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{{Short description|Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene}}
[[File:Crime scene shoeprint oblique.jpg|thumb|Footwear impressions left at a crime scene.]]
{{how-to|date=September 2021}}
'''Forensic photography''', sometimes referred to as '''forensic imaging''' or '''crime scene photography''', is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a [[crime scene]] or an [[accident]] scene using [[photography]] for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation. It is part of the process of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] collecting. It provides investigators with photos of victims, places and items involved in the crime. Pictures of accidents show broken machinery, or a car crash, and so on. Photography of this kind involves choosing correct [[photographic lighting|lighting]], accurate angling of [[photographic lens|lenses]], and a collection of different viewpoints. Scales, like items of length measurement or objects of known size, are often used in the picture so that dimensions of items are recorded on the image.
[[File:Crime scene shoeprint oblique.jpg|thumb|A photograph of [[Footprint|footwear impressions]] left at a crime scene]]
{{ForensicScience|digital}}


'''Forensic photography''' may refer to the visual documentation of different aspects that can be found at a [[crime scene]]. It may include the documentation of the crime scene, or physical evidence that is either found at a crime scene or already processed in a laboratory.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Nafte|first1=Myriam|title=Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation|last2=Dalrymple|first2=Brian|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|year=2021|isbn=9781531008536|location=Durham, NC|pages=49–70|language=English}}</ref> Forensic photography differs from other variations of photography because crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for capturing each image.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robinson|first1=Edward M.|title=Introduction to crime scene photography|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press|isbn=9780123865434|edition=Online-Ausg.|location=Oxford, UK|pages=1–77}}</ref> As a result, the quality of forensic documentation may determine the result of an investigation; in the absence of good documentation, investigators may find it impossible to conclude what did or did not happen.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=Ross M.|title=Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation|last2=Krouskup|first2=Donna R.|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|year=2019|isbn=978-1-138-04778-5|location=Boca Raton, FL|pages=107–144|language=English}}</ref>


Crime scenes can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims. [[Locard's exchange principle]] is a major concept that helps determine these relationships of evidence.<ref name=":1" /> It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can be used as physical evidence as long as it is relevant to the case, which is why the documentation of a crime scene and physical evidence in its true form is key for the interpretation of the investigation.
== Feature of crime scene photography ==
Crime scene photography is very different from many other types of photography. Creative and artistic photography often follow very different rules, which is perfectly fine. But crime scene photography differs from other variations of photography Crime scene photography serves several purposes.


Knowing that crucial information for an investigation can be found at a crime scene, forensic photography is a form of documentation<ref name=":0" /> that is essential for retaining the quality of discovered physical evidence. Such physical evidence to be documented includes those found at the crime scene, in the laboratory, or for the identification of suspects.<ref name=":0" />
For those who were at the original crime scene, these images will help refresh their memory after a period of time has gone by.
For those who could not be present at the original crime scene, it provides them with the opportunity to see the crime scene and the evidence within the crime scene.


All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: the subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the overall forensic photographs must be shown as a neutral and accurate representation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Marilyn|title=The Crime Scene A Visual Guide|last2=Peter|first2=Massey|date=2016-01-29|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780128012451|location=San Diego|pages=37–44}}</ref>
This purpose can apply to other law enforcement professionals who will become involved with the case and will later apply when the case goes to trial. The judge, jury, attorneys, and witnesses can all benefit from seeing the original crime scene images.
And sometimes the images captured at the crime scene may be one way to actually walk away from the crime scene with the evidence. Often, photography is the only way to actually collect the evidence. Therefore, crime scene photography is a method to:
1. Document the crime scene and the evidence within the crime scene.
2. Collect the evidence. These images can then be later used as examination-quality photographs by experts/analysts from the forensic laboratory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robinson|first1=Edward M.|title=Introduction to crime scene photography|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=9780123865434|page=1-77|edition=Online-Ausg.|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123865434000018|accessdate=28 March 2016}}</ref>


== Features of forensic photography==
== Crime scene evidences ==
Crime scene is the source of the physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims. Any item found at a crime scene can be physical evidence; it can be labeled the debris of criminal activity. While there is considerable overlap of identifications of evidence, it can be categorized into the following broad groups based on its origin, composition, or method of creation:


Common types of photography such as creative and artistic photography give a different purpose than forensic photography.
1. '''Biological evidence'''—any evidence derived from a living item. Includes physiological fluids, plants, and some biological pathogens.


Crime scene photography allows one to capture essential aspects of the crime scene, including its scope, the focal points of the scene, and any physical or material evidence found at or from a result of it.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Nafte |first1=Myriam |title=Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation |last2=Dalrymple |first2=Brian |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781531008536 |location=Durham, NC |pages=49–70 |language=English}}</ref> With the use of crime scene photography, the context of the crime scene can be represented through a series of photographs, aiming to tell the whole story.<ref name=":02" /> Such photographs are used to capture the physical environment of the scene and its surroundings, in addition to physical evidence ''in situ'' and key areas of the crime scene (e.g., entrances and exits).<ref name=":02" /> There are also different techniques forensic photographers use, and the selection of what technique is used depends on the object of a photograph or the desired information one wants to obtain. For example, when trying to find footwear prints or stains on a camouflaged background, a photographer might find image subtraction techniques most helpful. However, if they were trying to analyze bite marks or fingerprints, they might use Alternative Light Source photography instead.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} Moreover, these photographs may be taken at various ranges depending on the content that is being captured.<ref name=":02" /> For example, physical evidence (e.g., footprints, wound details, trace evidence, etc.) may require close-up images, whereas the conditions of a room may only require overall and/or midrange photography.<ref name=":02" /> Photographs may also be supported with video recordings.<ref name=":02" />
2. '''Chemical evidence'''—any evidence with identifiable chemicals present.


