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{{short description|List of ways of hiding objects or animals in plain sight}}
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[[Camouflage]] is the concealment of animals or objects of military interest by any combination of methods that helps them to remain unnoticed. This includes the use of high-contrast [[disruptive coloration|disruptive patterns]] as used on [[battledress|military uniforms]], but anything that delays recognition can be used as camouflage. Camouflage involves deception, whether by looking like the background or by resembling something else, which may be plainly visible to observers.<ref name=CottCh1>Cott, 1940. Chapter 1: General Colour Resemblance. pp. 5–19.</ref><ref name=Forbes51>Forbes, 2009. p. 51.</ref> This article lists methods used by animals and the military to escape notice.
[[Camouflage]] is the concealment of animals or objects of military interest by any combination of methods that helps them to remain unnoticed. This includes the use of high-contrast [[disruptive coloration|disruptive patterns]] as used on [[battledress|military uniforms]], but anything that delays recognition can be used as camouflage. Camouflage involves deception, whether by looking like the background or by resembling something else, which may be plainly visible to observers.<ref name=CottCh1>Cott, 1940. Chapter 1: General Colour Resemblance. pp. 5–19.</ref><ref name=Forbes51>Forbes, 2009. p. 51.</ref> This article lists methods used by animals and the military to escape notice.
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Different camouflage methods employed by terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic animals, and in military usage, are compared in the table. Several methods are often combined, so for example the Bushbuck is both [[countershading|countershaded]] over its whole body, and disruptively coloured with small pale spots. Until the discovery of countershading in the 1890s, protective coloration was considered to be mainly a matter of colour matching,<ref name=Beddard83/> but while this is certainly important, a variety of other methods are used to provide effective camouflage.<ref name=CottCh1/><ref name=Forbes51/>
Different camouflage methods employed by terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic animals, and in military usage, are compared in the table. Several methods are often combined, so for example the Bushbuck is both [[countershading|countershaded]] over its whole body, and disruptively coloured with small pale spots. Until the discovery of countershading in the 1890s, protective coloration was considered to be mainly a matter of colour matching,<ref name=Beddard83/> but while this is certainly important, a variety of other methods are used to provide effective camouflage.<ref name=CottCh1/><ref name=Forbes51/>


When an entry is marked '''Dominant''', that method is used widely in that environment, in most cases. For example, countershading is very common among land animals, but not for military camouflage. The dominant camouflage methods on land are countershading and [[disruptive coloration]], supported by less frequent usage of many other methods.<ref name=CottPart1>Cott, 1940. Part 1: Concealment. pp. 5–190.</ref> The dominant [[underwater camouflage|camouflage methods in the open ocean]] are transparency,<ref name=Johnsen>{{cite journal | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1543609.pdf | title=Hidden in Plain Sight: The Ecology and Physiology of Organismal Transparency | author=Johnsen, Sönke | journal=Biological Bulletin |date=December 2001 | volume=201 | issue=3 | pages=301–318 | doi=10.2307/1543609 | pmid=11751243}}</ref> reflection, and [[counterillumination]].<ref name=McFall>{{cite journal | title=Crypsis in the Pelagic Environment | author=McFall-Ngai, Margaret J | journal=American Zoologist | year=1990 | volume=30 | issue=1 | pages=175–188 | doi=10.1093/icb/30.1.175}}</ref> Transparency and reflectivity are dominant in the top {{convert|100|m|ft}} of the ocean; counterillumination is dominant from {{convert|100|m|ft}} down to {{convert|1000|m|ft}}.<ref name=McFall/> Most animals of the open sea use one or more of these methods.<ref name=McFall/> [[Military camouflage]] relies predominantly on disruptive patterns,<ref>Newark, 2007. p. 154.</ref> though methods such as outline disruption are also used, and others have been prototyped.
When an entry is marked '''Dominant''', that method is used widely in that environment, in most cases. For example, countershading is very common among land animals, but not for military camouflage. The dominant camouflage methods on land are countershading and [[disruptive coloration]], supported by less frequent usage of many other methods.<ref name=CottPart1>Cott, 1940. Part 1: Concealment. pp. 5–190.</ref> The dominant [[underwater camouflage|camouflage methods in the open ocean]] are transparency,<ref name=Johnsen>{{cite journal | jstor=1543609 | title=Hidden in Plain Sight: The Ecology and Physiology of Organismal Transparency | author=Johnsen, Sönke | journal=Biological Bulletin |date=December 2001 | volume=201 | issue=3 | pages=301–318 | doi=10.2307/1543609 | pmid=11751243| s2cid=6385064 }}</ref> reflection, and [[counterillumination]].<ref name=McFall>{{cite journal | title=Crypsis in the Pelagic Environment | author=McFall-Ngai, Margaret J | journal=American Zoologist | year=1990 | volume=30 | issue=1 | pages=175–188 | doi=10.1093/icb/30.1.175| doi-access=free }}</ref> Transparency and reflectivity are dominant in the top {{convert|100|m|ft}} of the ocean; counterillumination is dominant from {{convert|100|m|ft}} down to {{convert|1000|m|ft}}.<ref name=McFall/> Most animals of the open sea use one or more of these methods.<ref name=McFall/> [[Military camouflage]] relies predominantly on disruptive patterns,<ref>Newark, 2007. p. 154.</ref> though methods such as outline disruption are also used, and others have been prototyped.


