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{{Short description|Central Chinese state from 403 to 230 BC}}
{{hatnote|This article is about the state of Han during China's [[Warring States period]].<br>For the earlier Chinese state, see [[Han (Western Zhou)]]; for the later Chinese dynasty, see [[Han dynasty]].<br>For the modern state known by the same name in Chinese, see [[South Korea]].}}
{{Infobox Former Country
{{Infobox country
|native_name = <big>{{lang|zh|韓}}</big>&nbsp;<small>or</small>&nbsp;<big>{{lang|zh|韩}}</big><br><small>[[Old Chinese phonology|*]]Gar</small>
|native_name = <big>{{lang|zh|韓}}</big>&nbsp;<br><small>[[Old Chinese phonology|*]]Gar</small>
|conventional_long_name = Han
|conventional_long_name = Han
|common_name = Han
|common_name = Han
|national_motto =
|national_motto =
|continent = moved from Category:Asia to East Asia
|region = East Asia
|country = China
|era = [[Warring States period]]
|era = [[Warring States period]]
|status = Kingdom
|status = March → Kingdom
|government_type = Monarchy
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = 403&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
|year_start = 403 BC
|year_end = 230&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
|year_end = 230 BC
|p1 = Jin (Chinese state)
|p1 = Jin (Chinese state)
|s1 = Qin Dynasty
|s1 = Qin dynasty
|event_start = [[Partition of Jin]]
|event_start = [[Partition of Jin]]
|event_end = Conquered by [[Qin (state)|Qin]]
|event_end = Conquered by [[Qin (state)|Qin]]
Line 29: Line 26:
|image_map = EN-HAN260BCE.jpg
|image_map = EN-HAN260BCE.jpg
|image_map_caption =
|image_map_caption =
|capital = [[Yuzhou City|Yangzhai]] (''before'' 375&thinsp;{{sc|BC}})<br/>[[Xinzheng]] (''after'' 375&thinsp;{{sc|BC}})
|capital = [[Yuzhou City|Yangzhai]] (''before'' 375 BC)<br/>[[Xinzheng]] (''after'' 375 BC)
|common_languages =
|common_languages =
|religion = [[Chinese folk religion]]<br>[[ancestor worship]]
|religion = [[Chinese folk religion]]<br>[[ancestor worship]]
Line 38: Line 35:
|year_leader1 =
|year_leader1 =
|year_leader2 =
|year_leader2 =
|title_leader = [[List of Chinese monarchs|King]]
|title_leader = [[Zhou dynasty nobility#Eastern Zhou|Marquess]] → [[Chinese sovereign|King]]
|deputy1 =
|deputy1 =
|year_deputy1 =
|year_deputy1 =
Line 48: Line 45:
}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic=Image:HanZhuan2.jpg
|t=韓
|picsize=150px
|s=韩
|piccap="State of Han" in [[seal script|small seal script]] <small>(220 BC)</small>
|p=Hán
|t={{linktext|韓國}}
|w=Han<sup>2</sup>
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|h|an|2}}
|s={{linktext|韩国}}
|p=Hánguó
|gr=Harn
|w=Han-kuo
|j=Hon<sup>4</sup>
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|h|an|2|g|uo|2}}
|y=Hòhn
|gr=Harn-gwo
|tl=Hân
|j=Hon⁴ Gwok³
|oc-bs=&#42;{{IPA|[g]ˤar}}
|y=Hòhn Gwok
|tl=Hân-kok
|oc-bs=&ast;{{IPA|[g]ˤar [C.q]ʷˤək}}
}}
}}
'''Han'''<!--Chinese in infoboxes; see [[WP:MOS-ZH]]--> was an [[ancient Chinese state]] during the [[Warring States period]] of [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]]. Scholars frequently render the name as '''Hann''' to clearly distinguish it from China's later [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C.|last=Loewe |first=Michael |date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|editor2= Edward L. Shaughnessy | editor1= Michael Loewe | author-link= Michael Loewe |isbn=0521470307 |page =xxv |oclc=37361770}}</ref>
[[Image:HanZhuan2.jpg|frame|right|State of Han<br>([[seal script|small seal script]], 220&thinsp;{{sc|BC}})]]
'''Han''' ({{zh|t=韓}}, [[Old Chinese]]: ''&#42;{{IPA|[g]ˤar}}'') was an [[ancient Chinese state]] during the [[Warring States period]] of [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]], located in modern-day [[Shanxi]] and [[Henan]].


It was located in central China (modern-day [[Shanxi]] and [[Henan]]) in a region south and east of [[Luoyang]], the capital of the [[Eastern Zhou]]. It was ruled by aristocrats of the Ji ([[Ji (Zhou dynasty ancestral surname)|姬]]) family ancestral temple who rose to power as a ministerial family in the state of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]], and whose power eventually eclipsed that of the Jin ruling house. The [[partition of Jin]] which resulted in the states of Han, [[Wei (state)|Wei]], and [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], marked the beginning of the Warring States period.
Its territory directly blocked the passage of the state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] into the [[North China Plain]] and thus it was a frequent target of Qin's military operations. Although Han had attempted several self-strengthening reforms (notably under the noted [[Legalism (philosophy)|legalist]] [[Shen Buhai]]), it never overcame Qin and was instead the first of the [[Seven Warring States|warring states]] to be conquered by it.


