 ha of green space) teaching facilities, student housing, food services and hospitality and an exceptional range of sports facilities dedicated to the 4,600 people who live on a daily basis campus. The nearest regional train (RER) station is Lozère ([[Réseau Express Régional|RER]] line B, in zone 4). A number of buses also connects the ''Ecole Polytechnique'' with the larger RER and [[TGV]] station Massy-Palaiseau.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/accueil/vie-sur-le-campus/ École Polytechnique – Un cadre unique]. Polytechnique.edu. Retrieved on 16 June 2014.</ref> The campus is close to other great scientific institutions in Saclay ([[CEA]] Center), Orsay ([[Université Paris-Sud]]) and Gif ([[IHES]] and some [[CNRS]] labs).
The campus will be at the heart of the Engineering and Innovation sector of the confederal "University of Paris in Saclay". Major works are in progress to expand it and connect it to automatic metro line direct to Paris.


The nearest regional train station is [[Lozère station|Lozère]] ([[RER B|line B]], zone 4 of the [[Réseau Express Régional|RER network]]). Several buses also connect École polytechnique to the [[Massy-Palaiseau station|Massy-Palaiseau]] RER station and [[Massy TGV station|Massy TGV]] station.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/accueil/vie-sur-le-campus École polytechnique – Un cadre unique]. Polytechnique.edu. Retrieved on 16 June 2014.</ref>
{{clr}}

The campus is close to other scientific institutions in Saclay ([[Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives]]), Orsay ([[Université Paris-Sud]]) and Bures ([[Institut des hautes études scientifiques]] and some laboratories of the [[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]]).


==Organization and administration==
==Organization and administration==
===Military status===
[[File:0539-14072010- preview ecran.jpg|thumb|Polytechnique flag guard on [[Bastille Day Military Parade]] 2010]]
''Polytechnique'' is a higher education establishment<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006525297 ''Code de l'éducation, L675-1'']</ref> run under the supervision of the [[Minister of Defense (France)|French ministry of Defence]], through the [[General Directorate for Armament]]<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006245718&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006052532 ''Arrêté du 12 septembre 2005''] ''relatif à l'exercice de la tutelle du ministre de la défense sur divers organismes publics confiés à la délégation générale pour l'armement, article 1''</ref> (administratively speaking, it is a national public establishment of an administrative character).


===Specific status===
Though no longer a [[military academy]], it is headed by a general officer ([[as of 2012]], by a [[:fr:Ingénieur du corps de l'armement|General engineer of Armament]], whereas previous directors were generally Army generals), and employs military personnel in executive, administrative and sport training positions.<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006542786&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000005622333 ''Décret n°96-1124 du 20 décembre 1996] relatif à l'organisation et au régime administratif et financier de l'École polytechnique''</ref> Both male and female French undergraduate ''polytechniciens'' are regular officers<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000019478016 Décret n° 2008-960 du 12 septembre 2008] fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique</ref> and have to go through a period of military training before the start of studies.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=173 First Period : General Education], web site</ref><ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000591004 Arrêté du 14 août 2001] ''relatif à la formation militaire et à la formation à l'exercice des responsabilités des élèves français de l'École polytechnique prévues à l'article 2 du décret n° 2000-900 du 14 septembre 2000 fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique''</ref>
[[File:0539-14072010- preview ecran.jpg|thumb|The Polytechnique [[Colour guard|color guard]] at the 2010 [[Bastille Day Military Parade]]]]
École polytechnique is an institution of higher education<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006525297 ''Code de l'éducation, L675-1'']</ref> under the supervision of the [[Minister of Defense (France)|French Ministry of Defence]], through the [[General Directorate for Armament]]<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006245718&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006052532 ''Arrêté du 12 septembre 2005''] ''relatif à l'exercice de la tutelle du ministre de la défense sur divers organismes publics confiés à la délégation générale pour l'armement, article 1''</ref> (administratively speaking, it is a [[Établissement public à caractère administratif|national public establishment of an administrative character]]). It has a dual status, being an engineering school that trains civilian engineers and scientists, but also officers for the three French armies. The aim is to provide the French state with a scientific and technical elite. The number of graduates becoming civil servants and officers has weakened since 1950: today, only 10 to 20% of the school's students join the ranks of the administration or the army, while 20% go into research and the rest into engineering or management.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

The school is headed by a general officer (since 2012, by a [[Corps de l'armement|Senior General Engineer of Armament]], whereas previous directors had all been generals of the [[French Armed Forces]]), and employs military personnel in leadership, administrative, and sports training positions.<ref>''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006542786&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000005622333 Décret n°96-1124 du 20 décembre 1996] relatif à l'organisation et au régime administratif et financier de l'École polytechnique''</ref> French undergraduate Polytechnicians, both male and female, are [[cadet]]s<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000019478016 Décret n° 2008-960 du 12 septembre 2008] fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique</ref> and have to go through a period of military training before beginning their studies.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=173 First Period : General Education], web site</ref><ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000591004 Arrêté du 14 août 2001] ''relatif à la formation militaire et à la formation à l'exercice des responsabilités des élèves français de l'École polytechnique prévues à l'article 2 du décret n° 2000-900 du 14 septembre 2000 fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique''</ref> However, the military dimension of the school faded over time, with a reduced period of preliminary military training, and fewer students choosing a career as an officer.


However, the military aspects of the school have lessened with time, with a reduced period of preliminary military training, and fewer and fewer students pursuing careers as military officers after leaving the school. On special occasions, such as the military parade on the [[Champs-Élysées]] on [[Bastille Day]], the ''polytechniciens'' wear the 19th-century-style ''grand uniform'', with the ''[[bicorne]]'', or [[cocked hat]], but students have not typically worn a uniform on campus since the elimination of the 'internal uniform' in the mid-1980s.
{{anchor|Uniform}}Since the abolition of the 'internal uniform' in the mid-1980s, students no longer wear uniforms on campus. On special occasions, such as the military parade on the [[Champs-Élysées]] on [[Bastille Day]], conferences, ceremonies, and other events on campus, Polytechnicians wear the 19th-century-style ''Grand Uniforme'', including a [[bicorne]].


=== Activities and teaching staff===
=== Activities and teaching staff ===
Polytechnique has a combined undergraduate-graduate general engineering teaching curriculum as well as a graduate school. In addition to the faculty coming from its local laboratories, it employs many researchers and professors from other institutions, including other CNRS, INRIA and CEA laboratories as well as the [[École Normale Supérieure]] and nearby institutions such as the [[Supélec|École Supérieure d'Électricité]] (''Supélec''), the [[École supérieure d'optique|Institut d'Optique]] or the [[Paris-Sud 11 University|Université Paris-Sud]], creating a varied and high-level teaching environment.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=30 Partners], official web site</ref>
École polytechnique has a general engineering curriculum at the undergraduate and graduate levels, as well as a doctoral school. In addition to the faculty coming from its local laboratories, it employs many researchers and professors from other institutions, including laboratories such as [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique|CNRS]], [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]], and [[INRIA]], as well as from the [[École Normale Supérieure]] and nearby institutions such as the [[École supérieure d'optique|Institut d'Optique]], and the [[Paris-Sud 11 University|Université Paris-Sud]], thus creating a varied and high-level teaching environment.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=30 Partners], official web site</ref>


Contrary to French public universities, the teaching staff at Polytechnique are ''not'' civil servants (''fonctionnaires'')<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006369988&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006065849 Décret 87-16 du 14 janvier 1987]: by exception to the general rule that staff in public establishments of an administrative character are civil servants, the teaching staff of Polytechnique is hired on contracts.</ref> but contract employees operating under regulations different from those governing university professors. An originality of Polytechnique is that in addition to full-time teaching staff (''exercice complet''), who do research at the École in addition to a full teaching service, there are partial-time teaching staff (''exercice incomplet'') who do not do research on behalf of the École and carry only a partial teaching load.<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000400226 Décret n°2000-497 du 5 juin 2000] fixant les dispositions applicables aux personnels enseignants de l'École polytechnique</ref> Part-time teaching staff are often recruited from research institutions (CNRS, CEA, INRIA...) operating inside the École campus, in the Paris region, or even sometimes elsewhere in France.
Contrary to French public universities, the teachers at École polytechnique are not civil servants ({{Lang|fr|fonctionnaires}})<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006369988&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006065849 Décret 87-16 du 14 janvier 1987]: by exception to the general rule that staff in public establishments of an administrative character are civil servants, the teaching staff of Polytechnique is hired on contracts.</ref> but contract employees. In addition to full-time professors who conduct research and have full teaching duties, there are part-time professors who have only a partial teaching load.<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000400226 Décret n°2000-497 du 5 juin 2000] fixant les dispositions applicables aux personnels enseignants de l'École polytechnique</ref> Part-time teachers are often recruited from research organizations (CNRS, CEA, INRIA, etc.) that carry out their activities on the school's campus, in the Paris region, or sometimes even in the provinces.


