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{{short description|Organism that thrives at relatively high temperatures}}
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[[Image:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Thermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], [[Yellowstone National Park]]]]
{{distinguish|Thermopile|Thermopylae (disambiguation){{!}}Thermopylae}}
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A '''thermophile''' is an organism — a type of [[extremophile]] — that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between {{convert|41|and|122|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms | date=2006| author=Madigan MT| author2=Martino JM | edition=11th |pages=136 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=0-13-196893-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author= Takai T |display-authors= etal | title = Cell proliferation at 122°C and isotopically heavy CH<sub>4</sub> production by a hyperthermophilic methanogen under high-pressure cultivation
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[[Image:Aerial image of Grand Prismatic Spring (view from the south).jpg|right|thumb|300px|Thermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], [[Yellowstone National Park]]]]
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| journal = PNAS | volume = 105 | issue = 31 | pages = 10949–51 | date=2008 | url = http://www.pnas.org/content/105/31/10949.full.pdf |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0712334105 | pmid=18664583 | pmc=2490668|bibcode = 2008PNAS..10510949T }}</ref> Many thermophiles are [[archaea]]. Thermophilic [[eubacteria]] are suggested to have been among the earliest bacteria.<ref name="pmid19000750">{{cite journal |author=Horiike T |author2=Miyata D |author3=Hamada K |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogenetic construction of 17 bacterial phyla by new method and carefully selected orthologs |journal=Gene |volume=429 |issue=1–2 |pages=59–64 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19000750 |pmc=2648810 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2008.10.006 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378-1119(08)00524-6}}</ref>
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A '''thermophile''' is an organism—a type of [[extremophile]]—that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between {{convert|41|and|122|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms | date=2006| author=Madigan MT| author2=Martino JM | edition=11th |pages=136 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=0-13-196893-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author= Takai T |display-authors= etal | title = Cell proliferation at 122°C and isotopically heavy CH<sub>4</sub> production by a hyperthermophilic methanogen under high-pressure cultivation
⚫
| journal = PNAS | volume = 105 | issue = 31 | pages = 10949–51 | date=2008 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0712334105 | pmid=18664583 | pmc=2490668|bibcode = 2008PNAS..10510949T |doi-access= free }}</ref> Many thermophiles are [[archaea]], though some of them are [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. Thermophilic [[eubacteria]] are suggested to have been among the earliest bacteria.<ref name="pmid19000750">{{cite journal |author=Horiike T |author2=Miyata D |author3=Hamada K |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogenetic construction of 17 bacterial phyla by new method and carefully selected orthologs |journal=Gene |volume=429 |issue=1–2 |pages=59–64 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19000750 |pmc=2648810 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2008.10.006 }}</ref>


Thermophiles are found in various [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]ly heated regions of the [[Earth]], such as hot springs like those in [[Yellowstone National Park]] (see image) and [[deep sea]] [[hydrothermal vent]]s, as well as decaying plant matter, such as peat bogs and compost.
Thermophiles are found in various [[Geothermal energy|geothermal]]ly heated regions of the [[Earth]], such as hot springs like those in [[Yellowstone National Park]] (see image) and [[deep sea]] [[hydrothermal vent]]s, as well as decaying plant matter, such as [[peat bogs]] and [[compost]].


Unlike other types of bacteria, thermophiles can survive at much hotter temperatures, whereas other bacteria would be damaged and sometimes killed if exposed to the same temperatures.
Thermophiles can survive at high temperatures, whereas other bacteria or archaea would be damaged and sometimes killed if exposed to the same temperatures.


The [[enzyme]]s in thermophiles function at high temperatures. Some of these enzymes are used in [[molecular biology]], for example the [[taq polymerase|''Taq'' polymerase]] used in [[polymerase chain reaction|PCR]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vieille |first1=Claire |last2=Zeikus |first2=Gregory J. |date=March 2001 |title=Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.65.1.1-43.2001 |issn=1092-2172 |pmid=11238984|pmc=99017 }}</ref> "Thermophile" is derived from the {{langx|el|θερμότητα}} (''thermotita''), meaning [[heat]], and {{langx|el|φίλια}} (''philia''), [[love]].
Professor Zachary Studniberg, from Cambridge University, wrote in his book ''The Function of Extremophiles'' that they are the most unusual organism on the planet in terms of their contribution to modern life.