=== Evidence photography ===
3. '''Patterned evidence'''—any evidence with a pattern or predictable pattern of appearance.
This form of photography is to provide images of the varying types of physical evidence and used as evidence in court,<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Mancini |first1=Keith |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317435396 |title=Fundamentals of Forensic Photography: Practical Techniques for Evidence Documentation on Location and in the Laboratory |last2=Sidoriak |first2=John |date=2017-10-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-69312-5 |edition=1 |location=New York : Routledge, 2017. {{!}} Series: Applications in scientific photography |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315693125}}</ref> part of the case record, or by other investigators;<ref name=":2" /> typically of forensic findings during the analysis of various forensic disciplines. Forensic laboratories generally use infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray, or laser radiation in addition to cameras and microscopes, to represent details that would otherwise be invisible to the naked eye.<ref name=":02" /> However, it is crucial that such details do not interfere with the appearance and condition of the evidence being documented.<ref name=":2" />


To ensure quality photographs, general evidence is documented under the following conditions:<ref name=":2" />
4. '''Trace evidence'''—any evidence of such a small size so as to be overlooked, not easily seen or not easily recognized.


# The evidence is placed on a clean and distraction-free background (i.e., background paper, butcher paper, neutral countertop, etc.).
# Even illumination. This can be achieved with two light sources of equal power and distance, placed approximately 45 degrees toward the evidence.
# The camera should be placed directly overhead of the evidence. A ladder or scaffolding may be required for larger items.
# Case number and scale are present in all photographs.
# All sides of the evidence photographed
# Close-up photographs of relevant details found on the evidence.


=== Impression photography ===
In addition to identifying the type of physical evidence found at a crime scene it is necessary and possible to obtain valuable investigative information from the analysis of the items of physical evidence.
Photographs of impressions such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tool marks require certain standards as they may be analyzed, compared, and searched through a large digital databases.<ref name=":02" /> For example, fingerprints are often entered into the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS). To meet the standards for such material evidence, they must:<ref name=":02" />


# Fill the frame with the impression to take advantage of the camera's resolution;
1.'''Determination of corpus delicti'''—the evidence is used to determine if a crime has taken place.
# Include a scale for accurate calibration;
# Have parallel planes of the subject, scale, and image;
# Be in sharp focus and exposed correctly; and
# Have even illumination of the area of interest.


In addition, it is suggested that these impression images be recorded in camera [[Raw image format|RAW]], although the photographer may decide to edit via [[Adobe Photoshop|Photoshop]] or another editing software.<ref name=":02" /> That will create a [[TIFF]] image, but increase the quality of the image.<ref name=":02" />
2.'''Modus operandi identification'''—criminals repeat behavior. Repeated methods of entry, for example, by kicking in a back door with the same shoe leaving the same footwear impressions throughout the crime scene.


=== Mug shots ===
3.'''Association or linkage'''—the Locard Exchange Principle—transfer of evidence by contact. See the next section to follow.
[[Mug shot]]s are taken for individuals who have been charged with a crime, and once one is created, it is automatically entered into a master database with any existing information on that individual.<ref name=":02" /> To maintain consistent quality, standardized lighting, background, and distance is required.<ref name=":02" /> In addition to associating file information, physical features (e.g., hair and eye colour, facial hair, tattoos, etc.) are also associated and an appropriate photo line-up is required.<ref name=":02" />


== Methods ==
4.'''Disproving/supporting victim/suspect/witness statements'''—the evidence may or may not support what these groups say.
[[File:FLASHLIGHTPJ (cropped).jpg|thumb|Photograph of a paper fragment with a ruler for scale]]


All forensic photographs must{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} contain three elements: the subject, a scale, and a reference object. Crime scene photographs should always be in focus, with the subject of the photograph as the main object of the scene. There should always be a scale or ruler present. This will allow investigators the ability to resize the image to accurately reconstruct the scene. The overall photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Any change in color may misidentify an object for investigators and possibly jurors.
5.'''Identification of suspects/victims/crime scene location'''—fingerprints and even DNA can be used to identify who was present at a crime scene.


Preliminary overall photographs should attempt to capture the locations of evidence and identifying features of the scene, such as addresses, vehicle identification numbers and serial numbers, footwear/tire mark impressions, and the conditions of the scene. While the purpose of the overall photograph is to document the conditions of the scene and the relationship of objects, the medium range photograph serves to document the appearance of an object.
6.'''Provide for investigative leads for detectives'''—the use of the physical evidence to give information to detectives that will assist them in locating victims and suspects.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Marilyn T.|last2=Peter|first2=Massey|title=Chapter 2 - Initial On-Scene Procedures|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego|isbn=9780128012451|page=3-15|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128012451000013|accessdate=28 March 2016}}</ref>


In all photographs, a scale must be included, as well as a marker to indicate the identity of the object in question. Again, objects in medium-range photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Adjusting the photographic principles or lighting may allow the photographer to achieve this goal.
== Process of initial on- scene ==
First three activities at the crime scene are essential for the successful preservation of the physical evidence.


===Accuracy===
'''1. First Responders at the Crime Scene'''

The crime scene investigator is rarely the first person at a crime scene. Most first responders work on reflex or instinct at the scene. Their tasks are to save lives or apprehend suspects. Unfortunately, that may mean that physical evidence may be inadvertently altered, changed, or lost due to the actions of a first responder. The crime scene investigator needs to communicate with the first responders to determine if any changes or alterations have occurred at the scene before the scene investigator arrived.