== Academic profile==
== Academic programs ==
[[File:Mandelbrot p1130876.jpg|thumb|right|[[Benoît Mandelbrot]] during his speech at the ceremony when he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour on 11 September 2006, at the École polytechnique]]
[[File:Mandelbrot p1130876.jpg|thumb|right|[[Benoît Mandelbrot]] during his speech at the ceremony when he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour on 11 September 2006, at the École polytechnique]]


=== The ''polytechnicien'' studies===
=== The ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' program ===
The ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' ("Polytechnician Engineer") program awards the prestigious ''[[diplôme d'ingénieur]]'' degree, and is selective upon entry. The subjects covered often go beyond the student's specialty, and the course is focused on generalized education allowing cross-fertilization between different fields.
{{Cquote|The mission of the École Polytechnique is to train students capable of devising and achieving complex and innovative projects at the highest level possible, thanks to a strong pluriscientific culture. Our mission is also to train young men and women in leadership skills so that they can become tomorrow's outstanding scientists, researchers, managers and public officials.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=150 “Welcome”], the Polytechnique web site</ref>}}


In addition to 2,000 ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' students (500 students per year), the institution has approximately 439 master's students and 572 doctoral students, for a total of 2,900 enrolled.<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
The Polytechnicien program is broader than typical French university studies, often including topics beyond one's specialty. This focus on ''breadth rather than depth'' has been hotly debated over the years, but it nevertheless forms a characteristic of the Polytechnicien program. It is particularly useful for cross fertilization purposes between different fields, as graduates from Polytechnique most often have abilities in several disciplines; for example, they must follow at least six different topics during their second year. Humanities and sports are also mandatory parts of the curriculum, adding to the differences with most French university programs.


==== Admission ====
In addition to the 2000 polytechnic engineer students (yearly class size of 500), the institution welcomes about 439 master students and 572 doctoral students, for a total enrollment of 2,900.<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>
[[File:0094 dre 28092 preview ecran.jpg|thumb|right|Foreign students of the École]]
There are two ways to enter the ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' program. The first way is through a very selective competitive examination that requires at least two years of intensive preparation after high school in ''[[classes préparatoires]]''. The second way is to do undergraduate studies at another university. There is a week of written exams in the spring, followed by oral exams in the summer.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=29 The French 'Grandes Écoles'], École Poytechnique web site</ref>


About 400 French students are admitted to the school each year.<ref>Until 1988, the number of newly admitted French students was around 300 on a yearly basis ; and until 1952, it was between 200 and 250.</ref> Foreign students who have completed a ''classe préparatoire'' can also enter through the same competitive examination. In total, there are about 100 foreign students admitted to this cycle each year. Foreign students from European or American universities can also be admitted as part of an exchange program for a semester or a year.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=35 International Exchange Program]</ref>
==== Admission====
[[File:0094 dre 28092 preview ecran.jpg|thumb|right|Foreign students of the École.]]
The undergraduate admission to Polytechnique in the ''polytechnicien'' cycle is made through a selective entrance examination, and requires at least two years of preparation after high school in ''[[classes préparatoires]]''. Admission includes a week of written examinations during the spring followed by oral examinations that are handled in batches (''séries'') over the summer.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=29 The French 'Grandes Écoles'], École Poytechnique web site</ref>


==== Curriculum ====
About 400 French students are admitted each year. Foreign students who have followed a ''classe préparatoire'' curriculum (generally, French residents or students from former French colonies in Africa) can also enter through the same competitive exam (they are known as "EV1"). Foreign students can also apply through a "second track" ("EV2") following undergraduate studies. In total, there are about 100 foreign students each year.<ref name="WebsiteInternational">{{cite web|title=An International Institute|url=http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/international-affairs/an-international-institute/|publisher=Ecole Polytechnique|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref>
Four years of study are required for the engineering degree:<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/curriculum-and-programs/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program-24180.kjsp?RH=1255531167452 Ingénieur Polytechnicien Program], an English-language page from the school's website, describing the engineering degree.</ref> one year of [[military service]] (for French nationals only) and a scientific "common curriculum" (eight months and four months, respectively), one year of multidisciplinary studies, and one year of specialized studies ("majors"). Since the reform of the curriculum in 2000, students complete a fourth year of study in a partner institution.
Some foreign students come for a single year from other institutions in Europe and the United States.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=35 International Exchange Program]</ref>


[[File:Présentation au drapeau 2012 École polytechnique.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Students wearing the uniform of Polytechnique]]
==== Curriculum====
Four years of study are required for the engineering degree:<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/home/curriculum-and-programs/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program/ingenieur-polytechnicien-program-24180.kjsp?RH=1255531167452 Ingénieur Polytechnicien Program], an English-language page from the school's website, describing the engineering degree.</ref> one year of [[military service]] (for French nationals only) and scientific "common trunk" (eight months and four months, respectively), one year of multidisciplinary studies, and one year of specialized studies ("majors"). With the X2000 reform, a fourth year of studies, in another institution than Polytechnique, was introduced.

[[File:Présentation au drapeau 2012 École polytechnique.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Students wearing the uniform of Polytechnique.]]
;First year
;First year
The curriculum begins with eight months of compulsory military service for students of French nationality. In the past, this service lasted 12 months and was compulsory for all French students; the suppression of the [[Conscription|draft]] in France made this requirement of Polytechnique somewhat anachronistic, and the service was recast as a period of "human and military formation". All the French students spend one month together in [[La Courtine]] in a military training center. By the end of this month, they are assigned either to a civilian service or to the [[French Army|Army]], [[French Navy|Navy]], [[French Air Force|Air Force]] or [[Gendarmerie]]. Students who are assigned to a military service complete a two-month military training in French officer schools such as [[École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr|Saint-Cyr]] or [[École Navale]]. Finally, they are spread out over a wide range of units for a five-month assignment to a French military unit (which can include, but is not limited to, infantry and artillery regiments, naval ships and air bases).<ref name="pdfguide">{{PDF|[http://www.polymedia.polytechnique.fr/EnLignes/Files/ens_07_08_US.pdf “Ingenieur Polytechnicien”]|5.79&nbsp;MB}} p. 74</ref>
The curriculum begins with eight months of mandatory military service for students of French nationality. In the past, this service lasted 12 months and was compulsory for all French students; the abolition of [[Conscription|draft]] in France made this requirement of Polytechnique somewhat anachronistic, and the service was reformulated as a period of "human and military training." All French students spend a month together at [[La Courtine]] in a military training center. By the end of this month, they are assigned either to a civilian service or to the [[French Army|Army]], [[French Navy|Navy]], [[French Air Force|Air Force]] or [[Gendarmerie]]. Students who are assigned to military service undergo two months of military training at French officer schools such as [[École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr|Saint-Cyr]] or [[École Navale]]. Finally, they are assigned to a wide range of units for a five-month tour of duty in a French military unit (which may include, but is not limited to, infantry and artillery regiments, warships, and air bases).<ref name="pdfguide">{{cite web |url=http://www.polymedia.polytechnique.fr/EnLignes/Files/ens_07_08_US.pdf |title=Ingenieur Polytechnicien}}&nbsp;{{small|(5.79&nbsp;MB)}} p. 74</ref>
While French students stay under military status during their studies at Polytechnique, and participate in a variety of ceremonies and other military events, for example national ceremonies, such as those of Bastille Day or anniversaries of the [[armistice]]s of the [[World War]]s, they do not undergo military training per se after having completed their service in the first year.<ref name="pdfguide"/> They receive at the end of the first year the full dress uniform, which comprises black trousers with a red strip (a skirt for females), a coat with [[brass]] buttons and a belt, a [[small sword]] and a [[cocked hat]] (officially called a ''[[bicorne]]''). Francophone foreign students do a civilian service. Civilian service can, for instance, consist of being an assistant in a high school in a disadvantaged French suburb.


While French students remain under military status during their studies at Polytechnique, and participate in various ceremonies and other military events, such as national ceremonies like Bastille Day or the anniversaries of the [[armistice]]s of the [[World War]]s, they do not undergo actual military training after completing their first-year service.<ref name="pdfguide" /> They receive at the end of the first year the [[#Uniform|full dress uniform]], which comprises black trousers with a red stripe (a skirt for females), a coat with [[brass]] buttons and a belt, a [[small sword]] and a [[cocked hat]] (officially called a ''[[bicorne]]''). French-speaking foreign students perform civil service. Civil service can, for example, consist of being an assistant in a high school in a disadvantaged French suburb.
Then, a four-month period begins in which all students take the same five courses: Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Physics, Computer Science and Economics.