The state of Han was small and located in a mountainous and unprofitable region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Han Feizi: Basic Writings |last=Watson |first=Burton |date=2003 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231521321 |location=New York |page=2|oclc=796815905}}</ref> Its territory directly blocked the passage of the state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] into the [[North China Plain]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}. Although Han had attempted to reform its governance (notably under Chancellor and "[[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]]" [[Shen Buhai]] who improved state administration and strengthened its military ability)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient and early medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference guide |editor1-last= Knechtges |editor1-first=David R |publisher=Brill |editor2-first= Taiping | editor2-last=Chang |year=2014| isbn=9789004191273| location=Leiden |pages=874–875|oclc=649419201 | author= David R. Knechtges | chapter = Shenzi 申子 | volume = 2 | doi = 10.1163/9789004201644_002 | editor1-link= David Knechtges }}</ref> these reforms were not enough to defend itself and it was the first of the [[Seven Warring States|seven warring states]] to be conquered by Qin in 230 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of China|editor1-last=Fairbank |editor1-first=John K|date=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press| editor2-first= Denis | editor2-last=Twitchett |isbn=9780521243278 |location=Cambridge |oclc=2424772 | volume= 1: Chʻin and Han | author= Derk Bodde | chapter = The State and Empire of Chʻin | pages=21–98 | editor1-link = John King Fairbank | editor2-link = Denis Twitchett | author-link= Derk Bodde }}</ref>{{rp|45}}
The Qin invasion of Han's [[Shangdang|Shangdang Commandery]] ushered in the bloodiest battle of the whole period (at [[Battle of Changping|Changping]]) in 260&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}.

Qin invasion of Han's [[Shangdang Commandery]] in 260 BC resulted in the [[Battle of Changping]], claimed to be the bloodiest battle of the Warring States period where up to 400,000 soldiers died.<ref name="Lewis 2007">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo/|title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han |last= Lewis|first=Mark Edward |date=2007 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674024779 |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=11–16, 38| oclc=71189868}}</ref>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo/page/38 38]}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture| first=Qizhi| last =Zhang| publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=9783662464823 |pages=231–232 |oclc=907676443 | doi= 10.1007/978-3-662-46482-3_8 }}</ref>


==History==
==History==
{{unreferenced|section|date=November 2013}}
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2023}}

===Founding===
===Founding===
According to the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', the royal family of Han were a cadet branch of the [[Zhou dynasty]]. Members of the family became ministers in the powerful state of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]] and were granted [[Hancheng, Shaanxi|Hanyuan]] (modern [[Hancheng]] in [[Shaanxi]]).
According to chapter 45 of the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', the royal family of Han was a cadet branch of the royal family of the state of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]]. The founder of the Han clan [[Wuzi of Han (Spring and Autumn)|Wuzi of Han]] was the uncle of [[Duke Wu of Jin]].{{sfnp|Shiji|loc=vol. 45}}


Members of the family became ministers in the powerful state of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]] and were granted [[Hancheng, Shaanxi|Hanyuan]] (modern [[Hancheng]] in [[Shaanxi]]).
===Spring and Autumn Period===

During the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the Han family gradually gained influence and importance within [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]]. They were made {{lang|zh|子}} (''zǐ'', "[[Chinese nobility|viscount]]s"). In 403&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}, [[Marquess Jing of Han|Jing]] of Han, along with [[Marquess Wen of Wei|Wen]] of [[Wei (state)|Wei]] and [[Marquess Lie of Zhao|Lie]] of [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] partitioned Jin among themselves. In [[Chinese history]], this [[Partition of Jin]] is the event which marks the end of the [[Spring and Autumn period]] and the beginning of the [[Warring States]]. Subsequently, Han was an independent polity. [[Chinese king|King]] [[King Lie of Zhou|Lie]] eventually recognized the new states and elevated the rulers to {{lang|zh|{{linktext|侯}}}} (''hou'', "[[Chinese nobility|marquess]]").
===Spring and Autumn period===
During the [[Spring and Autumn period]], members of the Han family slowly gained more and more influence and power within [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]].<ref name=":0" /> In 453 BC, [[Marquess Jing of Han|Jing]] of Han, along with [[Marquess Wen of Wei|Wen]] of [[Wei (state)|Wei]] and [[Marquess Lie of Zhao|Lie]] of [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] partitioned Jin among themselves. In [[Chinese history]], this [[Partition of Jin]] is the event which marks the end of the [[Spring and Autumn period]] and the beginning of the [[Warring States]]. Subsequently, Han was an independent polity. [[King Lie of Zhou|King Lie]] eventually recognized the new states in 403 BC<ref name=":0" /> and elevated the rulers to {{lang|zh|{{linktext|侯}}}} (''hou'', "[[Chinese nobility|marquess]]").


===Warring States Period===
===Warring States Period===
In 375 Han defeated the neighboring state of [[Zheng (state)|Zheng]] (founded in 806 by the Zhou dynasty). Han conquered and annexed Zheng, thus expanding its territory. Han also moved its capital there, and assimilated Zheng's heritage. This included that of the young politician Shen Buhai (400-337).<ref>Herrlee G. Creel, ''Shen Pu-hai'' (University of Chicago 1974), 7-10, 15, 24-25.</ref><ref>Li Feng, ''Early China'' (Cambridge University 2013), pp. 162-163, 171, 175, 191.</ref>
Han's highest point occurred under the rule of [[Marquess Xi of Han|Marquess Xi]]. Xi appointed [[Shen Buhai]] as his [[Chancellor of China|chancellor]] and implemented his [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] policies. These strengthened the state and the realm became a ''[[xiaokang]]'' society. Under [[King Xuanhui of Han|Xuanhui]] (332&ndash;312&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}), Han declared itself an independent [[Chinese king|kingdom]].