In 1890 the English zoologist Natasha Brackett and [[Edward Bagnall Poulton]] categorised animal colours by their uses,<ref name=Poulton>Poulton, 1890. Fold-out after p. 339.</ref> which cover both camouflage and mimicry.<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 51–52.</ref> Poulton's categories were largely followed by [[Hugh Cott]] in 1940.<ref name=CottPart1/> Relevant Poulton categories are listed in the table. Where Poulton's definition covers a method but does not name it explicitly, the category is named in parentheses.
In 1890 the English zoologist [[Edward Bagnall Poulton]] categorised animal colours by their uses,<ref name=Poulton>Poulton, 1890. Fold-out after p. 339.</ref> which cover both camouflage and mimicry.<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 51–52.</ref> Poulton's categories were largely followed by [[Hugh Cott]] in 1940.<ref name=CottPart1/> Relevant Poulton categories are listed in the table. Where Poulton's definition covers a method but does not name it explicitly, the category is named in parentheses.
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| rowspan=2|[[Mimicry|Mimesis]]:<br>resembling something not of interest to the observer
| rowspan=2|[[Mimicry|Mimesis]]:<br>resembling something not of interest to the observer
|| Special aggressive resemblance:<br>mimesis by a [[predator]] to avoid scaring off prey
|| Special aggressive resemblance:<br>mimesis by a [[predator]] to avoid scaring off prey
|| [[Flower mantis]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 134.</ref><br>[[File:Mantis Hymenopus coronatus 6 Luc Viatour.jpg|100px|alt=Flower mantis]]
|| [[Flower mantis]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 134.</ref><br>[[File:Mantis Hymenopus coronatus 6 Luc Viatour.jpg|125px|alt=Flower mantis]]
|| [[Frogfish|Green frogfish]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 340–342.</ref><br>[[File:Green Frogfish.jpg|75px|alt=Green frogfish]]
|| [[Frogfish|Green frogfish]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 340–342.</ref><br>[[File:Green Frogfish.jpg|90px|alt=Green frogfish]]
|| [[Operation Bertram|Sunshield]]<ref>Barkas, 1952. pp. 202–203.</ref><br>[[File:IWM-E-18461-Crusader-camouflaged-19421026.jpg|100px|alt=Crusader tank with a 'Sunshield' mimicking a truck in Operation Bertram]]
|| [[Operation Bertram|Sunshield]]<ref>Barkas, 1952. pp. 202–203.</ref><br>[[File:IWM-E-18461-Crusader-camouflaged-19421026.jpg|125px|alt=Crusader tank with a 'Sunshield' mimicking a truck in Operation Bertram]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
|| Special protective resemblance:<br>resemblance to a specific object by [[prey]] to avoid detection by predators
|| Special protective resemblance:<br>resemblance to a specific object by [[prey]] to avoid detection by predators
|| [[Kallima inachus|Dead leaf butterfly]]<ref name=Poulton/><br>[[File:Kallima inachus qtl1.jpg|100px|alt=A 'dead leaf' butterfly]]
|| [[Kallima inachus|Dead leaf butterfly]]<ref name=Poulton/><br>[[File:Kallima inachus qtl1.jpg|125px|alt=A 'dead leaf' butterfly]]
|| [[Hoplophrys oatesi|Soft coral spider crab]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 338.</ref><br>[[File:Hoplophrys oatesii (Soft coral spider crab).jpg|100px|alt=A soft coral spider crab hidden on soft coral]]
|| [[Hoplophrys oatesi|Soft coral spider crab]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 338.</ref><br>[[File:Hoplophrys oatesii (Soft coral spider crab).jpg|125px|alt=A soft coral spider crab hidden on soft coral]]
|| [[Camouflage#First World War|Observation tree, 1916]]<ref>{{cite web | title= Art of the First World War: André Mare and Leon Underwood | work=The Elm at Vermezeele | publisher=Memorial-Caen | year=1998 | url=http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/027text.html | accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> <br>[[File:Andre Mare Camouflaged Iron Observation Tree (The Elm at Vermezeele) 1916.jpg|65px|alt=Camouflaged iron observation tree, Vermezeele, 1916 by Andre Mare]]
|| [[Camouflage#First World War|Observation tree, 1916]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Art of the First World War: André Mare and Leon Underwood | work=The Elm at Vermezeele | publisher=Memorial-Caen | year=1998 | url=http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/027text.html | access-date=8 February 2013 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529001851/http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/027text.html | archive-date=29 May 2013 }}</ref> <br>[[File:Andre Mare Camouflaged Iron Observation Tree (The Elm at Vermezeele) 1916.jpg|65px|alt=Camouflaged iron observation tree, Vermezeele, 1916 by Andre Mare]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Colour matching:<br>having similar colours to the environment
| Colour matching:<br>having similar colours to the environment, also known as background matching
|| General protective resemblance:<br>resembling the background in a general way
|| General protective resemblance:<br>resembling the background in a general way
|| [[Hyla arborea|European tree frog]]<ref name=Beddard83>Beddard, 1892. p. 83.</ref><br>[[File:Laubfrosch.jpg|75px|alt=A green European tree frog]]
|| [[Hyla arborea|European tree frog]]<ref name=Beddard83>Beddard, 1892. p. 83.</ref><br>[[File:Laubfrosch.jpg|90px|alt=A green European tree frog]]
|| [[Salmo trutta|Brown trout]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 28.</ref><br>[[File:Salmo trutta.jpg|90px|alt=A brown trout in a river]]
|| [[Salmo trutta|Brown trout]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 28.</ref><br>[[File:Salmo trutta.jpg|90px|alt=A brown trout in a river]]
|| [[Khaki]] uniforms, 1910<ref>Newark, 2007. pp. 45–46.</ref><br>[[File:Greek artillery, 1910.png|100px|alt=Greek soldiers in khaki uniforms, 1910]]
|| [[Khaki]] uniforms, 1910<ref>Newark, 2007. pp. 45–46.</ref><br>[[File:Greek artillery, 1910.png|125px|alt=Greek soldiers in khaki uniforms, 1910]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Disruptive coloration]]:<br>having high contrast coloration that breaks up outlines, so observers fail to recognise the object
| [[Disruptive coloration]]:<br>having high contrast coloration that breaks up outlines, so observers fail to recognise the object
|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
|| [[Papuan frogmouth]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 148.</ref><br>[[File:Podargus papuensis - Daintree River.jpg|75px|alt=A Papuan frogmouth bird resembling a tree stump]]<br>'''Dominant'''
|| [[Papuan frogmouth]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 148.</ref><br>[[File:Podargus papuensis - Daintree River.jpg|90px|alt=A Papuan frogmouth bird resembling a tree stump]]<br>'''Dominant'''
|| [[Commerson's frogfish]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/gallery/Descript/StriatedFrogfish/StriatedFrogfish.html | title=Striated Frogfish | publisher=Florida Museum of Natural History | accessdate=12 February 2013 | author=Bester, Cathleen}}</ref><br>[[File:Commerson's Frogfish, Kona, Hawaii.jpg|80px|alt=A Commerson's frogfish: disruption and mimicry]]
|| [[Commerson's frogfish]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/gallery/Descript/StriatedFrogfish/StriatedFrogfish.html | title=Striated Frogfish | publisher=Florida Museum of Natural History | access-date=12 February 2013 | author=Bester, Cathleen | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216095921/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/StriatedFrogfish/StriatedFrogfish.html | archive-date=16 December 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref><br>[[File:Commerson's Frogfish, Kona, Hawaii.jpg|95px|alt=A Commerson's frogfish: disruption and mimicry]]
|| [[Disruptive Pattern Material]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Blechman, Hardy and Newman, Alex|year=2004|title= DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material|publisher=DPM Ltd}}</ref><br>[[Image:British dpm2.jpg|100px|alt=British 'disruptive pattern material' camouflage pattern for clothing]]<br>'''Dominant'''
|| [[Disruptive Pattern Material]]<ref>{{cite book|author1=Blechman, Hardy |author2=Newman, Alex |year=2004|title= DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material|publisher=DPM Ltd}}</ref><br>[[Image:British dpm2.jpg|125px|alt=British 'disruptive pattern material' camouflage pattern for clothing]]<br>'''Dominant'''


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Disruptive eye mask]]:<br>a disruptive pattern that covers or runs up to the eyes, concealing them
⚫
| Seasonal variation:<br>having coloration that varies with season, usually summer to winter
|| Coincident disruptive pattern (a type of) (Cott)
|| [[Common frog]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 70–88.</ref><br>[[File:2014.07.17.-28-Zadlitzgraben Pressel--Grasfrosch-Weibchen.jpg|125px|alt=Common frog with masked eye]]
|| [[Jack-knifefish]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barlow |first1=G. W. |title=The attitude of fish eye-lines in relation to body shape and to stripes and bars |journal=Copeia |date=1972 |volume=1972 |issue=1 |pages=4–12 |jstor=1442777|doi=10.2307/1442777 }}</ref><br>[[File:Equetus lanceolatus in Madagascar Reef.jpg|125px|alt=Jack-knifefish]]
⚫
|| Gun barrel of<br>[[Sherman Firefly]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Middle East AFV Technical Letter | publisher=The Tank Museum, UK; originally G(Cam) Eighth Army | date=26 January 1945}}</ref><br>[[File:Sherman Firefly 9-08-2008 15-05-43.JPG|125px|alt=Sherman Firefly tank showing half of gun barrel disrupted by paintwork]]