Then begins a four-month period during which all students take the same five courses: Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Physics, Computer Science and Economics.
;Second year
;Second year
The second year is a year of multidisciplinary studies. The set of disciplines spans most areas of science (mathematics, applied mathematics, mechanics, computing science, biology, physics, chemistry, economics) and some areas in the humanities (foreign languages, general humanities...). Students have to choose eight courses in at least six different disciplines.
The second year is a year of multidisciplinary studies. The set of disciplines covers most of the scientific fields (mathematics, applied mathematics, mechanics, computer science, biology, physics, chemistry, economics) and some areas of the humanities (foreign languages, general humanities...). Students must choose twelve courses in at least five different disciplines.


;Third year
;Third year
In the third year, students have to choose an in-depth program (''programme d'approfondissement''), which often focuses on a discipline or sometimes an interdisciplinary subject. This year is ended by a research internship (three to five months).
In the third year, students must choose a specialization (''programme d'approfondissement''), which often focuses on a discipline or sometimes an interdisciplinary subject. This year ends with a research internship (four to six months). Students also earn a Master's degree in engineering, science and technology in their third year.


;Fourth year
;Fourth year
The fourth year is the beginning of more specialized studies: students not entering a Corps de l'État must join either a Master's program, a doctorate program, another [[ParisTech]] college or institute such as the [[Mines ParisTech|École des mines de Paris]] or [[École nationale de la statistique et de l'administration économique|ENSAE]], or a specialization institute such as [[Supaéro]] in Toulouse or [[IFP School|ENSPM]] in Rueil-Malmaison. The reason for this is that the generic education given at Polytechnique is more focused on developing thinking skills than preparing for the transition to an actual engineering occupation, which requires further technical education.
The fourth year is the beginning of more specialized studies: students who do not enter a State Corps must enter either a Master's degree or a doctorate, a partner college or institute such as the [[Mines ParisTech|École des mines de Paris]] or [[École nationale de la statistique et de l'administration économique|ENSAE]], or a specialization institute such as [[Supaéro]] in Toulouse or [[IFP School|ENSPM]] in Rueil-Malmaison. The reason for this is that the generic education provided at Polytechnique is more focused on developing thinking skills than on preparing students for the transition to a real engineering career, which requires more advanced technical training.
Increasingly, students chose to spend their fourth year studying in a foreign university. About a quarter of 3rd year students chose this path in 2008. American universities are a favourite, but the École Polytechnique has agreements with universities in a large set of countries.


==== Class rank and career path====
==== Class rank and career path ====
Grades of the second year of the curriculum are used to rank the students. Traditionally, this individual exit ranking had a very high importance for French students in École Polytechnique, and some peculiarities of the organizations of studies and grading can be traced to the need for a fair playing ground between students.
The grades of the second year of the curriculum are used to rank the students. Traditionally, this individual exit ranking was very important for the French students of the École polytechnique, and certain peculiarities in the organization of studies and ranking can be attributed to the need for equity among students.


For French nationals, this ranking is actually part of a prestigious government recruitment program: a certain number of seats in civil or military Corps, including elite civil servant Corps such as the [[Corps des Mines]], are open to the student body each year. At some point during their course of study, students specify a list of Corps that they would like to enter in order of preference, and they are enrolled into the highest one according to their ranking. The next stepping stone for these French graduates in Polytechnique, or ''polytechniciens'', on this path is to enter one of four technical civil service training schools: the [[Mines ParisTech|École des mines]], the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées|École des ponts et chaussées]], the [[École nationale supérieure des télécommunications|ENST]], or the [[École nationale de la statistique et de l'administration économique|ENSAE]], thus joining one of the civil service bodies known as the ''[[French Civil Service#Great corps of the State|grands corps techniques de l'État]]''. Those who pursue this path are known as [[X-Mines]], [[X-Ponts]], [[X-Télécoms]] and [[X-INSEE]], respectively, with the X prefix, for Polytechnique, identifying them as particularly qualified elite members of Corps among all graduates of Polytechnique.
For French nationals, this ranking is part of a government recruitment program: a certain number of places in civil or military Corps, including elite civil servant such as the [[Corps des Mines]] or [[Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forests]], are open to students each year. These specific corps of civil servants, which provide the senior executives of the public administration, are open only to students of the École polytechnique and to rare students of the [[Ecole Normale Supérieure]]. At some point in their studies, students make a list of the corps they wish to enter in order of preference, and they are enrolled in the highest corps according to their ranking. The next step for French Polytechnicians is to join one of the four technical schools of the civil service: [[Mines ParisTech|École des mines]], [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées|École des ponts et chaussées]], [[Télécom ParisTech]], [[ENSTA Paris]] or [[École nationale de la statistique et de l'administration économique|ENSAE]], thus joining one of the civil service bodies known as ''[[French Civil Service#Great corps of the State|grands corps techniques de l'État]]''. Those who follow this path are called as [[X-Mines]], [[X-Ponts]], [[X-Télécoms]] and [[X-INSEE]] respectively.


Since the X2000 reform, the importance of the ranking has lessened. Except for the Corps curricula, universities and schools where the Polytechniciens complete their educations now base their acceptance decisions on transcripts of all grades.
Since the X2000 reform, the importance of rank has diminished. With the exception of the corps curriculum, the universities and schools where Polytechnicians complete their training now base their acceptance decisions on the transcripts of all grades.


Of the 47% of graduates who decide to pursue a professional career in the private sector, the majority (58%) are based in the [[Paris metropolitan area|Greater Paris]] area, 8% in the rest of France, while 34% are based outside France. Only 12% of the cohort work under a non-French employment contract. École polytechnique students earn an average of €44,000 per year after graduation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 20 des écoles d'ingénieurs qui paient le mieux à la sortie |url=https://start.lesechos.fr/etudes-formations/universites-grandes-ecoles/top-20-des-ecoles-d-ingenieurs-qui-paient-le-mieux-a-la-sortie-7372.php |website=Les Echos |date=16 February 2017 |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>
==== Tuition and financial obligations====
For French nationals, tuition is free as long as the full curriculum is completed, and a salary is received throughout the school years at the level of a reserve officer in training. French students, through the student board (''Caisse des élèves'' or ''Kès''), redistribute some of their salary to foreign students, most of whom also benefit from grants.


==== Tuition and financial obligations ====
There is no particular financial obligation for students following the curriculum, and then entering an application school or graduate program that Polytechnique approves of. However, French students who choose to enter a civilian or military corps after Polytechnique are expected to complete 10 years of public service following their admission to the school (i.e. their 3 years at school count towards their time of service).
French students admitted to the École polytechnique do not pay tuition fees and receive a salary as officer cadets. Through the student board, they redistribute part of this sum to foreign students.
If a student enters a Corps but does not fulfill those 10 years of public service (e.g. resigns from his or her Corps), the tuition fees are due to the school. Sometimes, when an alumnus quits a Corps to join a private company, that company will pay for the tuition fees which are then called the ''pantoufle'' (slipper).


There is no particular financial obligation for students who complete the program and then enter an application school or graduate program accredited by the École polytechnique.
=== The master's programme===
Ecole Polytechnique organizes various [[Master's degree|Master]]'s programmes, by itself or in association with other schools and universities (in the Paris region, [[École Normale Supérieure]], [[Université Paris-Sud]], [[Pierre and Marie Curie University|Université Paris VI]], [[École Supérieure d'Électricité]] (''Supélec''), other member institutions of [[ParisTech]], Toulouse area and foreign partner universities) on a wide variety of topics. Previous Polytechnicien undergraduates make up about one half of the students. The following Master's programmes are offered:


=== Bachelor program ===
* Applied Mathematics (Mathematics and Modelling – Probability Theory and Finance – Probability Theory and Aleatory Models)
* Chemistry (Molecular Chemistry)
* Complex Information Systems (Design and Management of Complex Information Systems)
* Computer Science (Fundamental Computer Science)
* Economics (Quantitative Economics & Finance [M1] – Economic Analysis and Policy – Economics of Energy, Environment, Sustainable Development – Economics of Markets and Organizations)
* Mathematics (Analysis, Arithmetic and Geometry)
* Mechanics (Multiscales and Multiphysics Modeling of Materials and Structures – Materials and Structural Mechanics – Sustainable Building Materials – Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications – Oceans, Atmosphere, Climate, Space Observations)
* Molecular and Cellular Biology (Structural and Functional Engineering of Biomolecules)
* Physics and Applications (Fundamental Concepts in Physics: Theoretical, Quantum, Solid State, Liquid & Soft Matter Physics – Optics, Matter and Plasmas – Materials Science and Nano-Objects – Fusion Sciences – Quantum Devices – Nanosciences – High Energy Physics)
* Sciences, Technologies, Society (Project, Innovation, Conception – Network Industry and Digital Economy – LoPHiSS/Science of Cognition & Complex Systems)