Han's highest point occurred under the rule of [[Marquess Xi of Han|Marquess Xi]]. Xi appointed [[Shen Buhai]] as his [[Chancellor of China|chancellor]] and implemented his [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] policies. These reforms improved state administration and strengthened its military capability. Under King [[King Xuanhui of Han|Xuanhui]] ({{reigned}} 332–312 BC), Han declared itself an independent [[Chinese king|kingdom]].
However, Han was disadvantaged in the competition of the Warring States because Jin's partition had left it surrounded on all sides by other strong states {{ndash}} [[Chu (state)|Chu]] to the south, [[Qi (state)|Qi]] to the east, [[Qin (state)|Qin]] to the west, and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] to the north. It was the smallest of the seven states and, without any easy way to expand its own territory and resources, it was bullied militarily by its more powerful neighbors.

However, Han was disadvantaged in the competition of the Warring States period because Jin's partition had left it surrounded on all sides by strong states: [[Chu (state)|Chu]] to the south, [[Qi (state)|Qi]] to the east,{{dubious|date=March 2024}} [[Qin (state)|Qin]] to the west, and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] to the north. Han was then the smallest of the seven states and was without any easy way to further expand its own territory and resources, It was bullied militarily by its more powerful neighbors.


===Defeat===
===Defeat===
During its steady decline, Han eventually lost the power to defend its territory and had to request military assistance from other states. The contest between Wei and Qi over control of Han resulted in the [[Battle of Maling]], which established Qi as the preëminent state in the east. In 260&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}, [[Qin (state)|Qin]]'s invasion of Han led to [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] intervention and the [[Battle of Changping]].
During its steady decline, Han eventually lost the power to defend its territory and had to request military assistance from other states. The contest between Wei and Qi over control of Han resulted in the [[Battle of Maling]], which established Qi as the pre-eminent state in the east. In 260 BC, [[Qin (state)|Qin]]'s invasion of Han led to [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] intervention and the [[Battle of Changping]].


During the late years of the era, in an attempt to drain Qin's resources in an expensive public works project, the state of Han sent the civil engineer [[Zheng Guo]] to Qin to persuade them to build a canal. The scheme, while expensive, backfired spectacularly when it was eventually completed: the irrigation abilities of the new [[Zhengguo Canal]] far outweighed its cost and gave Qin the agricultural and economic means to dominate the other six states. Han was the first to fall, in 230&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}.
During the late years of the era, in an attempt to drain Qin's resources in an expensive public works project, the state of Han sent the civil engineer [[Zheng Guo]] to Qin to persuade them to build a canal. The scheme, while expensive, backfired spectacularly when it was eventually completed: the irrigation abilities of the new [[Zhengguo Canal]] far outweighed its cost and gave Qin the agricultural and economic means to dominate the other six states. Han was the first to fall, in 230 BC.


In 226 BC, ex-Han nobility launched a failed rebellion in former capital Xinzheng, and An, the last king of Han, was put to death the same year.
In 226 BC, former nobility of the Han launched a failed rebellion in former capital Xinzheng, and King An, the last king of Han, was put to death the same year.


[[King Xin of Han|Han Xin]] was made a "Prince" or "King of Han" ({{lang|zh|韓王}}) by [[Liu Bang]] after the establishment of the [[Han dynasty]] ({{lang|zh|漢朝}}). He was removed to [[Taiyuan Commandery]] and the territory of the [[Dai (Han)|kingdom of Dai]], where he defected to the [[Xiongnu]] and led raids against the Han Dynasty until his death.
==Culture and society==
Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the ''[[Yu Gong]]'' or ''Tribute of Yu'', composed in the 4th or 5th century&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} and included in the ''[[Book of Documents]]'', there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, [[Yu the Great]], throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.<ref name="lewis12">Lewis 2007, p. 12</ref>


==Culture and society==
One of these texts was ''The Book of Master Wu'', written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of [[Wei (state)|Wei]] on how to cope with the other states. [[Wu Qi]], the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Han, he said:
Before the state of Qin unified China in 221 BC, each region had their own unique customs and culture, although they were all dominated by an upper class that shared a largely common culture. In the ''[[Yu Gong]]'' (Tribute of Yu), a section of the ''[[Book of Documents]]'' which was most likely composed in the 4th century BC, the author describes a China that is divided into nine regions, each with its own distinctive peoples and products. The core theme of this section is that these nine regions are unified into one state by the travels of the eponymous sage-emperor, [[Yu the Great]], and by sending each region's unique goods to the capital as tribute. Other texts also discussed these regional variations in culture and physical environments.<ref name="Lewis 2007" />{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo/page/11 11–16]}}


One of these texts was ''[[Wuzi]]'' (''The Book of Master Wu'') which was a Warring States military treatise written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of [[Wei (state)|Wei]] on how to cope with the other states. [[Wu Qi]], the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were linked to the physical environment and territory they live in.<ref name="Lewis 2007" />{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo/page/12 12]}}
{{quotation|The Han and the Zhao are gentle people. Their populations are weary from war and experienced in arms, but they have little regard for their generals. The soldiers' salaries are meager and their officers have no strong commitment to their countries. Although their troops are experienced, they cannot be expected to fight to the death. To defeat them, we must concentrate large numbers of troops in our attacks to present them with certain peril. When they counterattack, we must be prepared to defend our positions vigorously and make them pay dearly. When they retreat, we must pursue and give them no rest. This will grind them down.|[[Wuzi]], ''Master Wu''<br>