'''2. Crime Scene Security'''

Locard Exchange Principle is the basis for the use of physical evidence in a criminal investigation, it is extremely important for the crime scene to be made secure and restrict the access to the crime scene by nonessential people. Many agencies allow easy access to crime scenes by anyone in the agency. Most media persons are kept out but changes to the scene and evidence can change in attempts to protect victims.

'''3. Preliminary Scene Survey'''

The preliminary scene survey or walk-through is the crime scene investigator’s first opportunity to view the target area crime scene. A simple visual search for obvious physical evidence can be accomplished at this time. It is during this first viewing of the crime scene that the scene investigator should note any transient or temporary items of evidence and protect them immediately. Melting snow footwear impression are examples of this transient evidence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Marilyn T|last2=Peter|first2=Massey|title=Chapter 1 - Crime Scene Investigations|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego|isbn=9780128012451|page=3-15|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128012451000013}}</ref>

== Method of Forensic Photography ==
All photographs must contain three elements: the subject, a scale, and a reference object. Crime scene photographs should always be in focus, with the subject of the photograph as the main object of the scene. There should always be a scale or ruler present. This will allow the investigators the ability to resize the image to accurately reconstruct the scene. The overall photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Any change in color may misidentify an object for investigators and possibly jurors. (Figure 3.0)
[[File:Comparison of image color balance.jpg|framed|center|Figure 3.0 Comparison of image color balance. Andrew R. Reitnauer 34 – Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection Security Supervision and Management (Fourth Edition), 2015, 443–459 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800113-4.00034-1]]

Preliminary overall photographs should attempt to capture the locations of evidence and identifying features of the scene, such as addresses, vehicle identification numbers and serial numbers, footwear/tire mark impressions, and the conditions of the scene.
While the purpose of the overall photograph is to document the conditions of the scene and the relationship of objects, the medium range photograph serves to document the appearance of an object.
In all photographs, a scale must be included, as well as a marker to indicate the identity of the object in question. Again, objects of medium-range photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Adjusting the photographic principles or lighting may allow the photographer to achieve this goal.

[[File:Which is the correct representation.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.1. Which is the correct representation? Andrew R. Reitnauer. 34 – Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection. Security Supervision and Management (Fourth Edition), 2015, 443–459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800113-4.00034-1]]

In Figure 3.1, Photograph 2 is a correct representation. By adjusting the flash, the reflection from the charring was omitted, allowing the damage to be captured as seen by the investigator.

In general, the basic components of macro or evidentiary photography are as follows:
If any evidentiary photographs are to be taken for use in a critical comparison examination at a later time, guidelines must be followed in accordance with the best practices of digital evidence.
If any evidentiary photographs are to be taken for use in a critical comparison examination at a later time, guidelines must be followed in accordance with the best practices of digital evidence.


1. The digital image must be captured in a lossless compression format. The two widely accepted lossless compression formats are tagged image file format (TIFF) and RAW. TIFF is a universal file type, whereas RAW files are proprietary based upon the manufacturer of the camera. Specialized software may be required to open and enhance a RAW image.
# The digital image must be captured in a [[lossless compression]] format. The two widely accepted lossless compression formats are tagged image file format (TIFF) and RAW. TIFF is a universal file type, whereas RAW files are proprietary based upon the manufacturer of the camera. Specialized software may be required to open and enhance a RAW image.
# The camera must be on a grounded platform, such as a copy stand or tripod' In general, the human body cannot stop natural vibrations with a camera shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second. Using a grounded platform will allow the subject matter to be in complete focus.
# The camera shutter must be controlled by a remote cord or by using the timer mode. The simple action of depressing the shutter control will cause the camera to vibrate, losing focus on the subject matter.


Photographers must also understand the principles of photography. When the photographers take the photographs itself, they must consider three components. These three components are [[Film speed#ISO|ISO]], [[shutter speed]] and [[aperture]].
2. The camera must be on a grounded platform, such as a copy stand or tripod. In general, the human body cannot stop natural vibrations with a camera shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second. Using a grounded platform will allow the subject matter to be in complete focus.


===Documentation===
3. The camera shutter must be controlled by a remote cord or by using the timer mode. The simple action of depressing the shutter control will cause the camera to vibrate, losing focus of the subject matter.


[[File:PJIAH209.JPG|thumb|Example of a photo log]]
Documentation
The responding officer must also maintain a photo log if any photographic documentation is taken. The log should contain the date and time of the photograph, the subject matter, and any additional notes. These logs must be maintained within a case file or incident report, as they are a part of the examination record and discoverable material at trial.(Figure 3.2)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reitnauer|first1=Andrew R.|title=Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=9780128001134|page=443-459|edition=Fourth|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128001134000341}}</ref>


The responding officer must also maintain a photo log if any photographic documentation is taken. The log should contain the date and time of the photograph, the subject matter, and any additional notes. These logs must be maintained within a case file or incident report, as they are a part of the examination record and discoverable material at trial.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reitnauer|first1=Andrew R.|title=Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=9780128001134|pages=443–459|edition=Fourth|date=2015-06-24}}</ref>
[[File:Example of an incident access log.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.2. Example of an incident access log. Andrew R. Reitnauer. 34 – Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection. Security Supervision and Management (Fourth Edition), 2015, 443–459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800113-4.00034-1]]