The Bachelor is a three-year program fully taught in English which opened in 2017. Either French nationals or international students are eligible. Applications are opened to final year high school students. Selection is made through an online application file and an oral interview.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://portail.polytechnique.edu/bachelor/en/admissions/interview |title=Admissions Criteria and Procedures}}</ref> During the first year of the programme, students follow a pluridisciplinary curriculum based on mathematics.
Polytechnique also takes part in two degrees awarded by [[ParisTech]]:
* Nuclear Energy
* Transportation and Sustainable Development: Master ParisTech – Fondation Renault


=== Master's program ===
About 50% of highly qualified Master's students come from abroad. Most master courses are taught in English.
École polytechnique offers various master's programs, alone or in association with other schools and universities, on a wide variety of subjects that are more specialized than the ''Ingénieur polytechnicien'' program. The school offers programs in AI, computer vision, economics, finance, environmental science, energy, and data science. Some degrees in entrepreneurship are delivered in partnership with [[HEC Paris]].<ref>[https://etudiant.lefigaro.fr/annuaire/712-msc-x-hec-entrepreneurs-admission-inscription-prix/ MSc X-HEC Entrepreneurs : admission, inscription, prix...]</ref>


[[File:Campus Ecole polytechnique de palaiseau.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the École polytechnique campus.]]
[[File:Campus Ecole polytechnique de palaiseau.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the École polytechnique campus]]


=== The doctoral program===
=== Doctoral program ===
The school also has a doctoral program open to students with a master's degree or equivalent.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=21 Admission] École Polytechnique web site</ref> Doctoral students generally work in the laboratories of the school; they may also work in external institutes or establishments that cannot, or will not, grant doctorates.
The school also has a doctoral program open to students with a master's degree or equivalent.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/page.php?MID=21 Admission] École polytechnique web site</ref> Doctoral students generally work in the school's laboratories; they may also work in external institutes or institutions that cannot or will not award a doctorate.


About 35% of doctoral students come from abroad.
About 40% of doctoral students come from abroad.<ref name="WebsiteAbout"/>


=== Research centers===
=== Research centres ===
Polytechnique has many research laboratories operating in various scientific fields ([[physics]], mathematics, [[computer science]], economics, [[chemistry]], [[biology]], etc.), most operated in association with national scientific institutions such as [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique|CNRS]], [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]], or also [[INRIA]].
École polytechnique has many research laboratories operating in various scientific fields ([[physics]], mathematics, [[computer science]], economics, [[chemistry]], [[biology]], etc.), most operated in association with national scientific institutions such as [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique|CNRS]], [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]], [[Inserm]], and [[French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation|Inria]].


== People==
== Student life ==
Students are represented by a board of 16 students known as "la Kès", elected each November. La Kès manages the relationships with teachers, management, alumni and partners. It publishes a weekly students paper, ''InfoKès''.


=== Student life===
== Sports ==
Sports are an important part of student life, as all students are required to play 6 hours of sports per week. There are competitive and club sports ranging from skydiving and judo to circus and hiking. There are two swimming pools, dojo and fencing rooms, and an equestrian center on campus. The "Jumping de l'X" is an international show jumping competition organized by the school.
Students are represented by a board of 15 students otherwise called "Kes", elected in December by promoting each newly arrived on campus. Kes manages the relationships with teachers, management, alumni and partners ParisTech. It publishes the weekly students, Infokes and animates the life of promotions during the year. Students benefit from a great freedom of initiative to initiate cultural, artistic, social or sporting associations over a hundred students, called "binets."


== Notable people ==
Campus life is punctuated and cultural events, performances, lectures, exhibitions and events of all kinds. These student demonstrations are usually held in the evening and are open to the public. The AMIX, Association of Master's students of the École Polytechnique. X'Doc brings together students from the graduate school of the École Polytechnique.<ref>[http://www.polytechnique.edu/accueil/vie-sur-le-campus/vie-associative/ École Polytechnique – Vie associative]. Polytechnique.edu. Retrieved on 16 June 2014.</ref>
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Paul Nadar - Henri Becquerel.jpg
| width1 = 146
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Henri Becquerel]] (X1872), Nobel Prize in Physics 1903
| image2 = André Citroën 1932.jpg
| width2 = 140
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[André Citroën]] (X1898), founder of [[Citroën]]
| footer =
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{{Main|List of École Polytechnique alumni|List of École Polytechnique faculty}}
Many École polytechnique graduates hold important positions in government, industry and research in France. Its alumni include three Nobel prizes winners, three presidents of the French Republic, and several business and industry leaders. Researchers at the [[French National Centre for Scientific Research]] have found that most business executives in France are traditionally alumni of École polytechnique.<ref name="lesdirigeants">{{cite journal |last1=Joly |first1=Hervé |title=Les dirigeants des grandes entreprises industrielles françaises au 20e siècle |journal=Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire |date=2012 |volume=2 |issue=114 |pages=16–32 |doi=10.3917/vin.114.0016 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


== Rankings ==
{{double image|right|Portrait of Antoine-Henri Becquerel.jpg|146|André Citroën 1932.jpg|140|[[Henri Becquerel]] (X1872), Nobel Prize in Physics 1903.|[[André Citroën]] (X1898), founder of [[Citroën]].}}


=== Notable alumni and academics===
=== General rankings ===
In international rankings, École polytechnique is ranked as part of the [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]].
{{Main|List of École Polytechnique alumni|List of École Polytechnique faculty}}
Many Polytechnique graduates occupy prominent positions in government, industry, and research in France. Among its alumni are three Nobel prizes winners, three presidents of France and several leaders in business and industries.


=== International rankings===
=== Research performance ===
In 2020, the [[Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities]] ranked the university at 475th globally with its "Engineering Subjects" placed at 451–500th in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecole polytechnique |url=http://nturanking.csti.tw/ranking/bySchoolName/Ecole%20Polytechnique |access-date=2020-10-22 |website=nturanking.csti.tw}}</ref> In 2020, it is ranked 509th in the world by the [[University Ranking by Academic Performance]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=URAP – University Ranking by Academic Academic Performance |url=https://www.urapcenter.org/Rankings/2019-2020/World_Ranking_2019-2020 |access-date=2020-10-22 |website=www.urapcenter.org}}</ref>
In international rankings, Polytechnique is often placed among the best universities of the world. The [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]], also known as the Shanghai Rankings, places Polytechnique in 2010 at 201–300 worldwide, and 8–13 in France.


=== Other rankings ===
The [[THE-QS World University Rankings]] and its successor [[QS World University Rankings]]<ref>[http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2011 QS World University Rankings – 2011]. Top Universities (19 December 2012). Retrieved on 16 June 2014.</ref> (From 2010 two separate rankings are produced by the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]] and the [[QS World University Rankings]]) have placed Polytechnique in 36th position in the 2011 rankings, second among French institutions, behind [[École Normale Supérieure]].
In the 2015 Times Higher Education Small Universities Rankings, École polytechnique ranks third, after [[Caltech]] and [[École normale supérieure (Paris)]].<ref>[https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/news/worlds-best-small-universities-2016 The world's best small universities 2016], 25 January 2016</ref>


{| class=wikitable
{| class=wikitable
|-
|-
!Year !! QS Rank (Change)<ref>{{cite web |title=QS Top Universities 2021: Ecole polytechnique |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/ecole-polytechnique#wurs |website=QS Top Universities |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref>
!Year !! Rank (Change)
|-
|-
|2005||10
|2014||41
|-
|-
|2006||37 ({{decrease}} 27)
|2015||35 ({{increase}} 6)
|-
|-
|2007||28 ({{increase}} 9)
|2016||40 ({{decrease}} 5)
|-
|-
|2008||34 ({{decrease}} 6)
|2017||53 ({{decrease}} 13)
|-
|-
|2009||36 ({{decrease}} 2)
|2018||59 ({{decrease}} 6)
|-
|-
|2010||36 ({{steady}} 0)
|2019||65 ({{decrease}} 6)
|-
|2020||60 ({{increase}} 5)
|-
|2021||61 ({{decrease}} 1)
|}
|}


The [[Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities]], which looks at the education of the Fortune 500 CEOs, ranks École polytechnique seventh in the world in its 2011 ranking (1st being Harvard University), second among French institutions behind [[HEC Paris]].<ref>[http://www.mines-paristech.fr/Actualites/PR/EMP-ranking.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218132959/http://www.mines-paristech.fr/Actualites/PR/EMP-ranking.html|date=18 December 2008}}</ref>
The Polytechnique was also ranked in the 39th position in the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]] in 2011.<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2010-2011/top-200.html World University Rankings 2010–2011]. Times Higher Education. Retrieved on 16 June 2014.</ref>

The International Professional Ranking of Higher Education Institutions, published by the École des Mines de Paris, which looks at the education of the Fortune 500 CEOs, ranks Polytechnique 7th in the world in its 2011 ranking (1st being Harvard University), second among French institutions behind [[HEC Paris]].<ref>[http://www.mines-paristech.fr/Actualites/PR/EMP-ranking.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2014}}</ref>