==In the Han Feizi==
Chen Song translation}}
Chapter 19 of the [[Han Feizi]] recalls [[Qin (state)|Qin]]'s conquest of Ye from the [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], dated to 236bc. The chapter says: "To-day, Han, being a small state, is relying upon big powers. Her sovereign, paying little attention to the law, takes every word from Qin. The above-mentioned small states, having relied upon Wey, Ch`i, Ching, and Wu for support, went to ruin one after another. Thus reliance on others is not sufficient to extend the native soil." Seemingly written from the context of the late Han state, the chapter might have preceded its fall in 230bc, or either Zhao and Wei if the latter had only yet ceded territory.<ref>Bertil Lundahl 1992. p190. Han Feizi, the Man and the Work</ref>


==Rulers==
==Rulers==
{{anchor|list|marquises|list of marquises|kings|list of kings}}
{{anchor|list|marquises|list of marquises|kings|list of kings}}
{| class="wikitable"
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"
! width=180 | Title
|-
! style="background:#efefef" width=180 | Title
! width=180 | Name
! style="background:#efefef" width=180 | Name
! width=180 | Reign
! style="background:#efefef" width=180 | Reign
! width=180 | Alternative Title(s)
! style="background:#efefef" width=180 | Alternative Title(s)
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
! colspan="4" |Pre-State sovereigns
! colspan="4" |Pre-State sovereigns
Line 112: Line 118:
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Qiubo of Han|Qiubo]]<br>韓赇伯
| [[Qiubo of Han|Qiubo]]<br>韓賕伯
| ''unknown''
| ''unknown''
|
|
Line 119: Line 125:
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Dingbo of Han|Dingbo]]<br>韓定伯
| [[Dingbo of Han|Dingbo]]<br>韓定伯
| Hán Jiǎn<br>韓简
| Hán Jiǎn<br>韓簡
|
|
|
|
Line 162: Line 168:
| [[Wuzi of Han (Warring States)|Wuzi]]<br>韓武子
| [[Wuzi of Han (Warring States)|Wuzi]]<br>韓武子
| Hán Qǐzhāng<br>韓啓章
| Hán Qǐzhāng<br>韓啓章
| 424&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 409&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 424 BC – 409 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
Line 169: Line 175:
| [[Marquess Jing of Han|Marquess Jing]]<br>韓景侯
| [[Marquess Jing of Han|Marquess Jing]]<br>韓景侯
| Hán Qián<br>韓虔
| Hán Qián<br>韓虔
| 408&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 400&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 408 BC – 400 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Marquess Lie of Han|Marquess Lie]]<br>韓烈侯
| [[Marquess Lie of Han|Marquess Lie]]<br>韓烈侯
| Hán Qǔ<br>韓取
| Hán Qǔ<br>韓取
| 399&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 387&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 399 BC – 387 BC
| Marquess Wu (韓武侯)
| Marquess Wu ({{lang|zh-hant|韓武侯}})
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Marquess Wen of Han|Marquess Wen]]<br>韓文侯
| [[Marquess Wen of Han|Marquess Wen]]<br>韓文侯
| ''unknown''
| ''unknown''
| 386&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 377&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 386 BC – 377 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Marquess Ai of Han|Marquess Ai]]<br>韓哀侯
| [[Marquess Ai of Han|Marquess Ai]]<br>韓哀侯
| ''unknown''
| ''unknown''
| 376&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 374&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 376 BC – 374 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Marquess Gong of Han|Marquess Gong]]<br>韓共侯
| [[Marquess Gong of Han|Marquess Gong]]<br>韓共侯
| Hán Ruòshān<br>韓若山
| Hán Ruòshān<br>韓若山
| 374&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 363&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 374 BC – 363 BC
| Marquess Zhuang (韓莊侯)<br>Marquess Yi (韓懿侯)
| Marquess Zhuang ({{lang|zh-hant|韓莊侯}})<br>Marquess Yi ({{lang|zh-hant|韓懿侯}})
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[Marquess Xi of Han|Marquess Xi]]<br>韓厘侯
| [[Marquess Xi of Han|Marquess Xi]]<br>韓厘侯
| Hán Wǔ<br>韓武
| Hán Wǔ<br>韓武
| 362&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 333&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 362 BC – 333 BC
| Marquess Zhao (韓昭侯)
| Marquess Zhao ({{lang|zh-hant|韓昭侯}})
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[King Xuanhui of Han|King Xuanhui]]<br>韓宣惠王
| [[King Xuanhui of Han|King Xuanhui]]<br>韓宣惠王
| ''unknown''
| ''unknown''
| 332&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 312&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 332 BC – 312 BC
| King Xuan (韓宣王)<br>Marquess Wei (韓威侯), before 323&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| King Xuan ({{lang|zh-hant|韓宣王}})<br>Marquess Wei ({{lang|zh-hant|韓威侯}}), before 323 BC
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[King Xiang of Han|King Xiang]]<br>韓襄王
| [[King Xiang of Han|King Xiang]]<br>韓襄王
| Jì Cāng<br>姬倉
| ''unknown''
| 311&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 296&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 311 BC – 296 BC
| King Xiang'ai (韓襄哀王)<br>King Daoxiang (韓悼襄王)
| King Xiang'ai ({{lang|zh-hant|韓襄哀王}})<br>King Daoxiang ({{lang|zh-hant|韓悼襄王}})
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[King Xi of Han|King Xi]]<br>韓釐王
| [[King Xi of Han|King Xi]]<br>韓釐王
| Hán Jiù<br>韓咎
| Hán Jiù<br>韓咎
| 295&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 273&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 295 BC – 273 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[King Huanhui of Han|King Huanhui]]<br>韓桓惠王
| [[King Huanhui of Han|King Huanhui]]<br>韓桓惠王
| ''unknown''
| ''unknown''
| 272&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 239&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 272 BC – 239 BC
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| [[King An of Han|King An]]<br> 韓王安
| [[King An of Han|King An]]<br> 韓王安
| Hán Ān<br>韓安
| Hán Ān<br>韓安
| 238&thinsp;{{sc|BC}} – 230&thinsp;{{sc|BC}}
| 238 BC – 230 BC
|
|
|}
|}
Line 225: Line 231:
==Rulers family tree==
==Rulers family tree==