Comparative surveys suggest that thermophile diversity is principally driven by pH, not temperature.<ref>Power, J.F., Carere, C.R., Lee, C.K., Wakerley, G.L., Evans, D.W., Button, M., White, D., Climo, M.D., Hinze, A.M., Morgan, X.C. and McDonald, I.R., 2018. Microbial biogeography of 925 geothermal springs in New Zealand. Nature communications, 9(1), p.2876.</ref>
As a prerequisite for their survival, thermophiles contain [[enzyme]]s that can function at high temperatures. Some of these enzymes are used in [[molecular biology]] (for example, heat-stable [[DNA polymerase]]s for [[polymerase chain reaction|PCR]]), and in washing agents.

"Thermophile" is derived from the {{lang-el|θερμότητα}} (''thermotita''), meaning heat, and {{lang-el|φίλια}} (''philia''), love.


==Classification==
==Classification==
Thermophiles can be classified in various ways. One classification sorts these organisms according to their optimal growth temperatures:<ref>{{cite journal|author=Stetter, K.|title=History of discovery of the first hyperthermophiles|journal=Extremophiles|year=2006|volume=10|issue=5|pages=357–362|doi=10.1007/s00792-006-0012-7|pmid=16941067|s2cid=36345694}}</ref>
Thermophiles are classified into obligate and facultative thermophiles: Obligate thermophiles (also called extreme thermophiles) require such high temperatures for growth, whereas facultative thermophiles (also called moderate thermophiles) can thrive at high temperatures, but also at lower temperatures (below
# Simple thermophiles: {{convert|50–64|C|F}}
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{{convert|50|C}}). [[Hyperthermophile]]s are particularly extreme thermophiles for which the optimal temperatures are above {{convert|80|C}}.
# Extreme thermophiles {{convert|65–79|C|F}}
# Hyperthermophiles {{convert|80|C|F}} and beyond, but not below {{convert|50|C|F}}


In a related classification, thermophiles are sorted as follows:
Bacteria within the ''[[Alicyclobacillus]]'' genus are [[acidophile (organisms)|acidophilic]] thermophiles, which can cause contamination in fruit juice drinks.<ref>G. L. Pettipher, M. E. Osmundson, J. M. Murphy. Methods for the detection and enumeration of ''Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris'' and investigation of growth and production of taint in fruit juice and fruit juice-containing drinks. ''Letters in Applied Microbiology.'' Volume 24, Issue 3, pages 185–189, March 1997.</ref>
# Facultative thermophiles (also called moderate thermophiles) can thrive at high temperatures, but also at lower temperatures (below {{convert|50|C}}), whereas
# Obligate thermophiles (also called extreme thermophiles) require such high temperatures for growth.
⚫
# [[Hyperthermophile]]s are particularly extreme thermophiles for which the optimal temperatures are above {{convert|80|C}}.


[[File:Thermophilic bacteria.jpg|thumb|A colony of thermophiles in the outflow of [[Mickey Hot Springs]], [[Oregon]], the water temperature is approximately
[[File:Thermophilic bacteria.jpg|thumb|A colony of thermophiles in the outflow of [[Mickey Hot Springs]], [[Oregon]], the water temperature is approximately
{{convert|60|C}}.]]
{{convert|60|C}}.]]
Thermophiles, meaning heat-loving, are organisms with an optimum growth temperature of {{convert|50|C}} or more, a maximum of up to {{convert|70|C}} or more, and a minimum of about {{convert|40|C}}, but these are only approximate. Some extreme thermophiles ([[hyperthermophile]]s) require a very high temperature ({{convert|80|to|105|C}}) for growth. Their membranes and proteins are unusually stable at these extremely high temperatures. Thus, many important [[biotechnological]] processes use thermophilic [[enzyme]]s because of their ability to withstand intense heat.