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==Criticisms==
Polytechnique is known for its extremely competitive entrance exam.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Research foundations of graduate education: Germany, Britain, France, United States, Japan |first=Burton R. |last=Clark |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-520-07997-7 |page=162}}</ref> It is one of the most selective French engineering schools,.<ref>The École Polytechnique has the smallest resignation rate among French Grandes Écoles. [http://gargantua.polytechnique.fr/siatel-web/goto/?dbid=DATA000900000000000000000000000000000000&objectId=DOCF00090000040300000000000004FE00000000&anonymous=yes Statistics of the entrance exam]</ref>


The French {{Lang|fr|[[grandes écoles]]}}, including the École polytechnique, are criticized for their "elitism" and lack of diversity. [[INSEE]] has found that the children of executives and teachers are more likely to enter the ''écoles'' than children from lower-income families.<ref>{{cite book |title=Les inégalités sociales d'accès aux grandes écoles – Insee |publisher=INSEE |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/fichier/1375870/es361b.pdf |access-date=20 June 2020}}</ref> A more recent report found that children of employees are 50 times more likely to enter the Ecole polytechnique than the children of workers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Des classes préparatoires et des grandes écoles toujours aussi fermées |url=https://www.inegalites.fr/Des-classes-preparatoires-et-des-grandes-ecoles-toujours-aussi-fermees |website=Inegalites |access-date=20 June 2020}}</ref>
== Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em}}


== Bibliography==
==Gallery==
<gallery>
* {{Cite book |first1=Burton R. |last1=Clark |title=The Research Foundations of Graduate Education: Germany, Britain, France, United States, Japan |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |page=412 |isbn=978-0-520-07997-7 |url=http://books.google.de/books?id=o_bnKr1RDcgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Research+Foundations+of+Graduate+Education:+Germany,+Britain,+France,+United+States,+Japan,#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
Image:Polytechnique logo.png|The arms of the École polytechnique
* {{Cite book |first1=Charles C. |last1=Gillispie |title=Science and Polity in France, the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years |publisher=Princeton Universitv Press |year= 2004 |isbn=978-0-691-11541-2 |ref=harv}}
Image:Ecole Polytechnique France seen from lake DSC03389.JPG|The main hall seen from the lake
* {{Cite news |title=The "Ecole Polytechnique", 1794–1850: Differences over Educational Purpose and Teaching Practice |first1=Ivor |last1=Grattan-Guinness |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=112 |issue=3 |date=March 2005 |pages=233–250 |publisher=Published by: Mathematical Association of America |jstor=30037440 |ref=harv}}
File:0119-14juillet preview ecran.jpg|Polytechnique cadets at the [[Bastille Day Military Parade]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/17/business/worldbusiness/17france.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=polytechnique&st=nyt&oref=slogin "In France, the Heads No Longer Roll"], ''New York Times'', Sunday, 17 February 2008
File:Bicorne hat Ecole Polytechnique.jpg|The Polytechnique [[bicorne]] hat
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|France}}
*[[Grandes écoles]]
*[[Higher education in France]]
*[[LULI]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{Cite book |first1=Burton R. |last1=Clark |title=The Research Foundations of Graduate Education: Germany, Britain, France, United States, Japan |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |page=412 |isbn=978-0-520-07997-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_bnKr1RDcgC&q=The+Research+Foundations+of+Graduate+Education:+Germany,+Britain,+France,+United+States,+Japan,}}
*{{Cite book |first1=Charles C. |last1=Gillispie |title=Science and Polity in France, the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years |publisher=Princeton Universitv Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-11541-2}}
*{{cite book | ref = CITEREFCallot_et_al. | author1 = Jean-Pierre Callot | author2 = Michel Camus | author3 = Bernard Esambert | author4 =Jacques Bouttes | title = Histoire et Prospective de l'École polytechnique | trans-title = History and Prospects of the École Polytechnique | place = Paris | publisher = Lavauzelle | date = 2004-06-23 | edition = 2nd | type = 21 cm × 23 cm, hardcover with dust jacket, ill. | isbn = 978-2-702-50350-8 | oclc = 464063564 | id = {{BNF|35607251}}}}
*[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/17/business/worldbusiness/17france.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=polytechnique&st=nyt&oref=slogin "In France, the Heads No Longer Roll"], ''The New York Times'', Sunday, 17 February 2008


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons category|École polytechnique}}
{{Portal|France|Military history|University}}
*[https://www.polytechnique.edu/en Official website]
{{commons|École Polytechnique}}
* [http://www.polytechnique.edu/jsp/accueil.jsp?CODE=36392593&LANGUE=1 Official website]
*[http://www.polytechnique.org Online alumni community] {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.polytechnique.org Online alumni community] {{fr icon}}
*[https://www.coursera.org/ep Polytechnique Online]
* [http://fasa.caltech.edu/2012-2013/Ecole%20Polytechnique%20Scholars%20Study%20Abroad%20Handout%202012-2013.pdf Ecole Polytechnique Scholars Program], description of the École Polytechnique on Caltech website
*[http://fasa.caltech.edu/2012-2013/Ecole%20Polytechnique%20Scholars%20Study%20Abroad%20Handout%202012-2013.pdf École Polytechnique Scholars Program description of the École Polytechnique on Caltech website]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cj-frDiCBIA Présentation au drapeau Polytechnique]


{{Conférence des Grandes Écoles}}
{{Conférence des Grandes Écoles}}
{{Établissement public à caractère administratif}}
{{Établissement public à caractère administratif}}
{{ParisTech}}


{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ecole Polytechnique}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ecole Polytechnique}}
[[Category:École Polytechnique|*]]
[[Category:École Polytechnique| ]]
[[Category:1794 establishments in France]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1794]]
[[Category:ParisTech]]
[[Category:Technical universities and colleges in France]]
[[Category:Universities in Île-de-France]]

Latest revision as of 03:48, 28 November 2024

École polytechnique
Other name
l'X
Former name
École centrale des Travaux publics (Central School of Public Works)
MottoPour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire
Motto in English
For the Homeland, Science, and Glory
TypeGrande école
Established1794; 230 years ago (1794)
Parent institution
Polytechnic Institute of Paris
Academic affiliations
CGE, CDEFI
PresidentLaura Chaubard (by interim)
DirectorLaura Chaubard
Students3,370[1]
Undergraduates480[2]
Postgraduates2,000 engineer candidates
500 masters[1]
390[1]
Location,
France

48°42′45″N 2°12′36″E / 48.7125°N 2.2100°E / 48.7125; 2.2100
Colors   Red & yellow
Websitepolytechnique.edu
Battalion of École polytechnique
Bataillon de l'École polytechnique
FoundedSeptember 28, 1794
CountryFrance
AllegianceFrance
TypePublic research university
Part ofFrench Armed Forces
Motto(s)Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire
WarsSixth Coalition

World War I

World War II
Battle honoursLegion of Honour

Croix de guerre 1914–1918 Croix de guerre 1939–1945

citation to the order of the army
Commanders
Commanding OfficerSenior General Armament Engineer François Bouchet
Colonel of the RegimentThibault Capdeville head of corps and director of human and military training
Emblem of the school
A statue in the courtyard of the school commemorates the cadets of Polytechnique rushing to the defence of Paris in 1814. A copy was installed in West Point.

École polytechnique (French pronunciation: [ekɔl pɔlitɛknik], lit.'Polytechnic School'; also known as Polytechnique or l'X [liks]) is a grande école located in Palaiseau, France. It specializes in science and engineering and is a founding member of the Polytechnic Institute of Paris.[3]

The school was founded in 1794 by mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French Revolution[4] and was militarized under Napoleon I in 1804. It is still supervised by the French Ministry of Armed Forces. Originally located in the Latin Quarter in central Paris, the institution moved to Palaiseau in 1976, in the Paris-Saclay technology cluster.[5]

French engineering students undergo initial military training and have the status of paid officer cadets.[6] The school has also been awarding doctorates since 1985, masters since 2005 and bachelors since 2017.[7] Most Polytechnique engineering graduates go on to become top executives in companies, senior civil servants, military officers, or researchers.[8]

Its alumni from the engineering graduate program include three Nobel Prize winners,[9] a Fields Medalist,[10] three Presidents of France[11] and many CEOs of French and international companies. The school has produced renowned mathematicians such as Cauchy, Coriolis, Henri Poincaré, Laurent Schwartz and Benoît Mandelbrot, physicists such as Becquerel, Carnot, Ampère and Fresnel, and economists Maurice Allais and Jean Tirole. French Marshals Joffre, Foch, Fayolle and Maunoury were also notable Polytechnique engineering graduates.[12]

Name

[edit]

Founded in 1794 as the École centrale des travaux publics (Central School of Public Works), the school initially provided teaching limited to technical knowledge. In 1795, the school was renamed the "École polytechnique" (Polytechnic School). The neologism polytechnique, appearing for the first time in a document published by Claude Prieur at the beginning of 1795,[13] means "many arts", referring to the plurality of applied arts, sciences, technology, engineering and other academic subjects taught at the school.[14]

Under the Restoration and the July Monarchy, the school was officially renamed the "École royale polytechnique".[15] Under the First and the Second Empire, it was renamed the "École impériale polytechnique".[14] The students, alumni, and graduates were called "Polytechnicians". The school was often simply called "Polytechnique".