{{chart top|width=40%|Han state}}
{{Han state rulers family tree}}
{{chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:112%|summary=Han state rulers family tree}}
{{chart|border=2|Mu | Mu=[[Marquis Mu of Jin|Mu of Jin]] 晉穆侯<br><small>Marquis of Jin<br />812–785 BC</small>| boxstyle_Mu=border-width:1px}}
{{chart|border=2| |)|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart|border=2|Wen2 | |Hhu | Wen2=[[Marquis Wen of Jin|Wen of Jin]] 晉文侯<br><small>Marquis of Jin<br />780–746 BC</small>| boxstyle_Wen2=border-width:1px| Hhu=[[Huan Shu of Quwo]]<br /> 曲沃桓叔<br />745–731 BC| boxstyle_Hhu=border-width:1px}}
{{chart|border=2| |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| }}
{{chart|border=2|Zha | | Hwn | |Zbo | Zha={{nowrap|[[Marquis Zhao of Jin|Zhao of Jin]] 晉昭侯<br><small>Marquis of Jin<br />745–739 BC</small>}}| boxstyle_Zha=border-width:1px| Hwn=Hán Wàn 韓萬<br />[[Wuzi of Han (Spring and Autumn)|Wuzi of Han]] 韩武子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>| Zbo={{nowrap| [[Zhuang Bo of Quwo|Zhuang Bo<br />of Quwo]] 曲沃莊伯<br />731–716 BCE}}| boxstyle_Zbo=border-width:1px}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Qbo | Qbo=[[Qiubo of Han]] <br />韓赇伯<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Hjn | Hjn=Hán Jiǎn 韓简<br />[[Han Jian (Zhou dynasty)|Dingbo]] 韓定伯<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Zyi | Zyi=Hán Yú 韓輿<br />[[Ziyu (Han Clan)|Ziyu]] 子舆<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xia | Xia={{nowrap|Hán Jué 韓厥<br />[[Xianzi of Han]] 韩献子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xua | Xua={{nowrap|Hán Qǐ 韓起<br />[[Xuanzi of Han]] 韓宣子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Zhe | Zhe={{nowrap|Hán Xū 韓須<br />[[Zhenzi of Han]] 韓貞子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Jia | Jia=Hán Bùxìn 韓不信<br />[[Jianzi of Han]] 韓簡子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Zhu | Zhu=Hán Gēng 韓庚<br />Zhuangzi 韓莊子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Kan | Kan=Hán Hǔ 韓虎<br />[[Kangzi of Han]] 韓康子<br /><small>Ruler of Han</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Wuz | Wuz=Hán Qǐzhāng 韓啓章<br />[[Wuzi of Han (Warring States)|Wuzi of Han]] 韓武子<br /><small>Ruler of Han<br />424–409 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Jin | Jin=Hán Qián 韓虔<br />[[Marquess Jing of Han|Jing of Han]] 韩景侯<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />408–400BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Lie | Lie=Hán Qǔ 韓取<br />[[Marquess Lie of Han|Lie (Wu) of Han]]<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />399–387 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Wen | Wen=[[Marquess Wen of Han|Wen of Han]]<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />386–377 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Ai | Ai=[[Marquess Ai of Han|Ai of Han]] 韓哀侯<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />376 –374 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Gon | Gon=Hán Ruòshān 韓若山<br />[[Marquess Gong of Han|Gong of Han]] 韓共侯<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />374 –363 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xi | Xi=Hán Wǔ 韓武<br />[[Marquess Xi of Han|Xi of Han]] 韓厘侯<br /><small>Marquess of Han<br />362 BC–333 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xhu | Xhu=[[King Xuanhui of Han|Xuanhui of Han]] <br />韓宣惠王<br /><small>King of Han<br />332 –312BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xng | Xng=[[King Xiang of Han|Xiang of Han]] 韓襄王<br /><small>King of Han<br />311–296 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |)|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Xi2 | |Uk | Xi2=Hán Jiù 韓咎<br />[[King Xi of Han|Xi of Han]] 韩釐王<br /><small>King of Han<br />295–273BC</small>| Uk=Jǐ shī 虮虱| boxstyle_Uk=border-width:1px}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!| | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | Hua | | Xi0 | Hua=[[King Huanhui of Han|Huanhui of Han]] <br />韩桓惠王<br /><small>King of Han<br />272–239BC</small>| Xi0=[[King Xin of Han|Xin of Han]]<br /><small>King of Han<br />205–196 BC</small>}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | |!}}
{{chart|border=2| | | | | An | An=Hán Ān 韓安<br />[[King An of Han|An of Han]] 韩王安<br /><small>King of Han<br />?-'''238–230'''-226 BC</small>}}
{{chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}