=== Use of flash ===
Digital Photography
External flash units are helpful tools when responding to a crime scene and for the proper documentation of evidence. The white balance of a photo flash unit is set to mimic daylight to ensure the proper color balance of the subject matter. The photographer must be mindful of the reflections that can occur due to the directionality of the flash and the position of the subject matter. To avoid flash reflections, the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off the ceiling.
Photographers must be cognizant of the principles of photography that will guide the composition of the image itself. When taking the photograph itself, there are three controls to the camera: ISO, shutter speed, and aperture. The ISO setting (International Organization of Standards) controls the “speed” of the film. The shutter speed controls the amount or duration of light that passes through the lens and is captured by the sensor array. Finally, the aperture is the feature of the camera that controls the depth of field, or the depth of focus of the image.(Figure 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5)

[[File:High ISO on left, where the image appears grainy.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.3 High ISO on left, where the image appears grainy. Andrew R. Reitnauer. 34 – Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection. Security Supervision and Management (Fourth Edition), 2015, 443–459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800113-4.00034-1]]In Figure '''3.3,''' High ISO on left, where the image appears “grainy.” Correct ISO on right. Photos are taken at a distance of approximately 150 yards.

[[File:Photograph on the left was underexposed due to the shutter speed being set too fast, when compensated for, and allowed to remain open longer, the shutter speed corrected the exposure of the photograph in the image on the right.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.4. (Photo courtesy of Andrew Reitnauer.)]](In Figure '''3.4,''' Photograph on the left was underexposed due to the shutter speed being set too fast, when compensated for, and allowed to remain open longer, the shutter speed corrected the exposure of the photograph in the image on the right. 

[[File:The change of the lens iris due to the aperture settings.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.5. The change of the lens iris due to the aperture settings. Andrew R. Reitnauer. 34 – Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection. Security Supervision and Management (Fourth Edition), 2015, 443–459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800113-4.00034-1. (Photo courtesy of Nicholas Petraco).]]The change in the aperture settings allows the markers in the distance to be in focus as compared to the markers closest to the camera. '''In Figure 3.6''' the evidence markers are arranged in increasing distance from the camera.
[[File:Photos depicting the various aperture settings.jpeg|centre|frame|'''Figure 3.6''', Photos depicting the various aperture settings. (Photo courtesy of Andrew Reitnauer.)]]

=== '''Use of Flash''' ===
'''External flash''' units are '''helpful tools''' when responding to a crime scene and for the proper documentation of evidence. The '''white balance of a photo flash unit''' is set to mimic daylight to ensure '''the proper color balance of the subject matter'''. The photographer must be mindful of the reflections that can occur due to the directionality of the flash and the position of the subject matter. To avoid flash reflections, as demonstrated '''in Figure 3.7''', the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off of the ceiling.

[[File:Flash example.jpeg|framed|center|Figure 3.7, Flash example. (Photo courtesy of Nicholas Petraco.)]]

Figure 3.7, To avoid flash reflections, the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off of the ceiling. Photo courtesy of Nicholas Petraco.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reitnauer|first1=Andrew R.|title=34 - Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=9780128001134|page=443-459|edition=Fourth|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128001134000341|accessdate=28 March 2016}}</ref>


== Equipment ==
== Equipment ==
The tools required to properly document the crime scene include:<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455775408000034|title=Chapter 3 - Documenting the Crime Scene: Photography, Videography, and Sketching|last=Fish|first=Jacqueline T.|last2=Miller|first2=Larry S.|last3=Braswell|first3=Michael C.|last4=Wallace Jr.|first4=Edward W.|date=2014-01-01|publisher=Anderson Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=9781455775408|location=Boston|pages=59–83}}</ref>
The tools required to properly document the crime scene include:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chapter 3 - Documenting the Crime Scene: Photography, Videography, and Sketching|last1=Fish|first1=Jacqueline T.|last2=Miller|first2=Larry S.|last3=Braswell|first3=Michael C.|last4=Wallace Jr.|first4=Edward W.|date=2014-01-01|publisher=Anderson Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=9781455775408|location=Boston|pages=59–83}}</ref>


* [[Notepad]]
▪Notepad
* [[Clipboard]] and/or digital [[Tablet computer|tablet device]]

* [[Graph paper]]
▪Clipboard and/or digital tablet device
* [[Writing instruments]] (pens, pencils, markers)

* Still camera with external flash and extra batteries
▪Graph paper
* [[Video camera]]

* [[Tripod]]
▪Writing instruments (pens, pencils, markers)
* Measurement instruments (tape measures, rulers, electronic measuring devices, perspective grids, etc.)

* Evidence identification and position markers or placards
▪Still camera with external flash and extra batteries
* Photographic log

* colored cones
▪Video camera
▪Tripod

▪Measurement instruments (tape measures, rulers, electronic measuring devices, perspective grids, etc.)

▪Evidence identification and position markers or placards

▪Photographic log

▪Compass


==Methods==
[[Image:ladder skid mark.jpg|thumb|Skid mark from faulty ladder]]

==Feature==
Crime scene photography is very different from many other types of photography. Creative and artistic photography often follow very different rules, which is perfectly fine. But crime scene photography differs from other variations of photography because the crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for capturing each image. There is a specific job to be done and specific types of images that have to be captured.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robinson|first1=Edward M.|title=Introduction to crime scene photography|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=9780123865434|pages=1–77|edition=Online-Ausg.|accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref>