The school has been nicknamed "l'X" or the "X" since the middle of the 19th century.[16] Two explanations have been put forward. One points to the two crossed canons on the school's badge. The other attributes it to the preeminence of mathematics in the training of Polytechnicians.[17] According to L'Argot de l'X, published in 1894: "It is from the very importance given to the teaching of ana [analysis], the whole language of which is made up of x and y, that the nickname X came, universally accepted to designate Polytechnicians. Not all of them are mathematicians, but all have sufficient knowledge of differential and integral calculus for public service applications. Let us further say that in troubled times, such as 1830 and 1848, this knowledge particularly helped them to avoid being confused with all the individuals who disguised themselves as Polytechnicians to give themselves the appearance of defenders of order. When they were encountered, they were asked the differential of sin x or log x, and if they did not answer, they were immediately locked up."[18] However, in the 1994 edition, the origin of the nickname was again reported to be the crossing of the canons on the coat of arms.[19] The nickname "X" also applies to Polytechnicians. Female Polytechnicians are sometimes nicknamed "Xettes" or "X7",[20] which is pronounced [iksɛt].

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the school and its students and alumni were nicknamed "pipo". In the early 20th century, the school was also nicknamed "Carva".[21]

History

[edit]
The chemistry auditorium in the old building in the Quartier Latin, photographed by Jules David in 1904
Pediment of historical buildings, rue Descartes in Paris

Foundation and early years

[edit]

After the Revolution of 1789, the royal engineering schools were closed. The First Republic faced a shortage of engineers and military officers.[14][22] Jacques-Élie Lamblardie, Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot, the founding fathers of the School, were charged with organizing a new "École centrale des travaux publics" (Central School of Public Works)[14] which was officially created on 7 Vendémiaire, Year III (September 28, 1794) and opened to students on 1 Nivôse, Year III (December 21, 1794).[23],[24] The aim of the school was to train civil and military engineers. The school quickly welcomed 400 students of different levels. During the first three months, "revolutionary courses" were given in physics, mathematics and chemistry, after which they took exams to see if they could enter the civil service directly, or if they should continue their studies.[25] The school was renamed the "École polytechnique" a year later. The change of name reflects the change of vocation of the school, which now prepares students for other specialized schools such as the École du génie, the École des mines and the École des ponts et chaussées. The curriculum lasted 3 years, the "regular courses" replaced the "revolutionary courses" and there were only 120 new students each year. The school was placed under the supervision of the Ministries of War and the Interior.[26],[14] A Journal Polytechnique (former name of "Journal de l'École polytechnique" ) was created in 1795.[14][27] In 1799, the course was reduced from three to two years.

In 1805, Emperor Napoléon I transferred the school to Montagne Sainte-Geneviève in the Quartier Latin of central Paris to become a military academy and gave it its motto: Pour la Patrie, les Sciences et la Gloire (For the Nation, Science, and Glory).[28] In 1804, after the militarization of the school, its atmosphere changed significantly from a rather free spirit to a meticulous bureaucracy. Militarization was motivated by Napoleon's favorable opinion of Polytechnicians who had contributed to the Egyptian expedition and by his admiration for Monge and Laplace.[3] Militarization was accompanied by a specialization of teaching towards mathematics.[29]

In 1814, students participated in the fighting to defend Paris against the Sixth Coalition. After the restoration of 1816, the number of students was reduced to about seventy-five and the 'military arts' course was abolished.[14] In 1817, King Louis XVIII demilitarized the École polytechnique and placed it under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior. In 1830, fifty students participated in the July Revolution.[28] Various decrees were issued until 1832.[30] Above all, the school came under the administration of the Ministry of War,[14] thus regaining its military status. The republican ideal prevailed at the school, as shown by the active participation of students in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

The French Second Empire

[edit]

Because of the tension between revolutionary ideas and the service of the state, the republican ideal gradually disappeared after 1851. Polytechnicians even found themselves on the side of the Versaillese when the Paris Commune was crushed in 1871. During the years 1871–1872, the number of students admitted per year doubled from 140 to 280.[28] The Polytechnicians sought above all to strengthen their position in the spheres of power to compensate for their loss of influence in the technical field. While they could have turned to an engineering profession associated with industry, the Polytechnicians instead reinforced their sovereign vocation by joining the "state nobility" of the Second French Empire, whose origins, interests and convictions they gradually shared. The years 1860–1870 marked an important evolution since the school became more of a "conservatory of sciences" than a center of research and innovation, while extending its hold on the management of the industrial apparatus.[29]

The World Wars

[edit]

During World War I, the students were mobilized and the school building was transformed into a hospital. No national entrance exam was held in 1915. More than eight hundred students died during the war. In 1921, students of foreign nationalities were allowed to take the entrance exam for the first time. During the Second World War, the École polytechnique was transferred to Lyon in the free zone, lost its military status, and its Parisian buildings were given to the Red Cross. More than four hundred students died during the war (Free French, French Resistance, Nazi camps).

From post-war to today

[edit]

In 1944, the School was again placed under the administration of the Ministry of War.[31] In 1970, the School became a state-sponsored civilian institution under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence.[32] The first female students were admitted in 1972. One woman, Anne Chopinet, was class valedictorian.[32] In 1976, the School moved from the center of Paris to Palaiseau, in the southern suburbs.[32] In 1985, it began awarding doctoral degrees.[32] In 1994, the bicentennial celebration was presided over by President François Mitterrand.[32] In 1995, a new entrance exam was set up for international students and in 2000, the Ingénieur polytechnicien program was extended from 3 to 4 years.[32]

Locations

[edit]
Historical entrance of the École polytechnique Paris campus at the junction of the rue de la Montagne Saint-Genevieve and rue Descartes
Map of the École polytechnique campus in Palaiseau

Early locations

[edit]

In 1794, École polytechnique was first housed in the Palais Bourbon. A year later, it moved to the Hôtel de Lassay, a hôtel particulier in the 7th arrondissement of Paris.

Montagne Saint-Geneviève (1805–1976)

[edit]

In 1805, when he placed the School under military administration, Napoleon transferred it to the Quartier Latin, in the former premises of the colleges of Navarre, Tournai and Boncourt, now the Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The Paris campus was located near the Panthéon, at 5 rue Descartes,[33] and was nicknamed "Carva" by the students.

Palaiseau (from 1976)

[edit]

Located in the suburbs of Paris, about 14 km (9 miles) from the city center, École polytechnique is a campus-based institution. It offers teaching facilities, student housing, dining and hospitality services, and a range of sports facilities dedicated to the 4,600 people who live on campus.

The nearest regional train station is Lozère (line B, zone 4 of the RER network). Several buses also connect École polytechnique to the Massy-Palaiseau RER station and Massy TGV station.[34]

The campus is close to other scientific institutions in Saclay (Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives), Orsay (Université Paris-Sud) and Bures (Institut des hautes études scientifiques and some laboratories of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique).

Organization and administration

[edit]

Specific status

[edit]
The Polytechnique color guard at the 2010 Bastille Day Military Parade

École polytechnique is an institution of higher education[35] under the supervision of the French Ministry of Defence, through the General Directorate for Armament[36] (administratively speaking, it is a national public establishment of an administrative character). It has a dual status, being an engineering school that trains civilian engineers and scientists, but also officers for the three French armies. The aim is to provide the French state with a scientific and technical elite. The number of graduates becoming civil servants and officers has weakened since 1950: today, only 10 to 20% of the school's students join the ranks of the administration or the army, while 20% go into research and the rest into engineering or management.[citation needed]

The school is headed by a general officer (since 2012, by a Senior General Engineer of Armament, whereas previous directors had all been generals of the French Armed Forces), and employs military personnel in leadership, administrative, and sports training positions.[37] French undergraduate Polytechnicians, both male and female, are cadets[38] and have to go through a period of military training before beginning their studies.[39][40] However, the military dimension of the school faded over time, with a reduced period of preliminary military training, and fewer students choosing a career as an officer.

Since the abolition of the 'internal uniform' in the mid-1980s, students no longer wear uniforms on campus. On special occasions, such as the military parade on the Champs-Élysées on Bastille Day, conferences, ceremonies, and other events on campus, Polytechnicians wear the 19th-century-style Grand Uniforme, including a bicorne.