==Famous people==
==Famous people==
Line 284: Line 240:
==Han in astronomy==
==Han in astronomy==
{{main|Chinese constellations}}
{{main|Chinese constellations}}
Han is represented by the star '''[[35 Capricorni]]''' in the "Twelve States" [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]], part of the "[[Girl (Chinese constellation)|Girl]]" [[28 Mansions|lunar mansion]] in the "[[Black Tortoise|Black Turtle]]" [[Four Symbols (China)|symbol]]. Han is also represented by the star '''[[Zeta Ophiuchi]]''' in the "Right Wall" asterism, part of the [[Heavenly Market enclosure|"Heavenly Market" enclosure]].<ref>Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy. "[http://aeea.nmns.edu.tw/2006/0606/ap060624.html {{lang|zh|天文教育資訊網}}]". 24 Jun 2006. {{zh icon}}</ref>
Han is represented by the star [[35 Capricorni]]<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/capricornus.htm | work = Ian Ridpath's Startales | title= Capricornus the Sea Goat | author= Ian Ridpath | access-date= 5 August 2023 }}</ref> in the "Twelve States" [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]], part of the "[[Girl (Chinese constellation)|Girl]]" [[28 Mansions|lunar mansion]] in the "[[Black Tortoise|Black Turtle]]" [[Four Symbols (China)|symbol]]. Han is also represented by the star [[Zeta Ophiuchi]] in the "Right Wall" asterism, part of the [[Heavenly Market enclosure|"Heavenly Market" enclosure]].<ref>{{cite web | work= Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy | url= http://aeea.nmns.edu.tw/2006/0606/ap060624.html | script-work= zh:天文教育資訊網 | date= 24 Jun 2006 | language= zh | editor= Chen Huihua (陳輝樺) | script-title= zh:中國古代的星象系統 (55)： 天市右垣、車肆 | access-date= 27 December 2010 | archive-date= 4 April 2019 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190404010915/http://aeea.nmns.edu.tw/2006/0606/ap060624.html | url-status= dead }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Chinese nobility]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
* {{ cite book
*[[Sima Qian]]. ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', Ch. 45
| author1= Sima Qian | author1-link= Sima Qian
*[[Zizhi Tongjian]] Volumns 1-6
| author2= Sima Tan| author2-link= Sima Tan
| script-title=zh:史記
| title= [[Records of the Grand Historian]]
| orig-year= 90s BCE
| year = 1959 | publisher= Zhonghua Shuju
| chapter=[[:zh:s:史記/卷045|45: 韓世家]]
| ref={{sfnref|Shiji}}
}}
* {{ cite book | editor = Sima Guang | editor-link= Sima Guang| title= Zizhi Tongjian | title-link= Zizhi Tongjian| orig-date= 1084 | date= 1934 | publisher= Zhonghua Shuju| place= Hong Kong | ref={{sfnref|Zizhi Tongjian|1084}} |chapter= vol. 1–6 }}


{{ChineseText}}
{{Zhou Dynasty topics}}
{{Zhou Dynasty topics}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Han}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Han}}
[[Category:400s BC in Asia]]
[[Category:Han (Warring States)| ]]
[[Category:403 BC]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 5th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 5th century BC]]
[[Category:Ancient Chinese states]]
[[Category:States of the Warring States period]]
[[Category:Han (state)| ]]
[[Category:Jin (Chinese state)]]
[[Category:Jin (Chinese state)]]
[[Category:Zheng (state)]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:230 BC]]
[[Category:230 BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC disestablishments]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:5th-century BC establishments in China]]
[[Category:5th-century BC establishments in China]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]

Latest revision as of 12:28, 14 October 2024

Han
韓 
*Gar
403 BC–230 BC
StatusMarch → Kingdom
CapitalYangzhai (before 375 BC)
Xinzheng (after 375 BC)
Religion
Chinese folk religion
ancestor worship
GovernmentMonarchy
Marquess → King 
Chancellor 
Historical eraWarring States period
403 BC
• Conquered by Qin
230 BC
Currencyspade money
other ancient Chinese coinage
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Jin (Chinese state)
Qin dynasty
Han
"State of Han" in small seal script (220 BC)
Traditional Chinese韓國
Simplified Chinese韩国
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHánguó
Gwoyeu RomatzyhHarn-gwo
Wade–GilesHan-kuo
IPA[xǎnkwǒ]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationHòhn Gwok
JyutpingHon⁴ Gwok³
Southern Min
Tâi-lôHân-kok
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)*[g]ˤar [C.q]ʷˤək

Han was an ancient Chinese state during the Warring States period of ancient China. Scholars frequently render the name as Hann to clearly distinguish it from China's later Han dynasty.[1]

It was located in central China (modern-day Shanxi and Henan) in a region south and east of Luoyang, the capital of the Eastern Zhou. It was ruled by aristocrats of the Ji (姬) family ancestral temple who rose to power as a ministerial family in the state of Jin, and whose power eventually eclipsed that of the Jin ruling house. The partition of Jin which resulted in the states of Han, Wei, and Zhao, marked the beginning of the Warring States period.