Many of the hyperthermophiles Archea require elemental [[sulfur]] for growth. Some are [[anaerobe]]s that use the sulfur instead of [[oxygen]] as an [[electron acceptor]] during [[cellular respiration]]. Some are [[lithotroph]]s that oxidize sulfur to [[sulfuric acid]] as an energy source, thus requiring the microorganism to be adapted to very low [[pH]] (i.e., it is an [[acidophile (organisms)|acidophile]] as well as thermophile). These organisms are inhabitants of hot, sulfur-rich environments usually associated with [[volcanism]], such as [[hot springs]], [[geysers]], and [[fumaroles]]. In these places, especially in Yellowstone National Park, [[wiktionary:zonation|zonation]] of microorganisms according to their temperature optima occurs. Often, these organisms are colored, due to the presence of [[photosynthetic]] pigments.
Many of the hyperthermophilic Archaea require elemental [[sulfur]] for growth. Some are [[anaerobe]]s that use the sulfur instead of [[oxygen]] as an [[electron acceptor]] during [[anaerobic respiration|cellular respiration (anaerobic)]]. Some are [[lithotroph]]s that oxidize sulphur to create [[sulfuric acid]] as an energy source, thus requiring the microorganism to be adapted to very low [[pH]] (i.e., it is an [[acidophile (organisms)|acidophile]] as well as thermophile). These organisms are inhabitants of hot, sulfur-rich environments usually associated with [[volcanism]], such as [[hot springs]], [[geysers]], and [[fumaroles]]. In these places, especially in Yellowstone National Park, [[wikt:zonation|zonation]] of microorganisms according to their temperature optima occurs. These organisms are often colored, due to the presence of [[photosynthetic]] pigments.{{cn|date=February 2023}}


==Thermophile versus mesophile==
==Thermophile versus mesophile==
Thermophiles can be discriminated from [[mesophile]]s from genomic features. For example, the GC content levels in the coding regions of some signatures genes were consistently identified as correlated with the temperature range condition when the association analysis was applied to mesophilic and thermophilic organisms regardless of their phylogeny, oxygen requirement, salinity, or habitat conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zheng H |author2=Wu H |title=Gene-centric association analysis for the correlation between the guanine-cytosine content levels and temperature range conditions of prokaryotic species |journal=BMC Bioinformatics |volume=11 |pages=S7 |date=December 2010 |doi=10.1186/1471-2105-11-S11-S7 |pmc=3024870 |pmid=21172057}}</ref>
Thermophiles can be discriminated from [[mesophile]]s from genomic features. For example, the [[GC-content]] levels in the coding regions of some signature genes were consistently identified as correlated with the temperature range condition when the association analysis was applied to mesophilic and thermophilic organisms regardless of their phylogeny, oxygen requirement, salinity, or habitat conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zheng H |author2=Wu H |title=Gene-centric association analysis for the correlation between the guanine-cytosine content levels and temperature range conditions of prokaryotic species |journal=BMC Bioinformatics |volume=11 |pages=S7 |date=December 2010 |issue=Suppl 11 |doi=10.1186/1471-2105-11-S11-S7 |pmc=3024870 |pmid=21172057 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Fungal thermophiles ==
Fungi are the only group of organisms in the Eukaryota domain that can survive at temperature ranges of 50–60&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rajasekaran |first1=A. K. |last2=Maheshwari |first2=R. |date=1993-09-01 |title=Thermophilic fungi: An assessment of their potential for growth in soil |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02702992 |journal=Journal of Biosciences |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=345–354 |doi=10.1007/BF02702992 |s2cid=46013720 |issn=0973-7138}}</ref> Thermophilic fungi have been reported from a number of habitats, with most of them belonging to the fungal order [[Sordariales]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Patel |first1=Hardi |title=Thermophilic fungi: Diversity, physiology, genetics, and applications |date=2021 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-821005-5.00005-3 |work=New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering |pages=69–93 |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2022-06-02 |last2=Rawat |first2=Seema|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-821005-5.00005-3 |isbn=9780128210055 |s2cid=224847697 }}</ref> Thermophilic fungi have great biotechnological potential due to their ability to produce industrial-relevant thermostable enzymes, in particular for the degradation of plant biomass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van den Brink |first1=Joost |last2=Facun |first2=Kryss |last3=de Vries |first3=Michel |last4=Stielow |first4=J. Benjamin |date=December 2015 |title=Thermophilic growth and enzymatic thermostability are polyphyletic traits within Chaetomiaceae |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2015.09.011 |journal=Fungal Biology |volume=119 |issue=12 |pages=1255–1266 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2015.09.011 |pmid=26615748 |bibcode=2015FunB..119.1255V |issn=1878-6146}}</ref>