==Fit for court==
==Fit for court==


The images must be clear and usually have scales. They serve to not only remind investigators of the scene, but also to provide a tangible image for the court to better enable them to understand what happened. The use of several views taken from different angles helps to minimise the problem of [[parallax]]. Overall images do not have scales and serve to show the general layout, such as the house where the murder is thought to have occurred. Context images show evidence in context, like how the knife was next to the sofa. Close up images show fine detail of an artifact, such as a bloody fingerprint on the knife.
The images must be clear and usually have scales. They serve to not only remind investigators of the scene, but also to provide a tangible image for the court to better enable them to understand what happened. Inclusion of photographs in a court case can not only impact the perceived veracity of evidence by jurors, but also the verdict and length of a sentence given. When photographs are used in criminal cases, especially gruesome photographs, the jury is more likely to give a guilty verdict as well as a harsher sentence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grady |first1=Rebecca Hofstein |last2=Reiser |first2=Lauren |last3=Garcia |first3=Robert J |last4=Koeu |first4=Kristian |last5=Scurich |first5=Nicholas |date=August 1, 2015 |title=Impact of Gruesome Photographic Evidence on Legal Decision: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1440468 |journal=Psychiatry, Psychology and Law |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=503–521|doi=10.1080/13218719.2018.1440468 |pmid=31984035 |pmc=6818434 }}</ref> The use of several views taken from different angles helps to minimize the problem of [[parallax]]. Overall images do not have scales and serve to show the general layout, such as the house where the murder is thought to have occurred. Context images show evidence in context, like how the knife was next to the sofa. Close up images show fine detail of an artifact, such as a bloody fingerprint on the knife.


Road traffic incident (RTI) photographs show the overall layout at the scene taken from many different angles, with close-ups of significant damage, or [[trace evidence]] such as tire marks at a [[traffic collision]]. As with crime scene photography, it is essential that the site is pristine and untouched as far as is possible. Some essential intervention, such as rescuing a trapped victim, must be recorded in the notes made at the time by the photographer, so that the authenticity of the photographs can be verified.
Road traffic incident (RTI) photographs show the overall layout at the scene taken from many different angles, with close-ups of significant damage, or [[trace evidence]] such as tire marks at a [[traffic collision]]. As with crime scene photography, it is essential that the site is pristine and untouched as far as possible. Some essential intervention, such as rescuing a trapped victim, must be recorded in the notes made at the time by the photographer, so that the authenticity of the photographs can be verified.


As with all evidence a [[chain of custody]] must be maintained for crime scene photographs. Sometimes a CSI (forensic photographer) will process his/her own film or there is a specific lab for it. Regardless of how it is done any person who handles the evidence must be recorded. Secure Digital Forensic Imaging methods may be applied to help ensure against tampering and improper disclosure.<ref>[http://wellcommons.com/groups/trauma/news/2010/sep/9/lmh-offers-tours-of-new-s/ Lawrence Memorial Hospital sexual assault exam room] with SDFI system</ref> Accident scene pictures should also be identified and sourced, police photographs taken at the scene often being used in civil cases.
As with all evidence a [[chain of custody]] must be maintained for crime scene photographs. Sometimes a CSI (forensic photographer) will process his/her own film or there is a specific lab for it. Regardless of how it is done any person who handles the evidence must be recorded. Secure Digital Forensic Imaging methods may be applied to help ensure against tampering and improper disclosure.<ref>[http://wellcommons.com/groups/trauma/news/2010/sep/9/lmh-offers-tours-of-new-s/ Lawrence Memorial Hospital sexual assault exam room] {{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} with SDFI system</ref> Accident scene pictures should also be identified and sourced, police photographs taken at the scene are often used in civil cases. Another important aspect of forensic photography is obtaining consent. If a victim is still alive, they must give consent to have their picture taken and be used in a case. There are only two exceptions to this, which include implied consent - when a victim is not in a state where they can give consent - and when photographs are court ordered.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Gallahue |first1=Fiona E. |title=Emergency Care of the Abused |last2=Melville |first2=Laura D. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-511-41541-8 |pages=265–277}}</ref> All that said, not all photographs taken at a crime scene will be used. If they are suspected to create a prejudice in the jury for things like an unnecessary amount of gore, then a judge can deem a photo inadmissible.<ref name=":3" />


==Analysis of historic photographs==
==Analysis of historic photographs==
[[Image:Original Tay Bridge before the 1879 collapse.jpg|thumb|300px|Original Tay Bridge from the north]]
[[File:Original Tay Bridge before the 1879 collapse.jpg|thumb|300px|Original Tay Bridge from the north]]
[[Image:Tay bridge down.JPG|thumb|300px|Photograph of 1880 showing fallen Tay Bridge]]
[[File:Tay bridge down.JPG|thumb|300px|Photograph of 1880 showing fallen Tay Bridge]]
Crime or accident scene photographs can often be re-analysed in [[cold case (criminology)|cold case]]s or when the images need to be enlarged to show critical details. Photographs made by film exposure usually contain much information which may be crucial long after the photograph was taken. They can readily be digitised by scanning, and then enlarged to show the detail needed for new analysis. For example, controversy has raged for a number of years over the cause of the [[Tay Bridge disaster]] of 1879 when a half-mile section of the new bridge collapsed in a storm, taking an express train down into the estuary of the river Tay. At least 75 passengers and crew were killed in the disaster.
Crime or accident scene photographs can often be re-analyzed in [[cold case (criminology)|cold case]]s or when the images need to be enlarged to show critical details. Photographs made by film exposure usually contain much information which may be crucial long after the photograph was taken. They can readily be digitized by scanning, and then enlarged to show the detail needed for new analysis. For example, controversy has raged for a number of years over the cause of the [[Tay Bridge disaster]] of 1879 when a half-mile section of the new bridge collapsed in a storm, taking an express train down into the estuary of the river Tay. At least 75 passengers and crew were killed in the disaster.