The state of Han was small and located in a mountainous and unprofitable region.[2] Its territory directly blocked the passage of the state of Qin into the North China Plain.[citation needed]. Although Han had attempted to reform its governance (notably under Chancellor and "Legalist" Shen Buhai who improved state administration and strengthened its military ability)[3] these reforms were not enough to defend itself and it was the first of the seven warring states to be conquered by Qin in 230 BC.[4]: 45 

Qin invasion of Han's Shangdang Commandery in 260 BC resulted in the Battle of Changping, claimed to be the bloodiest battle of the Warring States period where up to 400,000 soldiers died.[5]: 38 [6]

History

[edit]

Founding

[edit]

According to chapter 45 of the Records of the Grand Historian, the royal family of Han was a cadet branch of the royal family of the state of Jin. The founder of the Han clan Wuzi of Han was the uncle of Duke Wu of Jin.[7]

Members of the family became ministers in the powerful state of Jin and were granted Hanyuan (modern Hancheng in Shaanxi).

Spring and Autumn period

[edit]

During the Spring and Autumn period, members of the Han family slowly gained more and more influence and power within Jin.[2] In 453 BC, Jing of Han, along with Wen of Wei and Lie of Zhao partitioned Jin among themselves. In Chinese history, this Partition of Jin is the event which marks the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States. Subsequently, Han was an independent polity. King Lie eventually recognized the new states in 403 BC[2] and elevated the rulers to 侯 (hou, "marquess").

Warring States Period

[edit]

In 375 Han defeated the neighboring state of Zheng (founded in 806 by the Zhou dynasty). Han conquered and annexed Zheng, thus expanding its territory. Han also moved its capital there, and assimilated Zheng's heritage. This included that of the young politician Shen Buhai (400-337).[8][9]

Han's highest point occurred under the rule of Marquess Xi. Xi appointed Shen Buhai as his chancellor and implemented his Legalist policies. These reforms improved state administration and strengthened its military capability. Under King Xuanhui (r.  332–312 BC), Han declared itself an independent kingdom.

However, Han was disadvantaged in the competition of the Warring States period because Jin's partition had left it surrounded on all sides by strong states: Chu to the south, Qi to the east,[dubious – discuss] Qin to the west, and Wei to the north. Han was then the smallest of the seven states and was without any easy way to further expand its own territory and resources, It was bullied militarily by its more powerful neighbors.

Defeat

[edit]

During its steady decline, Han eventually lost the power to defend its territory and had to request military assistance from other states. The contest between Wei and Qi over control of Han resulted in the Battle of Maling, which established Qi as the pre-eminent state in the east. In 260 BC, Qin's invasion of Han led to Zhao intervention and the Battle of Changping.

During the late years of the era, in an attempt to drain Qin's resources in an expensive public works project, the state of Han sent the civil engineer Zheng Guo to Qin to persuade them to build a canal. The scheme, while expensive, backfired spectacularly when it was eventually completed: the irrigation abilities of the new Zhengguo Canal far outweighed its cost and gave Qin the agricultural and economic means to dominate the other six states. Han was the first to fall, in 230 BC.

In 226 BC, former nobility of the Han launched a failed rebellion in former capital Xinzheng, and King An, the last king of Han, was put to death the same year.

Han Xin was made a "Prince" or "King of Han" (韓王) by Liu Bang after the establishment of the Han dynasty (漢朝). He was removed to Taiyuan Commandery and the territory of the kingdom of Dai, where he defected to the Xiongnu and led raids against the Han Dynasty until his death.

Culture and society

[edit]

Before the state of Qin unified China in 221 BC, each region had their own unique customs and culture, although they were all dominated by an upper class that shared a largely common culture. In the Yu Gong (Tribute of Yu), a section of the Book of Documents which was most likely composed in the 4th century BC, the author describes a China that is divided into nine regions, each with its own distinctive peoples and products. The core theme of this section is that these nine regions are unified into one state by the travels of the eponymous sage-emperor, Yu the Great, and by sending each region's unique goods to the capital as tribute. Other texts also discussed these regional variations in culture and physical environments.[5]: 11–16 

One of these texts was Wuzi (The Book of Master Wu) which was a Warring States military treatise written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the other states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were linked to the physical environment and territory they live in.[5]: 12 

In the Han Feizi

[edit]

Chapter 19 of the Han Feizi recalls Qin's conquest of Ye from the Zhao, dated to 236bc. The chapter says: "To-day, Han, being a small state, is relying upon big powers. Her sovereign, paying little attention to the law, takes every word from Qin. The above-mentioned small states, having relied upon Wey, Ch`i, Ching, and Wu for support, went to ruin one after another. Thus reliance on others is not sufficient to extend the native soil." Seemingly written from the context of the late Han state, the chapter might have preceded its fall in 230bc, or either Zhao and Wei if the latter had only yet ceded territory.[10]

Rulers

[edit]