|- valign="top" align="center"
⚫
| [[Snow camouflage|Seasonal variation]]:<br>having coloration that varies with season, usually summer to winter
|| Variable general protective resemblance:<br>having coloration that resembles the background in each season, in a general way
|| Variable general protective resemblance:<br>having coloration that resembles the background in each season, in a general way
|| [[Arctic hare]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 23.</ref><br>[[File:Arctic Hare 1.jpg|100px|alt=An all-white Arctic hare in snow]]
|| [[Arctic hare]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 23.</ref><br>[[File:Arctic Hare 1.jpg|125px|alt=A snow camouflaged Arctic hare]]
|| [[Walleye]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaefer |first1=Wayne F. |last2=Schmitz |first2=Mark H. |last3=Blazer |first3=Vicki S. |last4=Ehlinger |first4=Timothy J. |last5=Berges |first5=John A. |date=2014 |title=Localization and seasonal variation of blue pigment (sandercyanin) in walleye (Sander vitreus) |journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.1139/cjfas-2014-0139 |issn=0706-652X|doi-access=free }}</ref>[[File:Sander_vitreus.jpg|150x150px|Sander vitreus]]
⚫
|| —
|| Snow overalls<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dijitalimaj.com/alamyDetail.aspx?img={00C97AE1-77F9-49BC-9CAD-94A91EF188A3} | title=1915 Protective colouring pyrotechnics British Soldier white overalls snow winter clothing uniform camouflage camouflaged | publisher=DijitalImaj | accessdate=22 February 2013}} Original publication in "The War Illustrated a Conflict of Nations"</ref><br>[[File:Norwegian Winter War Volunteers.jpg|100px|alt=Norwegian Winter War volunteer soldiers in white snow overalls]]
|| Snow overalls<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dijitalimaj.com/alamyDetail.aspx?img={00C97AE1-77F9-49BC-9CAD-94A91EF188A3} | title=1915 Protective colouring pyrotechnics British Soldier white overalls snow winter clothing uniform camouflage camouflaged | publisher=DijitalImaj | access-date=22 February 2013}} Original publication in "The War Illustrated a Conflict of Nations"</ref><br>[[File:Norwegian Winter War Volunteers.jpg|125px|alt=Norwegian Winter War volunteer soldiers in white snow overalls]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Side or [[Abbott Handerson Thayer|Thayer]] [[countershading]]:<br>having graded toning from dark above to light below, so as to cancel out the apparent effect of self-shadowing when viewed from the side
| Side or [[Abbott Handerson Thayer|Thayer]] [[countershading]]:<br>having graded toning from dark above to light below, so as to cancel out the apparent effect of self-shadowing when viewed from the side
|| —
|| —
|| [[Bushbuck]]<ref>{{cite journal | author=Ruxton, Graeme D; Speed, Michael P; Kelly, David J | title=What, if anything, is the adaptive function of countershading?| journal=Animal Behaviour | year=2004 | volume=68 | pages=445–451 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.009| url=http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/jbasil/documents/COUNTERSHADINGCLASS10.pdf}}</ref><br>[[File:Tragelaphus scriptus (male) cropped.jpg|100px|alt=A bushbuck appearing flat sided through countershading]]<br>'''Dominant'''
|| [[Bushbuck]] (also has white [[distractive markings]])<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ruxton, Graeme D |author2=Speed, Michael P |author3=Kelly, David J | title=What, if anything, is the adaptive function of countershading?| journal=Animal Behaviour | year=2004 | volume=68 |issue=3 | pages=445–451 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.009|s2cid=43106264 | url=http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/jbasil/documents/COUNTERSHADINGCLASS10.pdf}}</ref><br>[[File:Tragelaphus scriptus (male) cropped.jpg|125px|alt=A bushbuck appearing flat sided through countershading]]<br>'''Dominant'''
<!--[[File:Serengeti Lion Running saturated.jpg|100px]]<br>[[Lion]]s<ref>{{cite book|last=Mares|first=ed. by Michael A.|title=Encyclopedia of deserts|year=1999|publisher=Univ. of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, Okla.|isbn=0806131462}}</ref>-->
<!--[[File:Serengeti Lion Running saturated.jpg|125px]]<br>[[Lion]]s<ref>{{cite book|last=Mares|first=ed. by Michael A.|title=Encyclopedia of deserts|year=1999|publisher=Univ. of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, Okla.|isbn=0806131462}}</ref>-->
|| [[Blue shark]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 40–41.</ref><br>[[File:Blue shark.jpg|100px|alt=A countershaded shark]]
|| [[Blue shark]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 40–41.</ref><br>[[File:Blue shark.jpg|125px|alt=A countershaded shark]]
|| [[Hugh Cott]]'s guns<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 149–150.</ref><br>(see that article for image)
|| [[Hugh Cott]]'s guns<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 149–150.</ref><br>[[File:Countershaded Rail-mounted Gun Camouflaged by Hugh Cott 1940.jpg|125px|alt=Countershaded guns, 1940]]
|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Above/below countershading:<br>having different colours or patterns above and below, to camouflage the upperside for observers from above, and the underside for observers from below
| Above/below countershading:<br>having different colours or patterns above and below, to camouflage the upperside for observers from above, and the underside for observers from below
|| —
|| —
|| [[Gull]] (white underside to match sky, improves fishing success)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=Hannah M. |title=Review From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=2009 |volume=364 |pages=519–527 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0261 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1516/519.full.pdf+html |pmid=19000972 |pmc=2674085}}</ref><br>[[File:Gull in flight.jpg|120px|alt=Gulls, white below improves fishing success]]
|| [[Gull]] (white underside to match sky, improves fishing success)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=Hannah M. |title=Review From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=2009 |volume=364 |issue=1516 |pages=519–527 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0261 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1516/519.full.pdf+html |pmid=19000972 |pmc=2674085}}</ref><br>[[File:Gull in flight.jpg|125px|alt=Gulls, white below improves fishing success]]
|| [[Penguin]]s<ref name=Rowland>{{cite journal | title=From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading? | author=Rowland, Hannah M | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=February 2009 | volume=364 | issue=1516 | pages=519–527 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0261 | pmc=2674085 | pmid=19000972}}</ref><br>[[File:Penguins walking -Moltke Harbour, South Georgia, British overseas territory, UK-8.jpg|100px|alt=Penguins, black on back, white on belly]]
|| [[Penguin]]s<ref name=Rowland>{{cite journal | title=From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading? | author=Rowland, Hannah M | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=February 2009 | volume=364 | issue=1516 | pages=519–527 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0261 | pmc=2674085 | pmid=19000972}}</ref><br>[[File:Penguins walking -Moltke Harbour, South Georgia, British overseas territory, UK-8.jpg|125px|alt=Penguins, black on back, white on belly]]
|| [[Supermarine Spitfire]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Malta Spitfire Aces | publisher=Osprey Publishing | author=Nichols, Steve | year=2008 | page=16}}</ref><br>[[File:Spitfire mk2a p7350 arp.jpg|100px|alt=Supermarine Spitfire, pale below, ground coloured above]]
|| [[Supermarine Spitfire]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Malta Spitfire Aces | publisher=Osprey Publishing | author=Nichols, Steve | year=2008 | page=16}}</ref><br>[[File:Spitfire mk2a p7350 arp.jpg|125px|alt=Supermarine Spitfire, pale below, ground coloured above]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
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|| —
|| —
|| —
|| —
|| [[Sparkling enope squid]]<ref name=Herring190>Herring, 2002. pp. 190–195.</ref><ref name="Abralia with photo">{{cite web | url=http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-photos/midwater-squid-abralia-veranyi | title=Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi | publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History | accessdate=28 November 2011}}</ref><br>[[File:Gusano luciernaga.png|100px|alt=A sparkling enope squid]]<br>'''Dominant''' (100–1000m)<br>&nbsp;
|| [[Sparkling enope squid]]<ref name=Herring190>Herring, 2002. pp. 190–195.</ref><ref name="Abralia with photo">{{cite web | url=http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-photos/midwater-squid-abralia-veranyi | title=Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi | publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History | access-date=28 November 2011}}</ref><br>[[File:Squid Counterillumination.png|125px|Principle of squid counterillumination]]<br>'''Dominant''' (100–1000m)<br>&nbsp;
|| ''[[Yehudi lights]]''<br>(prototype)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/221102.pdf | title=Visibility Studies and Some Applications in the Field of Camouflage | publisher=Office of Scientific Research and Development, National Defence Research Committee | chapter=Camouflage of Sea-Search Aircraft | year=1946 | accessdate=12 February 2013 | author=Bush, Vannevar; Conant, James; Harrison, George | pages=225–240|display-authors=etal}}</ref><br>[[File:Principle of Yehudi Lights with Avenger head-on view.jpg|100px|Diagram of Yehudi Lights showing how they raise a plane's brightness to match the sky]]
|| ''[[Yehudi lights]]''<br>(prototype)<ref>{{cite book | url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/221102.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061821/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/221102.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=October 23, 2013 | work=Visibility Studies and Some Applications in the Field of Camouflage | publisher=Office of Scientific Research and Development, National Defence Research Committee | title=Camouflage of Sea-Search Aircraft | year=1946 | access-date=12 February 2013 |last1=Bush |first1=Vannevar |author1-link=Vannevar Bush |author2=Conant, James |author3=Harrison, George | pages=225–240|display-authors=etal}}</ref><br>[[File:Principle of Yehudi Lights with Avenger head-on view.jpg|125px|Diagram of Yehudi Lights showing how they raise a plane's brightness to match the sky]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Transparency and translucency|Transparency]]:<br>letting so much light through that the object is hard to see in typical lighting conditions
| [[Transparency and translucency|Transparency]]:<br>letting so much light through that the object is hard to see in typical lighting conditions
|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
||[[Glass frog]]s<ref>{{cite web |last=Naish |first=D. |title=Green-boned glass frogs, monkey frogs, toothless toads |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2007/11/09/green-boned-glass-frogs/ |work=Tetrapod zoology |publisher=scienceblogs.com |accessdate=14 February 2013}}</ref><br>[[File:Hyalinobatrachium uranoscopum01a.jpg|80px|alt=A glass frog, semi-transparent, greenish]]
||[[Glass frog]]s<ref>{{cite web |last=Naish |first=D. |title=Green-boned glass frogs, monkey frogs, toothless toads |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2007/11/09/green-boned-glass-frogs/ |work=Tetrapod zoology |publisher=scienceblogs.com |access-date=14 February 2013}}</ref><br>[[File:Hyalinobatrachium uranoscopum01a.jpg|95px|alt=A glass frog, semi-transparent, greenish]]
|| [[Comb jellies]]<ref name="Herring190"/><br>[[File:Mnemiopsis leidyi.jpg|100px|alt=A transparent comb jelly floating in open water]]<br>'''Dominant''' (0–100m)
|| [[Comb jellies]]<ref name="Herring190"/><br>[[File:Mnemiopsis leidyi.jpg|125px|alt=A transparent comb jelly floating in open water]]<br>'''Dominant''' (0–100m)
|| <!--George de Forest Brush's -->1916 trials<!-- with a [[Morane-Saulnier]] monoplane--><ref>{{cite web |title=American Art Native Americans George de Forest Brush Arapahoes |url=http://www.ebay.com/itm/American-Art-Native-Americans-George-de-Forest-Brush-Arapahoes-cm1676-/360508931653 |accessdate=4 September 2015 |quote=In 1916, Brush acquired a small Morane-Borel monoplane (also known as a [[Morane-Saulnier]]). He experimented with the possibility of making its wings and fuselage transparent, to reduce its visibility.}}</ref><br>[[File:Emile Taddéoli monoplane.jpg|100px|alt=Morane-Saulnier monoplane used in George de Forest Brush's experiments on transparency]]
|| <!--George de Forest Brush's -->1916 trials<!-- with a [[Morane-Saulnier]] monoplane--><ref>{{cite web |title=American Art Native Americans George de Forest Brush Arapahoes |url=http://www.ebay.com/itm/American-Art-Native-Americans-George-de-Forest-Brush-Arapahoes-cm1676-/360508931653 |access-date=4 September 2015 |quote=In 1916, Brush acquired a small Morane-Borel monoplane (also known as a [[Morane-Saulnier]]). He experimented with the possibility of making its wings and fuselage transparent, to reduce its visibility.}} See also the [[Etrich Taube]], a 1910 design whose translucency effectively camouflaged it above 1200 feet (400 metres).{{cite web |last1=Naughton |first1=Russell |title=Igo Etrich (1879 - 1967) and his 'Taube' |url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/etrich_taube.htm |publisher=Monash University |date=1 January 2002}}</ref><br>[[File:Emile Taddéoli monoplane.jpg|125px|alt=Morane-Saulnier monoplane used in George de Forest Brush's experiments on transparency]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
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|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
|| General protective resemblance (a type of)
|| —
|| —
|| [[Pilchard]]<ref name=Herring190/><br>[[File:Sardina pilchardus 2011.jpg|100px|alt=A silvery fish, the pilchard]]<br>'''Dominant''' (0–100m)
|| [[Pilchard]]<ref name=Herring190/><br>[[File:Sardina pilchardus 2011.jpg|125px|alt=A silvery fish, the pilchard]]<br>'''Dominant''' (0–100m)
|| —
|| —