==Gene transfer and genetic exchange==
==Gene transfer and genetic exchange==
''Sulfolobus solfataricus'' and ''Sulfolobus acidocaldarius'' are hyperthermophilic archaea. When these organisms are exposed to the DNA damaging agents UV irradiation, bleomycin or mitomycin C, species-specific cellular aggregation is induced.<ref name=Frols08>>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |author=Fröls S |author2=Ajon M |author3=Wagner M |author4=Teichmann D |author5=Zolghadr B |author6= Folea M |author7=Boekema EJ |author8=Driessen AJ |author9=Schleper C |author10=Albers SV |title=UV-inducible cellular aggregation of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by pili formation |journal=Mol. Microbiol. |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=938–52 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18990182 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06459.x }}</ref><ref name=Ajon>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |author=Ajon M |author2= Fröls S |author3=van Wolferen M |author4=Stoecker K |author5=Teichmann D |author6=Driessen AJ |author7=Grogan DW |author8=Albers SV |author9=Schleper C |title=UV-inducible DNA exchange in hyperthermophilic archaea mediated by type IV pili |journal=Mol. Microbiol. |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=807–17 |date=November 2011 |pmid=21999488 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07861.x }}</ref> In ''S. acidocaldarius'', UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency.<ref name=Ajon /> Recombination rates exceed those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude. Frols et al.<ref name=Frols08 /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fröls S |author2=White MF |author3=Schleper C |title=Reactions to UV damage in the model archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus |journal=Biochem. Soc. Trans. |volume=37 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=36–41 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19143598 |doi=10.1042/BST0370036 }}</ref> and Ajon et al.<ref name=Ajon />(2011) hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA transfer between ''Sulfolobus'' cells in order to provide increased repair of damaged DNA by means of [[homologous recombination]]. Van Wolferen et al.,<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Wolferen M |author2=Ajon M |author3=Driessen AJ |author4=Albers SV |title=How hyperthermophiles adapt to change their lives: DNA exchange in extreme conditions |journal=Extremophiles |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=545–63 |date=July 2013 |pmid=23712907 |doi=10.1007/s00792-013-0552-6 }}</ref> in discussing DNA exchange in the hyperthermophiles under extreme conditions, noted that DNA exchange likely plays a role in repair of DNA via homologous recombination. They suggested that this process is crucial under DNA damaging conditions such as high temperature. Also it has been suggested that DNA transfer in ''Sulfolobus'' may be a primitive form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that are associated with species-specific DNA transfer between cells leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage [see [[Transformation (genetics)]]].
''[[Sulfolobus solfataricus]]'' and ''[[Sulfolobus acidocaldarius]]'' are hyperthermophilic archaea. When these organisms are exposed to the [[DNA damaging agent]]s [[UV radiation|UV irradiation]], [[bleomycin]] or [[mitomycin C]], species-specific cellular aggregation is induced.<ref name=Frols08>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |author=Fröls S |author2=Ajon M |author3=Wagner M |author4=Teichmann D |author5=Zolghadr B |author6= Folea M |author7=Boekema EJ |author8=Driessen AJ |author9=Schleper C |author10=Albers SV |title=UV-inducible cellular aggregation of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by pili formation |journal=Mol. Microbiol. |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=938–52 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18990182 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06459.x |url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/56956856/UV_inducible_cellular_aggregation_of_the_hyperthermophilic_archaeon_Sulfolobus_solfataricus_is_mediated_by_pili_formation.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Ajon>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |author=Ajon M |author2= Fröls S |author3=van Wolferen M |author4=Stoecker K |author5=Teichmann D |author6=Driessen AJ |author7=Grogan DW |author8=Albers SV |author9=Schleper C |title=UV-inducible DNA exchange in hyperthermophilic archaea mediated by type IV pili |journal=Mol. Microbiol. |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=807–17 |date=November 2011 |pmid=21999488 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07861.x |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/6771142/2011MolMicrobiolAjon.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref> In ''S. acidocaldarius'', UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency.<ref name=Ajon /> Recombination rates exceed those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude. Frols et al.<ref name=Frols08 /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fröls S |author2=White MF |author3=Schleper C |title=Reactions to UV damage in the model archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus |journal=Biochem. Soc. Trans. |volume=37 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=36–41 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19143598 |doi=10.1042/BST0370036 }}</ref> and Ajon et al.<ref name=Ajon />(2011) hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA transfer between ''Sulfolobus'' cells in order to provide increased repair of damaged DNA by means of [[homologous recombination]]. Van Wolferen et al.,<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Wolferen M |author2=Ajon M |author3=Driessen AJ |author4=Albers SV |title=How hyperthermophiles adapt to change their lives: DNA exchange in extreme conditions |journal=Extremophiles |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=545–63 |date=July 2013 |pmid=23712907 |doi=10.1007/s00792-013-0552-6 |s2cid=5572901 }}</ref> in discussing DNA exchange in the hyperthermophiles under extreme conditions, noted that DNA exchange likely plays a role in repair of DNA via homologous recombination. They suggested that this process is crucial under DNA damaging conditions such as high temperature. Also it has been suggested that DNA transfer in ''Sulfolobus'' may be a primitive form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied [[bacterial transformation]] systems that are associated with species-specific DNA transfer between cells leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage{{cn|date=February 2023}}.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Hyperthermophile]]
* [[Hyperthermophile]]
*[[Mesophile]]
* [[Mesophile]]
*[[Psychrophile]]
* [[Psychrophile]]
*[[Anaerobic digestion]]
* [[Anaerobic digestion]]
*[[Archaea]]
* [[Archaea]]
*[[Sulfolobus]]
* [[Sulfolobus]]
* [[Pyrolobus fumarii|Pyrolobus fumarri]]