The set of photographs taken a few days after the accident have been re-analysed in 1999–2000 by digitising them and enlarging the files to show critical details. The originals were of very high resolution since a large [[Camera#Plate camera|plate camera]] was used with a small [[aperture]], plus a small grain film. The re-analysed pictures shed new light on why the bridge fell, suggesting that design flaws and defects in the [[cast iron]] columns which supported the centre section led directly to the [[catastrophic failure]]. Alternative explanations that the bridge was blown down by the wind during the storm that night, or that the train derailed and hit the girders are unlikely. The re-analysis supports the original court of inquiry conclusions, which stated that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Porter|first1=Glenn|title=Images as Evidence|journal=Precedent|date=2013|volume=119|issue=Nov/Dec|pages=38–42|url=http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=765333217008521;res=IELHSS|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref>
The set of photographs taken a few days after the accident have been re-analyzed in 1999–2000 by digitalizing them and enlarging the files to show critical details. The originals were of very high resolution since a large [[Camera#Plate camera|plate camera]] was used with a small [[aperture]], plus a fine-grain film. The re-analyzed pictures shed new light on why the bridge fell, suggesting that design flaws and defects in the [[cast iron]] columns which supported the centre section led directly to the [[catastrophic failure]]. Alternative explanations such as that the bridge was blown down by the wind during the storm that night, or that the train derailed and hit the girders are unlikely. The re-analysis supports the original court of inquiry conclusions, which stated that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Porter|first1=Glenn|title=Images as Evidence|journal=Precedent|date=2013|volume=119|issue=Nov/Dec|pages=38–42|url=http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=765333217008521;res=IELHSS|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>

=== Concerns over scientific validity ===
A 2019 [[ProPublica]] investigation found that despite frequent use by the FBI, there are considerable concerns over scientific validity of the FBI's analysis of photographic evidence. ProPublica "asked leading statisticians and forensic science experts to review methods image examiners have detailed in court transcripts, published articles and presentations. The experts identified numerous instances of examiners overstating the techniques’ scientific precision and said some of their assertions defy logic."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.propublica.org/article/with-photo-analysis-fbi-lab-continues-shaky-forensic-science-practices|title=The FBI Says Its Photo Analysis Is Scientific Evidence.…|last=Gabrielson |first=Ryan |date=2019-01-17 |website=[[ProPublica]] |language=en |access-date=2019-01-20}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 156: Line 115:
* [[Trace evidence]]
* [[Trace evidence]]


== References ==
==Notes==
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Farrar|first1=Andrew|last2=Porter|first2=Glenn|last3=Renshaw|first3=Adrian|title=Detection of Latent Bloodstains Beneath Painted Surfaces using Reflected Infrared Photography|journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences|date=2012|volume=57|issue=5|pages=1190–1198|doi=10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02231.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02231.x/abstract;jsessionid=E81D42E23F103B3376F668D4A275353E.f03t01|accessdate=11 August 2014}}
{{refend}}
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite journal|last1=Farrar|first1=Andrew|last2=Porter|first2=Glenn|last3=Renshaw|first3=Adrian|title=Detection of Latent Bloodstains Beneath Painted Surfaces using Reflected Infrared Photography|journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences|date=2012|volume=57|issue=5|pages=1190–1198|doi=10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02231.x|pmid=22845038|s2cid=27502260}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
Line 166: Line 125:
* ''Forensic Engineering Investigation'' by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
* ''Forensic Engineering Investigation'' by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
* ''Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies'' by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
* ''Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies'' by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
* Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth, ''Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking'', Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946-962.
* Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth, ''Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking'', Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946–962.
* Peter R. Lewis, ''Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879'', Tempus, 2004, ISBN 0-7524-3160-9.
* Peter R. Lewis, ''Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879'', Tempus, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7524-3160-9}}.


{{photography subject}}
{{photography subject}}

Latest revision as of 13:16, 3 January 2025

A photograph of footwear impressions left at a crime scene
Part of a series on
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Forensic photography may refer to the visual documentation of different aspects that can be found at a crime scene. It may include the documentation of the crime scene, or physical evidence that is either found at a crime scene or already processed in a laboratory.[1] Forensic photography differs from other variations of photography because crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for capturing each image.[2] As a result, the quality of forensic documentation may determine the result of an investigation; in the absence of good documentation, investigators may find it impossible to conclude what did or did not happen.[3]

Crime scenes can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims. Locard's exchange principle is a major concept that helps determine these relationships of evidence.[3] It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can be used as physical evidence as long as it is relevant to the case, which is why the documentation of a crime scene and physical evidence in its true form is key for the interpretation of the investigation.

Knowing that crucial information for an investigation can be found at a crime scene, forensic photography is a form of documentation[1] that is essential for retaining the quality of discovered physical evidence. Such physical evidence to be documented includes those found at the crime scene, in the laboratory, or for the identification of suspects.[1]

All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: the subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the overall forensic photographs must be shown as a neutral and accurate representation.[4]

Features of forensic photography

[edit]

Common types of photography such as creative and artistic photography give a different purpose than forensic photography.