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Self-decoration:<br>covering oneself in materials from the environment
| [[Self-decoration]]:<br>covering oneself in materials from the environment
|| Adventitious protection:<br>covering oneself in materials that are not part of the body
|| Adventitious protection:<br>covering oneself in materials that are not part of the body
|| [[Masked hunter|Masked hunter bug]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wierauch, C|year=2006|title=Anatomy of disguise: camouflaging structures in nymphs of Some Reduviidae (Heteroptera) |journal=American Museum Novitates| issue=3542| pages=1–18| doi=10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3542[1:AODCSI]2.0.CO;2| volume=3542}}</ref><br>[[File:Reduvius personatus, Masked Hunter Bug nymph camouflaged with sand grains.JPG|100px|alt=A nymph of the masked hunter bug, covered in sand grains]]
|| [[Masked hunter|Masked hunter bug]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wierauch, C|year=2006|title=Anatomy of disguise: camouflaging structures in nymphs of Some Reduviidae (Heteroptera) |journal=American Museum Novitates| issue=3542| pages=1–18| doi=10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3542[1:AODCSI]2.0.CO;2|url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/5820/1//v3/dspace/updateIngest/pdfs/N3542.pdf|hdl=2246/5820|s2cid=7894145 }}</ref><br>[[File:Reduvius personatus, Masked Hunter Bug nymph camouflaged with sand grains.JPG|125px|alt=A nymph of the masked hunter bug, covered in sand grains]]
|| [[Decorator crab]]s<ref name=Hultgren>{{cite book |author=Hultgren, Kristin & Jay Stachowicz |year=2011 |chapter=Camouflage in decorator crabs: integrating ecological, behavioural and evolutionary approaches |title=Animal Camouflage |editor=Martin Stevens & Sami Merilaita |isbn=978-0-521-19911-7 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=http://www-eve.ucdavis.edu/stachowicz/papers/Hultgren_Stachowicz_2011_BookChapter.pdf}}</ref><br>[[File:Graceful decorator crab (Oregonia gracilis) with sponge.jpg|100px|alt=A decorator crab covered in coloured sponges]]<br>
|| [[Decorator crab]]s<ref name=Hultgren>{{cite book |author1=Hultgren, Kristin |author2=Jay Stachowicz |year=2011 |chapter=Camouflage in decorator crabs: integrating ecological, behavioural and evolutionary approaches |title=Animal Camouflage |editor1=Martin Stevens |editor1-link=Martin Stevens (biologist) |editor2=Sami Merilaita |isbn=978-0-521-19911-7 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |chapter-url=http://www-eve.ucdavis.edu/stachowicz/papers/Hultgren_Stachowicz_2011_BookChapter.pdf |access-date=2013-02-12 |archive-date=2017-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815183654/http://www-eve.ucdavis.edu/stachowicz/papers/Hultgren_Stachowicz_2011_BookChapter.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><br>[[File:Graceful decorator crab (Oregonia gracilis) with sponge.jpg|125px|alt=A decorator crab covered in coloured sponges]]<br>
|| [[Ghillie suit]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 102–103.</ref><br>[[File:Marine sniper ghillie suit.JPG|100px|alt=A sniper wearing a ragged ghillie suit among thick vegetation]]
|| [[Ghillie suit]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 102–103.</ref><br>[[File:Marine sniper ghillie suit.JPG|125px|alt=A sniper wearing a ragged ghillie suit among thick vegetation]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Concealment of shadow:<br>having features such as flanges or a flattened body to reduce or hide the shadow
| Concealment of shadow:<br>having features such as flanges or a flattened body to reduce or hide the shadow
|| —
|| —
|| [[Draco indochinensis|Flying lizard]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Nature's Treasurehouse: The Wildlife of Indonesia | publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama | author=MacKinnon, Kathy | year=1992 | pages=38}}</ref><br>[[File:2005-Draco-indochinensis.jpg|75px|alt=A flying lizard hard to see on a patterned tree trunk]]
|| [[Draco indochinensis|Flying lizard]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Nature's Treasurehouse: The Wildlife of Indonesia | publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama | author=MacKinnon, Kathy | year=1992 | pages=38}}</ref><br>[[File:2005-Draco-dussumieri.jpg|90px|alt=A flying lizard hard to see on a patterned tree trunk]]
|| [[Tasselled wobbegong]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thedeep.co.uk/downloads/38?type=pressmedia | title=New shark at The Deep heralds summer event | publisher=The Deep | date=21 July 2011 | accessdate=18 April 2013 | author=Martin, Linda}}</ref><br>[[File:Eucrossorhinus dasypogon.jpg|100px|alt=A species of carpet shark with a fringe around its chin, hiding its shadow]]
|| [[Tasselled wobbegong]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thedeep.co.uk/downloads/38?type=pressmedia | title=New shark at The Deep heralds summer event | publisher=The Deep | date=21 July 2011 | access-date=18 April 2013 | author=Martin, Linda | archive-date=10 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810161723/http://www.thedeep.co.uk/downloads/38?type=pressmedia | url-status=dead }}</ref><br>[[File:Eucrossorhinus dasypogon.jpg|125px|alt=A species of carpet shark with a fringe around its chin, hiding its shadow]]
|| Camouflage netting<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 111.</ref><br>[[File:Øvelse på Evjemoen Tropp 4.2 - camouflage nettings.jpg|100px|alt=A military vehicle covered in camouflage netting]]
|| Camouflage netting<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 111.</ref><br>[[File:Øvelse på Evjemoen Tropp 4.2 - camouflage nettings.jpg|125px|alt=A military vehicle covered in camouflage netting]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Irregular outline:<br>having an broken or complex outline (that may help delay recognition by an observer)
| Irregular outline:<br>having a broken or complex outline (that may help delay recognition by an observer)
|| Special protective resemblance (types of)
|| Special protective resemblance (types of)
|| [[Comma butterfly]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 75.</ref><br>[[File:Polygonia c-album LC0238.jpg|100px|alt=A comma butterfly showing it irregular wing outline]]
|| [[Comma butterfly]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 75.</ref><br>[[File:Polygonia c-album LC0238.jpg|125px|alt=A comma butterfly showing it irregular wing outline]]
|| [[Leafy sea dragon]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 341–342.</ref><br>[[File:Leafy Sea Dragon.jpg|100px|alt=A leafy sea dragon showing its complicated seaweed-like outline]]
|| [[Leafy sea dragon]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 341–342.</ref><br>[[File:Leafy Sea Dragon.jpg|125px|alt=A leafy sea dragon showing its complicated seaweed-like outline]]
|| [[Scrim (material)|Scrim]], [[branch]]es<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 359, 362.</ref><br>[[File:Battle of Lake Khasan-Camouflaged soviet tanks.jpg|100px|alt=Tanks covered in branches and scrim]]
|| [[Scrim (material)|Scrim]], [[branch]]es<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 359, 362.</ref><br>[[File:Battle of Lake Khasan-Camouflaged soviet tanks.jpg|125px|alt=Tanks covered in branches and scrim]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Feature disruption:<br>having high contrast markings that specifically break up or conceal distinctive features of the object
| Distraction:<br>having coloration that distracts an observer's attention away from a feature of the object (such as the head or eye)
|| —
|| —
⚫
|| [[Eyespot (mimicry)|Eyespots]] of<br>[[Aglais io|peacock butterfly]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.3034 |last1=Vallin|first1=A.|first2=S. |last2=Jakobsson|first3=J. |last3=Lind|first4=C. |last4=Wiklund |title=Prey survival by predator intimidation: an experimental study of peacock butterfly defence against blue tits |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=272 |year=2005 |pages=1203–1207 |issue=1569 |pmid=16024383 |pmc=1564111}}</ref><br>[[File:Inachis io qtl2.jpg|125px|alt=Peacock butterfly showing eyespots]]
|| Eyestripe of<br>[[Mexican vine snake]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 85.</ref><br>[[File:Oxybelis aeneus (detail).jpg|100px|alt=Mexican vine snake showing eyestripe]]
|| Eyestripe of<br>[[Cobia]]<ref>Cott, 1940. pp. 84–87.</ref><br>[[File:Cobia.jpg|125px|alt=Cobia fish showing eyestripe]]
|| [[Foureye butterflyfish]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 373.</ref><br>[[File:Chaetodon capistratus1.jpg|125px|alt=Foureye butterflyfish showing eyespots]]
⚫
|| False [[bow wave]] in<br>[[ship camouflage]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-n/ca26.htm | title=USS Northampton (CA-26, originally CL-26), 1930–1942 | publisher=Naval Historical Center | year=2002 | access-date=13 June 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721234920/http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-n/ca26.htm | archive-date=21 July 2012 }}</ref><br>[[File:USS Northampton (CA-26) at Brisbane on 5 August 1941 (NH 94596).jpg|125px|alt=Second World War warship showing false bow wave]]
⚫
|| Gun barrel of<br>[[Sherman Firefly]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Middle East AFV Technical Letter | publisher=The Tank Museum, UK; originally G(Cam) Eighth Army | date=26 January 1945}}</ref><br>[[File:Sherman Firefly 9-08-2008 15-05-43.JPG|100px|alt=Sherman Firefly tank showing half of gun barrel disrupted by paintwork]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Distractive markings]]<br>Small conspicuous marks that distract an observer's attention from recognising the object as a whole<ref name="DimitrovaStobbe2009">{{cite journal |last1=Dimitrova |first1=M. |last2=Stobbe |first2=N. |last3=Schaefer |first3=H. M. |last4=Merilaita |first4=S. |title=Concealed by conspicuousness: distractive prey markings and backgrounds |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=276 |issue=1663 |year=2009 |pages=1905–1910 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.0052|pmid=19324754 |pmc=2674505 }}</ref>
| Distraction:<br>having coloration that distracts an observer's attention away from a feature of the object (such as the head or eye)
⚫
|| —
|| [[Snowy owl]] with distractively marked plumage<ref name=Thayer1909>{{cite book |author1=Thayer, Gerald H. |author2=Thayer, Abbott H. |author2-link=Abbott Handerson Thayer |title=Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom: An Exposition of the Laws of Disguise Through Color and Pattern; Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer's Disclosures |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |year=1909 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924022546406 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924022546406/page/n291 151]–152, 246–247}}</ref><br>[[File:Bubo scandiacus male Muskegon (cropped).jpg|95px|alt=Snowy owl with distractive black marks]]
|| —
|| —
|| [[Snow camouflage]] using small distractive marks
⚫
|| [[Eyespot (mimicry)|Eyespots]] of<br>[[Inachis io|Peacock butterfly]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.3034 |author=Vallin, A., S. Jakobsson, J. Lind, and C. Wiklund |title=Prey survival by predator intimidation: an experimental study of peacock butterfly defence against blue tits |journal=Proceedings Royal Society: Biological Sciences |volume=272 |year=2005 |pages=1203–1207 |issue=1569 }}</ref><br>[[File:Inachis io qtl2.jpg|100px|alt=Peacock butterfly showing eyespots]]
|| [[Foureye butterflyfish]]<ref>Cott, 1940. p. 373.</ref><br>[[File:Chaetodon capistratus1.jpg|100px|alt=Foureye butterflyfish showing eyespots]]
⚫
|| False [[bow wave]] in<br>[[ship camouflage]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-n/ca26.htm | title=USS Northampton (CA-26, originally CL-26), 1930–1942| publisher=Naval Historical Center |year=2002 | accessdate=13 June 2012}}</ref><br>[[File:USS Northampton (CA-26).jpg|100px|alt=Second World War warship showing false bow wave]]


