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{{this article is about|the Chinese civilization. For the two modern states using the name "China", see {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} '''[[People's Republic of China]]''' and {{flagicon|Taiwan}} '''[[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]'''. For other meanings, see [[China (disambiguation)]].}}
'''Chinese civilization''' may refer to:
[[Image:ChinaGeography.png|thumb|right|Geography of China and geographic region labels]]
* The country [[China]]
'''China''' ({{zh-tsht|t=中國|s=中国|hp={{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|Zhōngguó}}|tp=Jhongguó}}; [[Gwoyeu Romatzyh]]: Jonggwo) is a [[Culture of China|cultural region]] and ancient [[civilization]] in [[East Asia]]. As a result of the 1949 [[Chinese Civil War]], China today is administratively divided into two [[sovereign]] [[state]]s: the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) and the [[Republic of China]] (ROC). The PRC administers and governs the majority of China ([[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Macau]]), while the ROC administers the [[List of islands of the Republic of China|island groups]] of [[Taiwan]], the [[Pescadores Islands|Pescadores]], [[Kinmen]], [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]], and the disputed islands of [[Pratas Islands|Pratas]], and [[Taiping (island)|Taiping]] in the [[South China Sea]]. However, the [[People's Republic of China]] considers [[Taiwan]] a "renegade [[province]]" and does not recognize the [[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]. In contrast, the [[Taipei]]-based [[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] administers themselves as an independent [[sovereign]] [[state]] and does not recognize the [[Beijing]]-based [[People's Republic of China]].
* [[Chinese culture]]

* [[Greater China]]
China has one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and one of the world's longest continuously used [[Chinese writing system|written language systems]]. The successive states and cultures of China date back more than six millennia. For centuries, China was the world's most advanced civilization, and the cultural center of East Asia, with an impact lasting to the present day. China is also home to many of the great technical inventions in world history, including the [[four great inventions of ancient China]]: [[paper]], [[compass|the compass]], [[gunpowder]], and [[printing]].
* [[History of China]]

* [[Zhonghua minzu]]
==Names==
{{main|Names of China}}

==="''Zhongguo''", the Middle Kingdom===
[[Image:The Great wall - by Bernard Goldbach.jpg|thumb|280px|The [[Great Wall of China]]]]

China is called ''Zhongguo'' (also [[romanization|Romanized]] as ''Jhongguo'' or ''Chung-kuo'') in Mandarin Chinese. The first character ''zhong'' (中) means "middle" or "moderation" while ''guo'' (国 or 國) means "country" or "kingdom". ''Zhongguo'' is translated literally into English usually as "Middle Kingdom."<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861693604/Middle_Kingdom.html Middle Kingdom. MSN Encarta Dictionary]</ref> <ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1O102:MiddleKingdom/Middle+Kingdom+.html?refid=ency_botnm "Middle Kingdom"] HighBeam Research, from the ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology 2002'', originally published by Oxford University Press 2002.</ref> Some, however, have argued that "Central Kingdom" would be a better translation. <ref>Mao's China and the Cold War. published by UNC Press ISBN: 0807849324</ref>

The term has not been used consistently throughout [[Chinese history]], and carries certain cultural and political connotations. During the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the [[Western Zhou Dynasty]], in the [[Yellow River]] (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as the [[Chu (state)|Chu]] along the [[Yangtze River]] and the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] to the west. However, by the time of the [[Han Dynasty]], the states of Chu, Qin and others had linked themselves to the politics of ''Zhongguo'' and were already considered integral parts of a newer ''Zhongguo''.

''Zhongguo'' quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" in the modern sense) spread to include the [[Yangtze River]] and [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]] systems. By the [[Tang Dynasty]] it included [[barbarian]] regimes such as the [[Xianbei]] and [[Xiongnu]]. Over time, [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Tibet]], and the island of [[Taiwan]] became dominated by [[Imperial China]], and are often included as part of ''Zhongguo'', though such claims remain politically controversial, especially when ''Zhongguo'' refers to the PRC.