Activities and teaching staff

[edit]

École polytechnique has a general engineering curriculum at the undergraduate and graduate levels, as well as a doctoral school. In addition to the faculty coming from its local laboratories, it employs many researchers and professors from other institutions, including laboratories such as CNRS, CEA, and INRIA, as well as from the École Normale Supérieure and nearby institutions such as the Institut d'Optique, and the Université Paris-Sud, thus creating a varied and high-level teaching environment.[41]

Contrary to French public universities, the teachers at École polytechnique are not civil servants (fonctionnaires)[42] but contract employees. In addition to full-time professors who conduct research and have full teaching duties, there are part-time professors who have only a partial teaching load.[43] Part-time teachers are often recruited from research organizations (CNRS, CEA, INRIA, etc.) that carry out their activities on the school's campus, in the Paris region, or sometimes even in the provinces.

Academic programs

[edit]
Benoît Mandelbrot during his speech at the ceremony when he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour on 11 September 2006, at the École polytechnique

The Ingénieur polytechnicien program

[edit]

The Ingénieur polytechnicien ("Polytechnician Engineer") program awards the prestigious diplôme d'ingénieur degree, and is selective upon entry. The subjects covered often go beyond the student's specialty, and the course is focused on generalized education allowing cross-fertilization between different fields.

In addition to 2,000 Ingénieur polytechnicien students (500 students per year), the institution has approximately 439 master's students and 572 doctoral students, for a total of 2,900 enrolled.[1]

Admission

[edit]
Foreign students of the École

There are two ways to enter the Ingénieur polytechnicien program. The first way is through a very selective competitive examination that requires at least two years of intensive preparation after high school in classes préparatoires. The second way is to do undergraduate studies at another university. There is a week of written exams in the spring, followed by oral exams in the summer.[44]

About 400 French students are admitted to the school each year.[45] Foreign students who have completed a classe préparatoire can also enter through the same competitive examination. In total, there are about 100 foreign students admitted to this cycle each year. Foreign students from European or American universities can also be admitted as part of an exchange program for a semester or a year.[46]

Curriculum

[edit]

Four years of study are required for the engineering degree:[47] one year of military service (for French nationals only) and a scientific "common curriculum" (eight months and four months, respectively), one year of multidisciplinary studies, and one year of specialized studies ("majors"). Since the reform of the curriculum in 2000, students complete a fourth year of study in a partner institution.

Students wearing the uniform of Polytechnique
First year

The curriculum begins with eight months of mandatory military service for students of French nationality. In the past, this service lasted 12 months and was compulsory for all French students; the abolition of draft in France made this requirement of Polytechnique somewhat anachronistic, and the service was reformulated as a period of "human and military training." All French students spend a month together at La Courtine in a military training center. By the end of this month, they are assigned either to a civilian service or to the Army, Navy, Air Force or Gendarmerie. Students who are assigned to military service undergo two months of military training at French officer schools such as Saint-Cyr or École Navale. Finally, they are assigned to a wide range of units for a five-month tour of duty in a French military unit (which may include, but is not limited to, infantry and artillery regiments, warships, and air bases).[48]

While French students remain under military status during their studies at Polytechnique, and participate in various ceremonies and other military events, such as national ceremonies like Bastille Day or the anniversaries of the armistices of the World Wars, they do not undergo actual military training after completing their first-year service.[48] They receive at the end of the first year the full dress uniform, which comprises black trousers with a red stripe (a skirt for females), a coat with brass buttons and a belt, a small sword and a cocked hat (officially called a bicorne). French-speaking foreign students perform civil service. Civil service can, for example, consist of being an assistant in a high school in a disadvantaged French suburb.

Then begins a four-month period during which all students take the same five courses: Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Physics, Computer Science and Economics.

Second year

The second year is a year of multidisciplinary studies. The set of disciplines covers most of the scientific fields (mathematics, applied mathematics, mechanics, computer science, biology, physics, chemistry, economics) and some areas of the humanities (foreign languages, general humanities...). Students must choose twelve courses in at least five different disciplines.

Third year

In the third year, students must choose a specialization (programme d'approfondissement), which often focuses on a discipline or sometimes an interdisciplinary subject. This year ends with a research internship (four to six months). Students also earn a Master's degree in engineering, science and technology in their third year.

Fourth year

The fourth year is the beginning of more specialized studies: students who do not enter a State Corps must enter either a Master's degree or a doctorate, a partner college or institute such as the École des mines de Paris or ENSAE, or a specialization institute such as Supaéro in Toulouse or ENSPM in Rueil-Malmaison. The reason for this is that the generic education provided at Polytechnique is more focused on developing thinking skills than on preparing students for the transition to a real engineering career, which requires more advanced technical training.

Class rank and career path

[edit]

The grades of the second year of the curriculum are used to rank the students. Traditionally, this individual exit ranking was very important for the French students of the École polytechnique, and certain peculiarities in the organization of studies and ranking can be attributed to the need for equity among students.

For French nationals, this ranking is part of a government recruitment program: a certain number of places in civil or military Corps, including elite civil servant such as the Corps des Mines or Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forests, are open to students each year. These specific corps of civil servants, which provide the senior executives of the public administration, are open only to students of the École polytechnique and to rare students of the Ecole Normale Supérieure. At some point in their studies, students make a list of the corps they wish to enter in order of preference, and they are enrolled in the highest corps according to their ranking. The next step for French Polytechnicians is to join one of the four technical schools of the civil service: École des mines, École des ponts et chaussées, Télécom ParisTech, ENSTA Paris or ENSAE, thus joining one of the civil service bodies known as grands corps techniques de l'État. Those who follow this path are called as X-Mines, X-Ponts, X-Télécoms and X-INSEE respectively.

Since the X2000 reform, the importance of rank has diminished. With the exception of the corps curriculum, the universities and schools where Polytechnicians complete their training now base their acceptance decisions on the transcripts of all grades.

Of the 47% of graduates who decide to pursue a professional career in the private sector, the majority (58%) are based in the Greater Paris area, 8% in the rest of France, while 34% are based outside France. Only 12% of the cohort work under a non-French employment contract. École polytechnique students earn an average of €44,000 per year after graduation.[49]

Tuition and financial obligations

[edit]

French students admitted to the École polytechnique do not pay tuition fees and receive a salary as officer cadets. Through the student board, they redistribute part of this sum to foreign students.

There is no particular financial obligation for students who complete the program and then enter an application school or graduate program accredited by the École polytechnique.

Bachelor program

[edit]

The Bachelor is a three-year program fully taught in English which opened in 2017. Either French nationals or international students are eligible. Applications are opened to final year high school students. Selection is made through an online application file and an oral interview.[50] During the first year of the programme, students follow a pluridisciplinary curriculum based on mathematics.

Master's program

[edit]

École polytechnique offers various master's programs, alone or in association with other schools and universities, on a wide variety of subjects that are more specialized than the Ingénieur polytechnicien program. The school offers programs in AI, computer vision, economics, finance, environmental science, energy, and data science. Some degrees in entrepreneurship are delivered in partnership with HEC Paris.[51]

Aerial view of the École polytechnique campus

Doctoral program

[edit]

The school also has a doctoral program open to students with a master's degree or equivalent.[52] Doctoral students generally work in the school's laboratories; they may also work in external institutes or institutions that cannot or will not award a doctorate.

About 40% of doctoral students come from abroad.[1]

Research centres

[edit]

École polytechnique has many research laboratories operating in various scientific fields (physics, mathematics, computer science, economics, chemistry, biology, etc.), most operated in association with national scientific institutions such as CNRS, CEA, Inserm, and Inria.

Student life

[edit]

Students are represented by a board of 16 students known as "la Kès", elected each November. La Kès manages the relationships with teachers, management, alumni and partners. It publishes a weekly students paper, InfoKès.

Sports

[edit]

Sports are an important part of student life, as all students are required to play 6 hours of sports per week. There are competitive and club sports ranging from skydiving and judo to circus and hiking. There are two swimming pools, dojo and fencing rooms, and an equestrian center on campus. The "Jumping de l'X" is an international show jumping competition organized by the school.

Notable people

[edit]
Henri Becquerel (X1872), Nobel Prize in Physics 1903
André Citroën (X1898), founder of Citroën

Many École polytechnique graduates hold important positions in government, industry and research in France. Its alumni include three Nobel prizes winners, three presidents of the French Republic, and several business and industry leaders. Researchers at the French National Centre for Scientific Research have found that most business executives in France are traditionally alumni of École polytechnique.[53]

Rankings

[edit]

General rankings

[edit]

In international rankings, École polytechnique is ranked as part of the Polytechnic Institute of Paris.