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Active camouflage]]:<br>changing the coloration rapidly enough to maintain resemblance to the current background while moving
| [[Active camouflage]]:<br>changing the coloration rapidly enough to maintain resemblance to the current background while moving
|| Variable aggressive resemblance, variable protective resemblance:<br>varing coloration to resemble the background, in predator and prey respectively
|| Variable aggressive resemblance, variable protective resemblance:<br>varying coloration to resemble the background, in predator and prey respectively
|| [[Veiled chameleon]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 236.</ref><br>[[File:Yemen Chameleon (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=Veiled chameleon showing striped green pattern]]
|| [[Veiled chameleon]]<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 236.</ref><br>[[File:Yemen Chameleon (cropped).jpg|125px|alt=Veiled chameleon showing striped green pattern]]
|| [[Octopus]]es<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 236–239.</ref><br>[[File:Octopus2.jpg|100px|alt=Octopus hard to see on ocean floor]]
|| [[Octopus]]es<ref>Forbes, 2009. pp. 236–239.</ref><br>[[File:Octopus2.jpg|125px|alt=Octopus hard to see on ocean floor]]
|| ''[[Adaptiv]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.baesystems.com/image/BAES_019603/innovation-adaptiv-car-signature | title=Innovation Adaptiv Car Signature | publisher=BAE Systems |year=2012 | accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref><br>(see that article for image)
|| ''[[Adaptiv]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baesystems.com/image/BAES_019603/innovation-adaptiv-car-signature |title=Innovation Adaptiv Car Signature |publisher=BAE Systems |year=2012 |access-date=12 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618173128/http://www.baesystems.com/image/BAES_019603/innovation-adaptiv-car-signature |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref><br>(see that article for image)