Crime scene photography allows one to capture essential aspects of the crime scene, including its scope, the focal points of the scene, and any physical or material evidence found at or from a result of it.[5] With the use of crime scene photography, the context of the crime scene can be represented through a series of photographs, aiming to tell the whole story.[5] Such photographs are used to capture the physical environment of the scene and its surroundings, in addition to physical evidence in situ and key areas of the crime scene (e.g., entrances and exits).[5] There are also different techniques forensic photographers use, and the selection of what technique is used depends on the object of a photograph or the desired information one wants to obtain. For example, when trying to find footwear prints or stains on a camouflaged background, a photographer might find image subtraction techniques most helpful. However, if they were trying to analyze bite marks or fingerprints, they might use Alternative Light Source photography instead.[citation needed] Moreover, these photographs may be taken at various ranges depending on the content that is being captured.[5] For example, physical evidence (e.g., footprints, wound details, trace evidence, etc.) may require close-up images, whereas the conditions of a room may only require overall and/or midrange photography.[5] Photographs may also be supported with video recordings.[5]

Evidence photography

[edit]

This form of photography is to provide images of the varying types of physical evidence and used as evidence in court,[5][6] part of the case record, or by other investigators;[6] typically of forensic findings during the analysis of various forensic disciplines. Forensic laboratories generally use infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray, or laser radiation in addition to cameras and microscopes, to represent details that would otherwise be invisible to the naked eye.[5] However, it is crucial that such details do not interfere with the appearance and condition of the evidence being documented.[6]

To ensure quality photographs, general evidence is documented under the following conditions:[6]

  1. The evidence is placed on a clean and distraction-free background (i.e., background paper, butcher paper, neutral countertop, etc.).
  2. Even illumination. This can be achieved with two light sources of equal power and distance, placed approximately 45 degrees toward the evidence.
  3. The camera should be placed directly overhead of the evidence. A ladder or scaffolding may be required for larger items.
  4. Case number and scale are present in all photographs.
  5. All sides of the evidence photographed
  6. Close-up photographs of relevant details found on the evidence.

Impression photography

[edit]

Photographs of impressions such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tool marks require certain standards as they may be analyzed, compared, and searched through a large digital databases.[5] For example, fingerprints are often entered into the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS). To meet the standards for such material evidence, they must:[5]

  1. Fill the frame with the impression to take advantage of the camera's resolution;
  2. Include a scale for accurate calibration;
  3. Have parallel planes of the subject, scale, and image;
  4. Be in sharp focus and exposed correctly; and
  5. Have even illumination of the area of interest.

In addition, it is suggested that these impression images be recorded in camera RAW, although the photographer may decide to edit via Photoshop or another editing software.[5] That will create a TIFF image, but increase the quality of the image.[5]

Mug shots

[edit]

Mug shots are taken for individuals who have been charged with a crime, and once one is created, it is automatically entered into a master database with any existing information on that individual.[5] To maintain consistent quality, standardized lighting, background, and distance is required.[5] In addition to associating file information, physical features (e.g., hair and eye colour, facial hair, tattoos, etc.) are also associated and an appropriate photo line-up is required.[5]

Methods

[edit]
Photograph of a paper fragment with a ruler for scale

All forensic photographs must[citation needed] contain three elements: the subject, a scale, and a reference object. Crime scene photographs should always be in focus, with the subject of the photograph as the main object of the scene. There should always be a scale or ruler present. This will allow investigators the ability to resize the image to accurately reconstruct the scene. The overall photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Any change in color may misidentify an object for investigators and possibly jurors.

Preliminary overall photographs should attempt to capture the locations of evidence and identifying features of the scene, such as addresses, vehicle identification numbers and serial numbers, footwear/tire mark impressions, and the conditions of the scene. While the purpose of the overall photograph is to document the conditions of the scene and the relationship of objects, the medium range photograph serves to document the appearance of an object.

In all photographs, a scale must be included, as well as a marker to indicate the identity of the object in question. Again, objects in medium-range photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Adjusting the photographic principles or lighting may allow the photographer to achieve this goal.

Accuracy

[edit]

If any evidentiary photographs are to be taken for use in a critical comparison examination at a later time, guidelines must be followed in accordance with the best practices of digital evidence.

  1. The digital image must be captured in a lossless compression format. The two widely accepted lossless compression formats are tagged image file format (TIFF) and RAW. TIFF is a universal file type, whereas RAW files are proprietary based upon the manufacturer of the camera. Specialized software may be required to open and enhance a RAW image.
  2. The camera must be on a grounded platform, such as a copy stand or tripod' In general, the human body cannot stop natural vibrations with a camera shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second. Using a grounded platform will allow the subject matter to be in complete focus.
  3. The camera shutter must be controlled by a remote cord or by using the timer mode. The simple action of depressing the shutter control will cause the camera to vibrate, losing focus on the subject matter.

Photographers must also understand the principles of photography. When the photographers take the photographs itself, they must consider three components. These three components are ISO, shutter speed and aperture.

Documentation

[edit]
Example of a photo log

The responding officer must also maintain a photo log if any photographic documentation is taken. The log should contain the date and time of the photograph, the subject matter, and any additional notes. These logs must be maintained within a case file or incident report, as they are a part of the examination record and discoverable material at trial.[7]

Use of flash

[edit]

External flash units are helpful tools when responding to a crime scene and for the proper documentation of evidence. The white balance of a photo flash unit is set to mimic daylight to ensure the proper color balance of the subject matter. The photographer must be mindful of the reflections that can occur due to the directionality of the flash and the position of the subject matter. To avoid flash reflections, the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off the ceiling.

Equipment

[edit]

The tools required to properly document the crime scene include:[8]

Fit for court

[edit]

The images must be clear and usually have scales. They serve to not only remind investigators of the scene, but also to provide a tangible image for the court to better enable them to understand what happened. Inclusion of photographs in a court case can not only impact the perceived veracity of evidence by jurors, but also the verdict and length of a sentence given. When photographs are used in criminal cases, especially gruesome photographs, the jury is more likely to give a guilty verdict as well as a harsher sentence.[9] The use of several views taken from different angles helps to minimize the problem of parallax. Overall images do not have scales and serve to show the general layout, such as the house where the murder is thought to have occurred. Context images show evidence in context, like how the knife was next to the sofa. Close up images show fine detail of an artifact, such as a bloody fingerprint on the knife.