Research performance

[edit]

In 2020, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked the university at 475th globally with its "Engineering Subjects" placed at 451–500th in the world.[54] In 2020, it is ranked 509th in the world by the University Ranking by Academic Performance.[55]

Other rankings

[edit]

In the 2015 Times Higher Education Small Universities Rankings, École polytechnique ranks third, after Caltech and École normale supérieure (Paris).[56]

Year QS Rank (Change)[57]
2014 41
2015 35 (Increase 6)
2016 40 (Decrease 5)
2017 53 (Decrease 13)
2018 59 (Decrease 6)
2019 65 (Decrease 6)
2020 60 (Increase 5)
2021 61 (Decrease 1)

The Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities, which looks at the education of the Fortune 500 CEOs, ranks École polytechnique seventh in the world in its 2011 ranking (1st being Harvard University), second among French institutions behind HEC Paris.[58]

Year Rank (Change)
2007 4 (Steady 0)
2008 15 (Decrease 11)
2009 14 (Increase 1)
2010 12 (Increase 2)
2011 7 (Increase 5)

Criticisms

[edit]

The French grandes écoles, including the École polytechnique, are criticized for their "elitism" and lack of diversity. INSEE has found that the children of executives and teachers are more likely to enter the écoles than children from lower-income families.[59] A more recent report found that children of employees are 50 times more likely to enter the Ecole polytechnique than the children of workers.[60]

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e "Study at École polytechnique". École polytechnique.
  2. ^ "Applications for the Bachelor program open on November 25th". École polytechnique.
  3. ^ a b "Arrêté du 25 février 2021 fixant la liste des écoles accréditées à délivrer un titre d'ingénieur diplômé – Légifrance". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  4. ^ Michel Nusimovici, Les écoles de l'an III, 2010.
  5. ^ "History - École polytechnique". www.polytechnique.edu. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
  6. ^ "Les élèves". École polytechnique, école d'ingénieur (in French). Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  7. ^ "Bachelor of Science". programmes.polytechnique.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  8. ^ "Career Paths". programmes.polytechnique.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  9. ^ Becquerel, Allais and Tirole.
  10. ^ Jean-Christophe Yoccoz (1994) ; Yoccoz was not a student at Polytechnique because he chose to be educated at École Normale Supérieure (1975–1979), but he completed his Ph.D. under Michael Herman in 1985 in the Centre de mathématiques Laurent Schwartz [fr] of École polytechnique, a research centre which had been created by another Field medalist and a professor at Polytechnique : Laurent Schwartz.
  11. ^ Sadi Carnot (who was the nephew of Carnot the physicist and the grandson of Carnot the École founder), Lebrun and Giscard.
  12. ^ "Présentation de l'École". programmes.polytechnique.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  13. ^ Programmes de l'enseignement polytechnique de l'École centrale des travaux publics [Polytechnic Education Programs of the Central School of Public Works]. Paris. 1795.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (March 2005). "The "Ecole Polytechnique", 1794–1850: Differences over Educational Purpose and Teaching Practice". The American Mathematical Monthly. 112 (3): 233–250. doi:10.2307/30037440. ISSN 0002-9890. JSTOR 30037440. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020.
  15. ^ Callot et al., "Le séminaire de la rue Descartes" ["The Seminar on Rue Descartes"].
  16. ^ Les Français peints par eux-mêmes. L'Armée, les écoles militaires, le garde national [The French Painted by Themselves: The Army, Military Schools, the National Guard]. Paris: Curmer. 1840. View 155.
  17. ^ "Histoire et patrimoine" [History and Heritage]. École polytechnique.
  18. ^ Albert Lévy; Gaston Pinet (1894). L'argot de l'X illustré par les X [The Argot of the X Illustrated by the Xs]. Preface by Armand Silvestre. Paris: Émile Testard. OCLC 803689559. BnF 34077236m. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  19. ^ Mattatia, Fabrice (2004). Dictionnaire d'argot de l'X: Tout sur le langage des polytechniciens [Dictionary of the Argot of X: Everything about the Language of Polytechnicians]. Illustrated by Laurent Di Cesare and Jérémie Wainstain (2nd ed.). Paris: Lavauzelle. ISBN 2702512305..
  20. ^ "Admissions and Entrance Exams — International Exchange Program". École polytechnique. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015.
  21. ^ "Foire aux questions" ["Frequently Asked Questions"]. Polytechnique.org. Archived from the original on 20 February 2013.
  22. ^ Callot et al., "Évolutions récentes de l'enseignement" ["Recent Developments in Education"].
  23. ^ Stein, Henri (1889). "Recherches sur les débuts de l'imprimerie à Provins". Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes. 50 (1): 218–228. doi:10.3406/bec.1889.447566. ISSN 0373-6237.
  24. ^ Langins, Janis (1991). "La préhistoire de l'Ecole polytechnique". Revue d'histoire des sciences. 44 (1): 61–89. doi:10.3406/rhs.1991.4174. ISSN 0151-4105. JSTOR 23632816.
  25. ^ Capecchi, Danilo; Ruta, Giuseppe (1 January 2014). "European polytechnic schools in nineteenth century and Karlsruhe's exemplary case". Meccanica. 49 (1): 13–21. doi:10.1007/s11012-013-9866-9. ISSN 1572-9648. S2CID 254798029.
  26. ^ "1794–1804: Revolution and Napoleonic Period". École polytechnique. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  27. ^ "Journal de l'École polytechnique". jep.centre-mersenne.org. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  28. ^ a b c "19th century: thrust into the upheaval of the times". École polytechnique. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  29. ^ a b Chappey, Jean-Luc (1 September 2004). "La Formation d'une technocratie. L'École polytechnique et ses élèves de la Révolution au Second Empire". Annales historiques de la Révolution française (in French) (337): 223–227. doi:10.4000/ahrf.1564. ISSN 0003-4436.
  30. ^ Organisation de l'Ecole Polytechnique. Ordonnance du 13 novembre 1830, Mon. univ. (15 November 1830) 1465–1466; also in Le globe (18 November 1830) 1085–1086 [with editorial remarks]; also in J. gén. civil 10 (1831) 87–97.
  31. ^ "20th century: wars lead to new orientations". École polytechnique. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
  32. ^ a b c d e f "From 1958 to 2018". École polytechnique. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  33. ^ "Histoire de l'École polytechnique". enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  34. ^ École polytechnique – Un cadre unique. Polytechnique.edu. Retrieved on 16 June 2014.
  35. ^ Code de l'éducation, L675-1
  36. ^ Arrêté du 12 septembre 2005 relatif à l'exercice de la tutelle du ministre de la défense sur divers organismes publics confiés à la délégation générale pour l'armement, article 1
  37. ^ Décret n°96-1124 du 20 décembre 1996 relatif à l'organisation et au régime administratif et financier de l'École polytechnique
  38. ^ Décret n° 2008-960 du 12 septembre 2008 fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique
  39. ^ First Period : General Education, web site
  40. ^ Arrêté du 14 août 2001 relatif à la formation militaire et à la formation à l'exercice des responsabilités des élèves français de l'École polytechnique prévues à l'article 2 du décret n° 2000-900 du 14 septembre 2000 fixant certaines dispositions d'ordre statutaire applicables aux élèves français de l'École polytechnique
  41. ^ Partners, official web site
  42. ^ Décret 87-16 du 14 janvier 1987: by exception to the general rule that staff in public establishments of an administrative character are civil servants, the teaching staff of Polytechnique is hired on contracts.
  43. ^ Décret n°2000-497 du 5 juin 2000 fixant les dispositions applicables aux personnels enseignants de l'École polytechnique
  44. ^ The French 'Grandes Écoles', École Poytechnique web site
  45. ^ Until 1988, the number of newly admitted French students was around 300 on a yearly basis ; and until 1952, it was between 200 and 250.
  46. ^ International Exchange Program
  47. ^ Ingénieur Polytechnicien Program, an English-language page from the school's website, describing the engineering degree.
  48. ^ a b "Ingenieur Polytechnicien" (PDF). (5.79 MB) p. 74
  49. ^ "Top 20 des écoles d'ingénieurs qui paient le mieux à la sortie". Les Echos. 16 February 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
  50. ^ "Admissions Criteria and Procedures".
  51. ^ MSc X-HEC Entrepreneurs : admission, inscription, prix...
  52. ^ Admission École polytechnique web site
  53. ^ Joly, Hervé (2012). "Les dirigeants des grandes entreprises industrielles françaises au 20e siècle". Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire. 2 (114): 16–32. doi:10.3917/vin.114.0016.
  54. ^ "Ecole polytechnique". nturanking.csti.tw. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  55. ^ "URAP – University Ranking by Academic Academic Performance". www.urapcenter.org. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  56. ^ The world's best small universities 2016, 25 January 2016
  57. ^ "QS Top Universities 2021: Ecole polytechnique". QS Top Universities. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
  58. ^ [1] Archived 18 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  59. ^ Les inégalités sociales d'accès aux grandes écoles – Insee (PDF). INSEE. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
  60. ^ "Des classes préparatoires et des grandes écoles toujours aussi fermées". Inegalites. Retrieved 20 June 2020.

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