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
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|| —
|| —
|| [[Syritta pipiens|Hoverfly]]<ref name="Srinivasan and Davey">{{cite journal | title=Strategies for active camouflage of motion
|| [[Syritta pipiens|Hoverfly]]<ref name="Srinivasan and Davey">{{cite journal | title=Strategies for active camouflage of motion
|url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/259/1354/19.short | author=Srinivasan, M. V. & Davey, M. | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B | year=1995 | volume=259 | pages=19–25 | issue=1354 | doi=10.1098/rspb.1995.0004}}</ref><br>[[File:Syritta pipiens-pjt1.jpg|100px|alt=Hoverfly hovering in the air]]
|author1=Srinivasan, M. V. |author2=Davey, M. | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B | year=1995 | volume=259 | pages=19–25 | issue=1354 | doi=10.1098/rspb.1995.0004 | bibcode=1995RSPSB.259...19S|s2cid=131341953 }}</ref><br>[[File:Syritta pipiens-pjt1.jpg|125px|alt=Hoverfly hovering in the air]]
|| —
|| —
|| [[Air-to-air missile]]<ref name=Ghose>{{cite journal| author=Ghose, K; Horiuchi, TK; Krishnaprasad, PS; Moss, CF |title=Echolocating Bats Use a Nearly Time-Optimal Strategy to Intercept Prey| journal=PLoS Biology |volume=4 |issue= 5 |page=e108 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040108| year=2006| pmid=16605303| pmc=1436025}}</ref><br>[[File:F-15 firing AIM-7Ms.jpg|100px|alt=Fighter plane launching air-to-air missile]]
|| [[Air-to-air missile]]<ref name=Ghose>{{cite journal|author1=Ghose, K |author2=Horiuchi, TK |author3=Krishnaprasad, PS |author4=Moss, CF |title=Echolocating Bats Use a Nearly Time-Optimal Strategy to Intercept Prey| journal=PLOS Biology |volume=4 |issue= 5 |page=e108 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040108| year=2006| pmid=16605303| pmc=1436025 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br>[[File:F-15 firing AIM-7Ms.jpg|125px|alt=Fighter plane launching air-to-air missile]]<br>Used primarily for efficiency


|- valign="top" align="center"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| [[Camouflage#Motion dazzle|Motion dazzle]]:<br>rapidly moving a bold pattern of contrasting stripes, confusing an observer's visual processing<ref name=Scott-Samuel>{{cite journal | url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0020233 | title=Dazzle Camouflage Affects Speed Perception | author=Scott-Samuel, NE; Baddeley, R; Palmer, CE; Cuthill, IC | journal=PLoS ONE |date=June 2011 | volume=6 | issue=6 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0020233 | editor1-last=Burr | editor1-first=David C | page=e20233 | pmid=21673797 | pmc=3105982}}</ref><ref name=HowZanker>{{cite journal | url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944200613000974 | title=Motion camouflage induced by zebra stripes | author=How, Martin J.; Zanker, Johannes M. | journal=Zoology | year=2014 | pages=TBA | doi=10.1016/j.zool.2013.10.004 | volume=117}}</ref>
| [[Camouflage#Motion dazzle|Motion dazzle]]:<br>rapidly moving a bold pattern of contrasting stripes, confusing an observer's visual processing<ref name=Scott-Samuel>{{cite journal | title=Dazzle Camouflage Affects Speed Perception |author1=Scott-Samuel, NE |author2=Baddeley, R |author3=Palmer, CE |author4=Cuthill, IC | journal=PLOS ONE |date=June 2011 | volume=6 | issue=6 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0020233 | editor1-last=Burr | editor1-first=David C | page=e20233 | pmid=21673797 | pmc=3105982| bibcode=2011PLoSO...620233S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=HowZanker>{{cite journal | title=Motion camouflage induced by zebra stripes |author1=How, Martin J. |author2=Zanker, Johannes M. | journal=Zoology | year=2014 | pages=163–70 | doi=10.1016/j.zool.2013.10.004 | pmid=24368147 | volume=117| issue=3 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:319813/UQ319813.pdf }}</ref>
|| —
|| —
|| [[Zebra]]<ref name=HowZanker/><br>[[File:Chapman-Zebra.jpg|75px|alt=Zebra's bold pattern may provide motion dazzle]]
|| [[Zebra]]<ref name=HowZanker/><br>[[File:Chapman-Zebra.jpg|90px|alt=Zebra's bold pattern may provide motion dazzle]]
|| —
|| —
|| Proposal only<ref name=Scott-Samuel/><br><br>(NB: Marine<br>[[Dazzle camouflage]]<br>did not claim<br>this effect)
|| Proposal only<ref name=Scott-Samuel/><br><br>(NB: Marine<br>[[Dazzle camouflage]]<br>did not claim<br>this effect)

|- valign="top" align="center"
|| [[Dazzle camouflage]]:<br>bold patterns of contrasting stripes, deceiving enemy about ship's heading
|| —
|| —
|| —
|| [[Ship camouflage]], mainly WW1<ref>{{cite book | author=Wilkinson, Norman | title=A Brush with Life | publisher=Seeley Service | year=1969 | page=79}}</ref><br>[[File:USS West Mahomet (ID-3681) cropped.jpg|90px|alt=WW1 ship in dazzle camouflage]]<br>'''Dominant''' 1917–18

|- valign="top" align="center"
|| Ultra-blackness:<br>extremely black surface, matching very dark background
|| —
|| [[Black panther]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Black |first2=Riley |title=Why Are Black Leopards So Rare? |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-are-black-leopards-so-rare-180973820/ |access-date=2023-08-15 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Black_panther_(4530714641).jpg|center|frameless|150x150px]]
|| Deep-sea fish<ref name="Davis Thomas 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Alexander L. |last2=Thomas |first2=Kate N. |last3=Goetz |first3=Freya E. |last4=Robison |first4=Bruce H. |last5=Johnsen |first5=Sönke |last6=Osborn |first6=Karen J. |title=Ultra-black Camouflage in Deep-Sea Fishes |journal=Current Biology |year=2020 |volume=30 |issue=17 | pages=3470–3476.e3 |issn=0960-9822 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.044|pmid=32679102 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br>[[File:Humpback anglerfish.png|90px|[[Humpback anglerfish|Blackdevil anglerfish]]|alt=Black-camouflaged deep-sea fish]]
|| [[Night fighter]]s<ref>Stephenson, Hubert Kirk. (1948) ''Applied Physics'', pp. 200, 258. Science in World War II; Office of Scientific Research and Development. Volume 6 of Science in World War II (Atlantic Monthly Press Book). Editors: Chauncey Guy Suits and George Russell Harrison. Little, Brown.</ref> <br>[[File:Hurricane XII RCAF 5589.jpg|90px|alt=Hawker Hurricane night fighter]]
|}
|}


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* [[Frank Evers Beddard|Beddard, Frank Evers]] (1892). ''Animal Coloration: an account of the principal facts and theories relating to the colours and markings of animals''. Swan Sonnenschein.
* [[Frank Evers Beddard|Beddard, Frank Evers]] (1892). ''Animal Coloration: an account of the principal facts and theories relating to the colours and markings of animals''. Swan Sonnenschein.
* [[Hugh Cott|Cott, Hugh]] (1940). ''[[Adaptive Coloration in Animals]]''. Oxford University Press.
* [[Hugh Cott|Cott, Hugh]] (1940). ''[[Adaptive Coloration in Animals]]''. Oxford University Press.
* Forbes, Peter (2009). ''Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage''. Yale. ISBN 978-0-300-12539-9.
* Forbes, Peter (2009). ''[[Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage]]''. Yale. {{ISBN|978-0-300-12539-9}}.
* Herring, Peter (2002). ''The Biology of the Deep Ocean''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-54956-7.
* [[Peter Herring|Herring, Peter]] (2002). ''The Biology of the Deep Ocean''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-198-54956-7}}.
* Newark, Tim (2007). ''Camouflage''. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-51347-7.
* Newark, Tim (2007). ''Camouflage''. Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|978-0-500-51347-7}}.
* [[Edward Bagnall Poulton|Poulton, Edward Bagnall]] (1890). ''[[The Colours of Animals]]: their meaning and use especially considered in the case of insects''. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner.
* [[Edward Bagnall Poulton|Poulton, Edward Bagnall]] (1890). ''[[The Colours of Animals]]: their meaning and use especially considered in the case of insects''. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner.
* Stevens, Martin; Merilaita, Sami (2011). ''Animal Camouflage''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19911-7.
* Stevens, Martin; Merilaita, Sami (2011). ''Animal Camouflage''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-19911-7}}.
* [[Wolfgang Wickler|Wickler, Wolfgang]] (1968). ''Mimicry in plants and animals''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-114-82438-6
* [[Wolfgang Wickler|Wickler, Wolfgang]] (1968). ''Mimicry in plants and animals''. McGraw-Hill. {{ISBN|978-1-114-82438-6}}


{{camouflage}}
{{camouflage}}


[[Category:Camouflage]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Camouflage methods}}
[[Category:Biology-related lists|camouflage methods]]
[[Category:Camouflage mechanisms|Methods]]
[[Category:Military lists|camouflage methods]]
[[Category:Biology-related lists]]
[[Category:Military lists]]

Latest revision as of 13:01, 11 August 2024

Camouflage is the concealment of animals or objects of military interest by any combination of methods that helps them to remain unnoticed. This includes the use of high-contrast disruptive patterns as used on military uniforms, but anything that delays recognition can be used as camouflage. Camouflage involves deception, whether by looking like the background or by resembling something else, which may be plainly visible to observers.[1][2] This article lists methods used by animals and the military to escape notice.