Road traffic incident (RTI) photographs show the overall layout at the scene taken from many different angles, with close-ups of significant damage, or trace evidence such as tire marks at a traffic collision. As with crime scene photography, it is essential that the site is pristine and untouched as far as possible. Some essential intervention, such as rescuing a trapped victim, must be recorded in the notes made at the time by the photographer, so that the authenticity of the photographs can be verified.

As with all evidence a chain of custody must be maintained for crime scene photographs. Sometimes a CSI (forensic photographer) will process his/her own film or there is a specific lab for it. Regardless of how it is done any person who handles the evidence must be recorded. Secure Digital Forensic Imaging methods may be applied to help ensure against tampering and improper disclosure.[10] Accident scene pictures should also be identified and sourced, police photographs taken at the scene are often used in civil cases. Another important aspect of forensic photography is obtaining consent. If a victim is still alive, they must give consent to have their picture taken and be used in a case. There are only two exceptions to this, which include implied consent - when a victim is not in a state where they can give consent - and when photographs are court ordered.[11] All that said, not all photographs taken at a crime scene will be used. If they are suspected to create a prejudice in the jury for things like an unnecessary amount of gore, then a judge can deem a photo inadmissible.[11]

Analysis of historic photographs

[edit]
Original Tay Bridge from the north
Photograph of 1880 showing fallen Tay Bridge

Crime or accident scene photographs can often be re-analyzed in cold cases or when the images need to be enlarged to show critical details. Photographs made by film exposure usually contain much information which may be crucial long after the photograph was taken. They can readily be digitized by scanning, and then enlarged to show the detail needed for new analysis. For example, controversy has raged for a number of years over the cause of the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879 when a half-mile section of the new bridge collapsed in a storm, taking an express train down into the estuary of the river Tay. At least 75 passengers and crew were killed in the disaster.

The set of photographs taken a few days after the accident have been re-analyzed in 1999–2000 by digitalizing them and enlarging the files to show critical details. The originals were of very high resolution since a large plate camera was used with a small aperture, plus a fine-grain film. The re-analyzed pictures shed new light on why the bridge fell, suggesting that design flaws and defects in the cast iron columns which supported the centre section led directly to the catastrophic failure. Alternative explanations such as that the bridge was blown down by the wind during the storm that night, or that the train derailed and hit the girders are unlikely. The re-analysis supports the original court of inquiry conclusions, which stated that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".[12]

Concerns over scientific validity

[edit]

A 2019 ProPublica investigation found that despite frequent use by the FBI, there are considerable concerns over scientific validity of the FBI's analysis of photographic evidence. ProPublica "asked leading statisticians and forensic science experts to review methods image examiners have detailed in court transcripts, published articles and presentations. The experts identified numerous instances of examiners overstating the techniques’ scientific precision and said some of their assertions defy logic."[13]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021). Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70. ISBN 9781531008536.
  2. ^ Robinson, Edward M. (2013). Introduction to crime scene photography (Online-Ausg. ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 1–77. ISBN 9780123865434.
  3. ^ a b Gardner, Ross M.; Krouskup, Donna R. (2019). Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 107–144. ISBN 978-1-138-04778-5.
  4. ^ Miller, Marilyn; Peter, Massey (2016-01-29). The Crime Scene A Visual Guide. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 37–44. ISBN 9780128012451.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021). Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70. ISBN 9781531008536.
  6. ^ a b c d Mancini, Keith; Sidoriak, John (2017-10-02). Fundamentals of Forensic Photography: Practical Techniques for Evidence Documentation on Location and in the Laboratory (1 ed.). New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Applications in scientific photography: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315693125. ISBN 978-1-315-69312-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  7. ^ Reitnauer, Andrew R. (2015-06-24). Crime Scene Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management (Fourth ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 443–459. ISBN 9780128001134.
  8. ^ Fish, Jacqueline T.; Miller, Larry S.; Braswell, Michael C.; Wallace Jr., Edward W. (2014-01-01). Chapter 3 - Documenting the Crime Scene: Photography, Videography, and Sketching. Boston: Anderson Publishing, Ltd. pp. 59–83. ISBN 9781455775408.
  9. ^ Grady, Rebecca Hofstein; Reiser, Lauren; Garcia, Robert J; Koeu, Kristian; Scurich, Nicholas (August 1, 2015). "Impact of Gruesome Photographic Evidence on Legal Decision: A Meta-Analysis". Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. 25 (4): 503–521. doi:10.1080/13218719.2018.1440468. PMC 6818434. PMID 31984035.
  10. ^ Lawrence Memorial Hospital sexual assault exam room [permanent dead link‍] with SDFI system
  11. ^ a b Gallahue, Fiona E.; Melville, Laura D. (2008). Emergency Care of the Abused. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–277. ISBN 978-0-511-41541-8.
  12. ^ Porter, Glenn (2013). "Images as Evidence". Precedent. 119 (Nov/Dec): 38–42. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
  13. ^ Gabrielson, Ryan (2019-01-17). "The FBI Says Its Photo Analysis Is Scientific Evidence.…". ProPublica. Retrieved 2019-01-20.

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Introduction to Forensic Engineering (The Forensic Library) by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (1992).
  • Forensic Engineering Investigation by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
  • Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
  • Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth, Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking, Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946–962.
  • Peter R. Lewis, Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879, Tempus, 2004, ISBN 0-7524-3160-9.
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