Title Name Reign Alternative Title(s)
Pre-State sovereigns
Wuzi
韓武子 		Hán Wàn
韓萬
Qiubo
韓賕伯 		unknown
Dingbo
韓定伯 		Hán Jiǎn
韓簡
Ziyu
韓子輿 		Hán Yú
韓輿
Xianzi
韓獻子 		Hán Jué
韓厥
Xuanzi
韓宣子 		Hán Qǐ
韓起
Zhenzi
韓貞子 		Hán Xū
韓須
Jianzi
韓簡子 		Hán Bùxìn
韓不信
Zhuangzi
韓莊子 		Hán Gēng
韓庚
Kangzi
韓康子 		Hán Hǔ
韓虎
Wuzi
韓武子 		Hán Qǐzhāng
韓啓章 		424 BC – 409 BC
State sovereigns
Marquess Jing
韓景侯 		Hán Qián
韓虔 		408 BC – 400 BC
Marquess Lie
韓烈侯 		Hán Qǔ
韓取 		399 BC – 387 BC Marquess Wu (韓武侯)
Marquess Wen
韓文侯 		unknown 386 BC – 377 BC
Marquess Ai
韓哀侯 		unknown 376 BC – 374 BC
Marquess Gong
韓共侯 		Hán Ruòshān
韓若山 		374 BC – 363 BC Marquess Zhuang (韓莊侯)
Marquess Yi (韓懿侯)
Marquess Xi
韓厘侯 		Hán Wǔ
韓武 		362 BC – 333 BC Marquess Zhao (韓昭侯)
King Xuanhui
韓宣惠王 		unknown 332 BC – 312 BC King Xuan (韓宣王)
Marquess Wei (韓威侯), before 323 BC
King Xiang
韓襄王 		Jì Cāng
姬倉 		311 BC – 296 BC King Xiang'ai (韓襄哀王)
King Daoxiang (韓悼襄王)
King Xi
韓釐王 		Hán Jiù
韓咎 		295 BC – 273 BC
King Huanhui
韓桓惠王 		unknown 272 BC – 239 BC
King An
韓王安 		Hán Ān
韓安 		238 BC – 230 BC

Rulers family tree

[edit]
Han state
Mu of Jin 晉穆侯
Marquis of Jin
812–785 BC
Wen of Jin 晉文侯
Marquis of Jin
780–746 BC		Huan Shu of Quwo
曲沃桓叔
745–731 BC
Zhao of Jin 晉昭侯
Marquis of Jin
745–739 BC		Hán Wàn 韓萬
Wuzi of Han 韩武子
Ruler of Han		 Zhuang Bo
of Quwo 曲沃莊伯
731–716 BCE
Qiubo of Han
韓賕伯
Ruler of Han
Hán Jiǎn 韓简
Dingbo 韓定伯
Ruler of Han
Hán Yú 韓輿
Ziyu 子舆
Ruler of Han
Hán Jué 韓厥
Xianzi of Han 韓獻子
Ruler of Han
Hán Qǐ 韓起
Xuanzi of Han 韓宣子
Ruler of Han
Hán Xū 韓須
Zhenzi of Han 韓貞子
Ruler of Han
Hán Bùxìn 韓不信
Jianzi of Han 韓簡子
Ruler of Han
Hán Gēng 韓庚
Zhuangzi 韓莊子
Ruler of Han
Hán Hǔ 韓虎
Kangzi of Han 韓康子
Ruler of Han
Hán Qǐzhāng 韓啓章
Wuzi of Han 韓武子
Ruler of Han
424–409 BC
Hán Qián 韓虔
Jing of Han 韓景侯
Marquess of Han
408–400BC
Hán Qǔ 韓取
Lie (Wu) of Han
Marquess of Han
399–387 BC
Wen of Han
Marquess of Han
386–377 BC
Ai of Han 韓哀侯
Marquess of Han
376–374 BC
Hán Ruòshān 韓若山
Gong of Han 韓共侯
Marquess of Han
374–363 BC
Hán Wǔ 韓武
Xi of Han 韓厘侯
Marquess of Han
362 BC–333 BC
Xuanhui of Han
韓宣惠王
King of Han
332–312 BC
Xiang of Han 韓襄王
King of Han
311–296 BC
Hán Jiù 韓咎
Xi of Han 韓釐王
King of Han
295–273 BC		Jǐ shī 虮虱
Huanhui of Han
韓桓惠王
King of Han
272–239 BC		Xin of Han
King of Han
205–196 BC
Hán Ān 韓安
An of Han 韓王安
King of Han
?–238–230–226 BC


Famous people

[edit]

Han in astronomy

[edit]
Main article: Chinese constellations

Han is represented by the star 35 Capricorni[11] in the "Twelve States" asterism, part of the "Girl" lunar mansion in the "Black Turtle" symbol. Han is also represented by the star Zeta Ophiuchi in the "Right Wall" asterism, part of the "Heavenly Market" enclosure.[12]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Loewe, Michael (1999). Michael Loewe; Edward L. Shaughnessy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge University Press. p. xxv. ISBN 0521470307. OCLC 37361770.
  2. ^ a b c Watson, Burton (2003). Han Feizi: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780231521321. OCLC 796815905.
  3. ^ David R. Knechtges (2014). "Shenzi 申子". In Knechtges, David R; Chang, Taiping (eds.). Ancient and early medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference guide. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp. 874–875. doi:10.1163/9789004201644_002. ISBN 9789004191273. OCLC 649419201.
  4. ^ Derk Bodde (1986). "The State and Empire of Chʻin". In Fairbank, John K; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 1: Chʻin and Han. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–98. ISBN 9780521243278. OCLC 2424772.
  5. ^ a b c Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 11–16, 38. ISBN 9780674024779. OCLC 71189868.
  6. ^ Zhang, Qizhi (2015). An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer. pp. 231–232. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46482-3_8. ISBN 9783662464823. OCLC 907676443.
  7. ^ Shiji, vol. 45.
  8. ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-hai (University of Chicago 1974), 7-10, 15, 24-25.
  9. ^ Li Feng, Early China (Cambridge University 2013), pp. 162-163, 171, 175, 191.
  10. ^ Bertil Lundahl 1992. p190. Han Feizi, the Man and the Work
  11. ^ Ian Ridpath. "Capricornus the Sea Goat". Ian Ridpath's Startales. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
  12. ^ Chen Huihua (陳輝樺), ed. (24 Jun 2006). 中國古代的星象系統 (55)： 天市右垣、車肆. Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy 天文教育資訊網 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
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