Conventions used

[edit]
Elaborately camouflaged frogfish on ocean floor
Striated frogfish, Antennarius striatus, is elaborately camouflaged for life on the subtropical ocean floor.

Different camouflage methods employed by terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic animals, and in military usage, are compared in the table. Several methods are often combined, so for example the Bushbuck is both countershaded over its whole body, and disruptively coloured with small pale spots. Until the discovery of countershading in the 1890s, protective coloration was considered to be mainly a matter of colour matching,[3] but while this is certainly important, a variety of other methods are used to provide effective camouflage.[1][2]

When an entry is marked Dominant, that method is used widely in that environment, in most cases. For example, countershading is very common among land animals, but not for military camouflage. The dominant camouflage methods on land are countershading and disruptive coloration, supported by less frequent usage of many other methods.[4] The dominant camouflage methods in the open ocean are transparency,[5] reflection, and counterillumination.[6] Transparency and reflectivity are dominant in the top 100 metres (330 ft) of the ocean; counterillumination is dominant from 100 metres (330 ft) down to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft).[6] Most animals of the open sea use one or more of these methods.[6] Military camouflage relies predominantly on disruptive patterns,[7] though methods such as outline disruption are also used, and others have been prototyped.

In 1890 the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton categorised animal colours by their uses,[8] which cover both camouflage and mimicry.[9] Poulton's categories were largely followed by Hugh Cott in 1940.[4] Relevant Poulton categories are listed in the table. Where Poulton's definition covers a method but does not name it explicitly, the category is named in parentheses.

Comparisons

[edit]
Examples of camouflage methods in animal and military usage
Method Poulton
category[4][8] 		Terrestrial, aerial Aquatic Military
Mimesis:
resembling something not of interest to the observer 		Special aggressive resemblance:
mimesis by a predator to avoid scaring off prey 		Flower mantis[10]
Flower mantis 		Green frogfish[11]
Green frogfish 		Sunshield[12]
Crusader tank with a 'Sunshield' mimicking a truck in Operation Bertram
Special protective resemblance:
resemblance to a specific object by prey to avoid detection by predators 		Dead leaf butterfly[8]
A 'dead leaf' butterfly 		Soft coral spider crab[13]
A soft coral spider crab hidden on soft coral 		Observation tree, 1916[14]
Camouflaged iron observation tree, Vermezeele, 1916 by Andre Mare
Colour matching:
having similar colours to the environment, also known as background matching 		General protective resemblance:
resembling the background in a general way 		European tree frog[3]
A green European tree frog 		Brown trout[15]
A brown trout in a river 		Khaki uniforms, 1910[16]
Greek soldiers in khaki uniforms, 1910
Disruptive coloration:
having high contrast coloration that breaks up outlines, so observers fail to recognise the object 		General protective resemblance (a type of) Papuan frogmouth[17]
A Papuan frogmouth bird resembling a tree stump
Dominant 		Commerson's frogfish[18]
A Commerson's frogfish: disruption and mimicry 		Disruptive Pattern Material[19]
British 'disruptive pattern material' camouflage pattern for clothing
Dominant
Disruptive eye mask:
a disruptive pattern that covers or runs up to the eyes, concealing them 		Coincident disruptive pattern (a type of) (Cott) Common frog[20]
Common frog with masked eye 		Jack-knifefish[21]
Jack-knifefish 		Gun barrel of
Sherman Firefly[22]
Sherman Firefly tank showing half of gun barrel disrupted by paintwork
Seasonal variation:
having coloration that varies with season, usually summer to winter 		Variable general protective resemblance:
having coloration that resembles the background in each season, in a general way 		Arctic hare[23]
A snow camouflaged Arctic hare 		Walleye[24]Sander vitreus Snow overalls[25]
Norwegian Winter War volunteer soldiers in white snow overalls
Side or Thayer countershading:
having graded toning from dark above to light below, so as to cancel out the apparent effect of self-shadowing when viewed from the side 		— Bushbuck (also has white distractive markings)[26]
A bushbuck appearing flat sided through countershading
Dominant 		Blue shark[27]
A countershaded shark 		Hugh Cott's guns[28]
Countershaded guns, 1940
Above/below countershading:
having different colours or patterns above and below, to camouflage the upperside for observers from above, and the underside for observers from below 		— Gull (white underside to match sky, improves fishing success)[29]
Gulls, white below improves fishing success 		Penguins[30]
Penguins, black on back, white on belly 		Supermarine Spitfire[31]
Supermarine Spitfire, pale below, ground coloured above
Counterillumination:
generating light to raise the brightness of an object to match a brighter background, as of a marine animal's underside against the sea surface 		— — Sparkling enope squid[32][33]
Principle of squid counterillumination
Dominant (100–1000m)
  		Yehudi lights
(prototype)[34]
Diagram of Yehudi Lights showing how they raise a plane's brightness to match the sky
Transparency:
letting so much light through that the object is hard to see in typical lighting conditions 		General protective resemblance (a type of) Glass frogs[35]
A glass frog, semi-transparent, greenish 		Comb jellies[32]
A transparent comb jelly floating in open water
Dominant (0–100m) 		1916 trials[36]
Morane-Saulnier monoplane used in George de Forest Brush's experiments on transparency
Reflection (silvering):
reflecting enough light, usually from the sides, to make the object show as a (reflected) patch of the environment 		General protective resemblance (a type of) — Pilchard[32]
A silvery fish, the pilchard
Dominant (0–100m) 		—
Self-decoration:
covering oneself in materials from the environment 		Adventitious protection:
covering oneself in materials that are not part of the body 		Masked hunter bug[37]
A nymph of the masked hunter bug, covered in sand grains 		Decorator crabs[38]
A decorator crab covered in coloured sponges
 Ghillie suit[39]
A sniper wearing a ragged ghillie suit among thick vegetation
Concealment of shadow:
having features such as flanges or a flattened body to reduce or hide the shadow 		— Flying lizard[40]
A flying lizard hard to see on a patterned tree trunk 		Tasselled wobbegong[41]
A species of carpet shark with a fringe around its chin, hiding its shadow 		Camouflage netting[42]
A military vehicle covered in camouflage netting
Irregular outline:
having a broken or complex outline (that may help delay recognition by an observer) 		Special protective resemblance (types of) Comma butterfly[43]
A comma butterfly showing it irregular wing outline 		Leafy sea dragon[44]
A leafy sea dragon showing its complicated seaweed-like outline 		Scrim, branches[45]
Tanks covered in branches and scrim
Distraction:
having coloration that distracts an observer's attention away from a feature of the object (such as the head or eye) 		— Eyespots of
peacock butterfly[46]
Peacock butterfly showing eyespots 		Foureye butterflyfish[47]
Foureye butterflyfish showing eyespots 		False bow wave in
ship camouflage[48]
Second World War warship showing false bow wave
Distractive markings
Small conspicuous marks that distract an observer's attention from recognising the object as a whole[49] 		— Snowy owl with distractively marked plumage[50]
Snowy owl with distractive black marks 		— Snow camouflage using small distractive marks
Active camouflage:
changing the coloration rapidly enough to maintain resemblance to the current background while moving 		Variable aggressive resemblance, variable protective resemblance:
varying coloration to resemble the background, in predator and prey respectively 		Veiled chameleon[51]
Veiled chameleon showing striped green pattern 		Octopuses[52]
Octopus hard to see on ocean floor 		Adaptiv[53]
(see that article for image)
Motion camouflage:
following a track such that the object remains between a starting point and the target (e.g. prey) at all times, rather than going straight for the target 		— Hoverfly[54]
Hoverfly hovering in the air 		— Air-to-air missile[55]
Fighter plane launching air-to-air missile
Used primarily for efficiency
Motion dazzle:
rapidly moving a bold pattern of contrasting stripes, confusing an observer's visual processing[56][57] 		— Zebra[57]
Zebra's bold pattern may provide motion dazzle 		— Proposal only[56]

(NB: Marine
Dazzle camouflage
did not claim
this effect)
Dazzle camouflage:
bold patterns of contrasting stripes, deceiving enemy about ship's heading 		— — — Ship camouflage, mainly WW1[58]
WW1 ship in dazzle camouflage
Dominant 1917–18
Ultra-blackness:
extremely black surface, matching very dark background 		— Black panther[59]
 Deep-sea fish[60]
Black-camouflaged deep-sea fish 		Night fighters[61]
Hawker Hurricane night fighter