==References==
==References==
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==External links==
==External links==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=183924 |title=Thermoprotei : Extreme Thermophile |work=NCBI Taxonomy Browser }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=183924 |title=Thermoprotei : Extreme Thermophile |work=NCBI Taxonomy Browser }}
* [https://deepcarbon.net/feature/how-hot-is-too-hot#.V9Fp-4WASfE/ How hot is too Hot? T-Limit Expedition]

{{Extremophile}}
{{Extremophile}}


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[[Category:Thermozoa]]
[[Category:Thermozoa]]
[[Category:Geysers]]
[[Category:Geysers]]
[[Category:Morocco articles missing geocoordinate data]]

Latest revision as of 23:01, 22 October 2024

Not to be confused with Thermopile or Thermopylae.
Thermophiles produce some of the bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park

A thermophile is an organism—a type of extremophile—that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between 41 and 122 °C (106 and 252 °F).[1][2] Many thermophiles are archaea, though some of them are bacteria and fungi. Thermophilic eubacteria are suggested to have been among the earliest bacteria.[3]

Thermophiles are found in various geothermally heated regions of the Earth, such as hot springs like those in Yellowstone National Park (see image) and deep sea hydrothermal vents, as well as decaying plant matter, such as peat bogs and compost.

Thermophiles can survive at high temperatures, whereas other bacteria or archaea would be damaged and sometimes killed if exposed to the same temperatures.

The enzymes in thermophiles function at high temperatures. Some of these enzymes are used in molecular biology, for example the Taq polymerase used in PCR.[4] "Thermophile" is derived from the Greek: θερμότητα (thermotita), meaning heat, and Greek: φίλια (philia), love.

Comparative surveys suggest that thermophile diversity is principally driven by pH, not temperature.[5]

Classification

[edit]

Thermophiles can be classified in various ways. One classification sorts these organisms according to their optimal growth temperatures:[6]

  1. Simple thermophiles: 50–64 °C (122–147 °F)
  2. Extreme thermophiles 65–79 °C (149–174 °F)
  3. Hyperthermophiles 80 °C (176 °F) and beyond, but not below 50 °C (122 °F)

In a related classification, thermophiles are sorted as follows:

  1. Facultative thermophiles (also called moderate thermophiles) can thrive at high temperatures, but also at lower temperatures (below 50 °C (122 °F)), whereas
  2. Obligate thermophiles (also called extreme thermophiles) require such high temperatures for growth.
  3. Hyperthermophiles are particularly extreme thermophiles for which the optimal temperatures are above 80 °C (176 °F).
A colony of thermophiles in the outflow of Mickey Hot Springs, Oregon, the water temperature is approximately 60 °C (140 °F).