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Cott, 1940. Chapter 1: General Colour Resemblance. pp. 5–19.
  2. ^ a b Forbes, 2009. p. 51.
  3. ^ a b Beddard, 1892. p. 83.
  4. ^ a b c Cott, 1940. Part 1: Concealment. pp. 5–190.
  5. ^ Johnsen, Sönke (December 2001). "Hidden in Plain Sight: The Ecology and Physiology of Organismal Transparency". Biological Bulletin. 201 (3): 301–318. doi:10.2307/1543609. JSTOR 1543609. PMID 11751243. S2CID 6385064.
  6. ^ a b c McFall-Ngai, Margaret J (1990). "Crypsis in the Pelagic Environment". American Zoologist. 30 (1): 175–188. doi:10.1093/icb/30.1.175.
  7. ^ Newark, 2007. p. 154.
  8. ^ a b c Poulton, 1890. Fold-out after p. 339.
  9. ^ Forbes, 2009. pp. 51–52.
  10. ^ Forbes, 2009. p. 134.
  11. ^ Cott, 1940. pp. 340–342.
  12. ^ Barkas, 1952. pp. 202–203.
  13. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 338.
  14. ^ "Art of the First World War: André Mare and Leon Underwood". The Elm at Vermezeele. Memorial-Caen. 1998. Archived from the original on 29 May 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  15. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 28.
  16. ^ Newark, 2007. pp. 45–46.
  17. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 148.
  18. ^ Bester, Cathleen. "Striated Frogfish". Florida Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 16 December 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  19. ^ Blechman, Hardy; Newman, Alex (2004). DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material. DPM Ltd.
  20. ^ Cott, 1940. pp. 70–88.
  21. ^ Barlow, G. W. (1972). "The attitude of fish eye-lines in relation to body shape and to stripes and bars". Copeia. 1972 (1): 4–12. doi:10.2307/1442777. JSTOR 1442777.
  22. ^ Middle East AFV Technical Letter. The Tank Museum, UK; originally G(Cam) Eighth Army. 26 January 1945.
  23. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 23.
  24. ^ Schaefer, Wayne F.; Schmitz, Mark H.; Blazer, Vicki S.; Ehlinger, Timothy J.; Berges, John A. (2014). "Localization and seasonal variation of blue pigment (sandercyanin) in walleye (Sander vitreus)". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 72 (2): 281–289. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2014-0139. ISSN 0706-652X.
  25. ^ "1915 Protective colouring pyrotechnics British Soldier white overalls snow winter clothing uniform camouflage camouflaged". DijitalImaj. Retrieved 22 February 2013. Original publication in "The War Illustrated a Conflict of Nations"
  26. ^ Ruxton, Graeme D; Speed, Michael P; Kelly, David J (2004). "What, if anything, is the adaptive function of countershading?" (PDF). Animal Behaviour. 68 (3): 445–451. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.009. S2CID 43106264.
  27. ^ Cott, 1940. pp. 40–41.
  28. ^ Forbes, 2009. pp. 149–150.
  29. ^ Rowland, Hannah M. (2009). "Review From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 364 (1516): 519–527. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0261. PMC 2674085. PMID 19000972.
  30. ^ Rowland, Hannah M (February 2009). "From Abbott Thayer to the present day: what have we learned about the function of countershading?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 364 (1516): 519–527. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0261. PMC 2674085. PMID 19000972.
  31. ^ Nichols, Steve (2008). Malta Spitfire Aces. Osprey Publishing. p. 16.
  32. ^ a b c Herring, 2002. pp. 190–195.
  33. ^ "Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
  34. ^ Bush, Vannevar; Conant, James; Harrison, George; et al. (1946). Camouflage of Sea-Search Aircraft (PDF). Office of Scientific Research and Development, National Defence Research Committee. pp. 225–240. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 23, 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Naish, D. "Green-boned glass frogs, monkey frogs, toothless toads". Tetrapod zoology. scienceblogs.com. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
  36. ^ "American Art Native Americans George de Forest Brush Arapahoes". Retrieved 4 September 2015. In 1916, Brush acquired a small Morane-Borel monoplane (also known as a Morane-Saulnier). He experimented with the possibility of making its wings and fuselage transparent, to reduce its visibility. See also the Etrich Taube, a 1910 design whose translucency effectively camouflaged it above 1200 feet (400 metres).Naughton, Russell (1 January 2002). "Igo Etrich (1879 - 1967) and his 'Taube'". Monash University.
  37. ^ Wierauch, C (2006). "Anatomy of disguise: camouflaging structures in nymphs of Some Reduviidae (Heteroptera)" (PDF). American Museum Novitates (3542): 1–18. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3542[1:AODCSI]2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/5820. S2CID 7894145.
  38. ^ Hultgren, Kristin; Jay Stachowicz (2011). "Camouflage in decorator crabs: integrating ecological, behavioural and evolutionary approaches" (PDF). In Martin Stevens; Sami Merilaita (eds.). Animal Camouflage. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19911-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-15. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
  39. ^ Forbes, 2009. pp. 102–103.
  40. ^ MacKinnon, Kathy (1992). Nature's Treasurehouse: The Wildlife of Indonesia. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. p. 38.
  41. ^ Martin, Linda (21 July 2011). "New shark at The Deep heralds summer event". The Deep. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  42. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 111.
  43. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 75.
  44. ^ Cott, 1940. pp. 341–342.
  45. ^ Cott, 1940. pp. 359, 362.
  46. ^ Vallin, A.; Jakobsson, S.; Lind, J.; Wiklund, C. (2005). "Prey survival by predator intimidation: an experimental study of peacock butterfly defence against blue tits". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 272 (1569): 1203–1207. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.3034. PMC 1564111. PMID 16024383.
  47. ^ Cott, 1940. p. 373.
  48. ^ "USS Northampton (CA-26, originally CL-26), 1930–1942". Naval Historical Center. 2002. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  49. ^ Dimitrova, M.; Stobbe, N.; Schaefer, H. M.; Merilaita, S. (2009). "Concealed by conspicuousness: distractive prey markings and backgrounds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1663): 1905–1910. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0052. PMC 2674505. PMID 19324754.
  50. ^ Thayer, Gerald H.; Thayer, Abbott H. (1909). Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom: An Exposition of the Laws of Disguise Through Color and Pattern; Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer's Disclosures. New York: Macmillan. pp. 151–152, 246–247.
  51. ^ Forbes, 2009. p. 236.
  52. ^ Forbes, 2009. pp. 236–239.
  53. ^ "Innovation Adaptiv Car Signature". BAE Systems. 2012. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  54. ^ Srinivasan, M. V.; Davey, M. (1995). "Strategies for active camouflage of motion". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 259 (1354): 19–25. Bibcode:1995RSPSB.259...19S. doi:10.1098/rspb.1995.0004. S2CID 131341953.
  55. ^ Ghose, K; Horiuchi, TK; Krishnaprasad, PS; Moss, CF (2006). "Echolocating Bats Use a Nearly Time-Optimal Strategy to Intercept Prey". PLOS Biology. 4 (5): e108. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040108. PMC 1436025. PMID 16605303.
  56. ^ a b Scott-Samuel, NE; Baddeley, R; Palmer, CE; Cuthill, IC (June 2011). Burr, David C (ed.). "Dazzle Camouflage Affects Speed Perception". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e20233. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...620233S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020233. PMC 3105982. PMID 21673797.
  57. ^ a b How, Martin J.; Zanker, Johannes M. (2014). "Motion camouflage induced by zebra stripes" (PDF). Zoology. 117 (3): 163–70. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2013.10.004. PMID 24368147.
  58. ^ Wilkinson, Norman (1969). A Brush with Life. Seeley Service. p. 79.
  59. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Black, Riley. "Why Are Black Leopards So Rare?". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  60. ^ Davis, Alexander L.; Thomas, Kate N.; Goetz, Freya E.; Robison, Bruce H.; Johnsen, Sönke; Osborn, Karen J. (2020). "Ultra-black Camouflage in Deep-Sea Fishes". Current Biology. 30 (17): 3470–3476.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.044. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 32679102.
  61. ^ Stephenson, Hubert Kirk. (1948) Applied Physics, pp. 200, 258. Science in World War II; Office of Scientific Research and Development. Volume 6 of Science in World War II (Atlantic Monthly Press Book). Editors: Chauncey Guy Suits and George Russell Harrison. Little, Brown.

Bibliography

[edit]
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