Many of the hyperthermophilic Archaea require elemental sulfur for growth. Some are anaerobes that use the sulfur instead of oxygen as an electron acceptor during cellular respiration (anaerobic). Some are lithotrophs that oxidize sulphur to create sulfuric acid as an energy source, thus requiring the microorganism to be adapted to very low pH (i.e., it is an acidophile as well as thermophile). These organisms are inhabitants of hot, sulfur-rich environments usually associated with volcanism, such as hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. In these places, especially in Yellowstone National Park, zonation of microorganisms according to their temperature optima occurs. These organisms are often colored, due to the presence of photosynthetic pigments.[citation needed]

Thermophile versus mesophile

[edit]

Thermophiles can be discriminated from mesophiles from genomic features. For example, the GC-content levels in the coding regions of some signature genes were consistently identified as correlated with the temperature range condition when the association analysis was applied to mesophilic and thermophilic organisms regardless of their phylogeny, oxygen requirement, salinity, or habitat conditions.[7]

Fungal thermophiles

[edit]

Fungi are the only group of organisms in the Eukaryota domain that can survive at temperature ranges of 50–60 °C.[8] Thermophilic fungi have been reported from a number of habitats, with most of them belonging to the fungal order Sordariales.[9] Thermophilic fungi have great biotechnological potential due to their ability to produce industrial-relevant thermostable enzymes, in particular for the degradation of plant biomass.[10]

Gene transfer and genetic exchange

[edit]

Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius are hyperthermophilic archaea. When these organisms are exposed to the DNA damaging agents UV irradiation, bleomycin or mitomycin C, species-specific cellular aggregation is induced.[11][12] In S. acidocaldarius, UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency.[12] Recombination rates exceed those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude. Frols et al.[11][13] and Ajon et al.[12](2011) hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA transfer between Sulfolobus cells in order to provide increased repair of damaged DNA by means of homologous recombination. Van Wolferen et al.,[14] in discussing DNA exchange in the hyperthermophiles under extreme conditions, noted that DNA exchange likely plays a role in repair of DNA via homologous recombination. They suggested that this process is crucial under DNA damaging conditions such as high temperature. Also it has been suggested that DNA transfer in Sulfolobus may be a primitive form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that are associated with species-specific DNA transfer between cells leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage[citation needed].

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Madigan MT; Martino JM (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Pearson. p. 136. ISBN 0-13-196893-9.
  2. ^ Takai T; et al. (2008). "Cell proliferation at 122°C and isotopically heavy CH4 production by a hyperthermophilic methanogen under high-pressure cultivation". PNAS. 105 (31): 10949–51. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10510949T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0712334105. PMC 2490668. PMID 18664583.
  3. ^ Horiike T; Miyata D; Hamada K; et al. (January 2009). "Phylogenetic construction of 17 bacterial phyla by new method and carefully selected orthologs". Gene. 429 (1–2): 59–64. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2008.10.006. PMC 2648810. PMID 19000750.
  4. ^ Vieille, Claire; Zeikus, Gregory J. (March 2001). "Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 65 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1128/MMBR.65.1.1-43.2001. ISSN 1092-2172. PMC 99017. PMID 11238984.
  5. ^ Power, J.F., Carere, C.R., Lee, C.K., Wakerley, G.L., Evans, D.W., Button, M., White, D., Climo, M.D., Hinze, A.M., Morgan, X.C. and McDonald, I.R., 2018. Microbial biogeography of 925 geothermal springs in New Zealand. Nature communications, 9(1), p.2876.
  6. ^ Stetter, K. (2006). "History of discovery of the first hyperthermophiles". Extremophiles. 10 (5): 357–362. doi:10.1007/s00792-006-0012-7. PMID 16941067. S2CID 36345694.
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