During the [[Han Dynasty]] and before, ''Zhongguo'' had three distinctive meanings:
# The area around the capital or imperial domain. The ''[[Book of Poetry]]'' explicitly gives this definition.
# Territories under the direct control of the "central" authorities. The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in ''Zhongguo''."
# The area now called the [[North China Plain]]. The ''[[Records of Three Kingdoms]]'' records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of [[Wu (region)|Wu]] and [[Yue (peoples)|Yue]] (the kingdoms in areas of present-day [[Shanghai]], southern [[Jiangsu]] and northern [[Zhejiang]]) to oppose ''Zhongguo'', then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term ''Zhongguo'' is synonymous with ''Hua'' (华 or 華) and ''Xia'' (夏), and distinct from the Wu and Yue peoples living around the [[Yangtze River Delta]].

During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term ''Zhongguo'' was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was reinforced after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their [[Northern Wei]] regime ''Zhongguo'', contrasting it with the [[Southern Dynasties]], which they called the ''Yi'' (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei ''Lu'' (虜), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way ''Zhongguo'' came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]], [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]]. The term ''Zhongguo'' came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin.

The Republic of China, when it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used ''Zhongguo'' to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control. Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are ''Zhongguoren'' (中國人 or 中国人), or ''Zhongguo'' people

==="China"===

[[English language|English]] and many other languages use various forms of the name "China" and the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] "Sino-" or "Sin-". These are believed to be derived from the name of the [[Qin Dynasty]] that first unified the country, although this is still controversial, because the Qins were not considered to be ethnically Chinese. The Qin dynasty was very short-lived and often regarded as tyrannical. The Qin originated from a small warring tribe located in the Shanxi region, while the ethnic Han Chinese originated from the east branch of the Yellow River, making "China" a misnomer. The Qin Dynasty unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor" instead of "King," thus the subsequent [[Silk Road]] traders might have identified themselves by that name. Some also argue that "China" and the Latin prefix "Sin-" come from different origins; this can be attested by several European languages that spell China today as "Kina", pronounced with a hard k.

The term "China" can narrowly mean [[China proper]] or, often, China proper and [[Manchuria]], [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Tibet]], and [[Xinjiang]], a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity. However, the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow [[political divisions of China|provincial boundaries]]. "China" often refers to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" often refers to the Republic of China. Informally, in [[economic]] or [[business]] contexts, "the [[Greater China]] region" (大中华地区 or 大中華地區) refers to [[Mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[Taiwan]] and sometimes [[Singapore]].

[[Sinologists]] usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, akin to the classical usage of ''Zhongguo'', or the "[[Han Chinese|Han]] ethnic group", who make up the bulk of the population in China and of the [[overseas Chinese]].

"Mainland China" (中国大陆 or 中國大陸, ''Zhōngguó Dàlù'' in Mandarin), is often used in contrast to other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China.

==="Cathay"===
The more historical and lyrical English term for China is "Cathay." Cathay is derived from the name of the [[Khitan]]s (契丹) in northern China, founders of the [[Liao Dynasty]]. The Chinese were referred to as "Cathayans" in English texts before the 16th century and the term Cathay was still commonly used to refer to China, particularly northern China, until the mid-19th century. Today, Russians and many Central Asian states still call China "Kitay" (Китай) or variations of this name. But it is now rarely used by English speakers, except when used poetically or in certain proper nouns such as [[Cathay Pacific]], [[Cathay Organisation]], [[The Cathay]], and the former [[Peace Hotel|Cathay Hotel]].

==History==
{{main|History of China|Timeline of Chinese history}}

China was one of the earliest centers of human [[civilization]]. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent [[writing system|writing]] independently, the others being ancient [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Sumer]]ians), [[Ancient India]] ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]), the [[Maya civilization|Mayan Civilization]], and [[Ancient Egypt]]. The [[Chinese script]] is still used today by the Chinese and Japanese, and to a lesser extent by Koreans and Vietnamese. This script is one of the few, and the only major, [[logographic]] script still used in the world.

===Prehistory===

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date to as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative ([[hominin]]) known as [[Homo erectus]]. One particular cave in [[Zhoukoudian]] (near current-day [[Beijing]]) has fossilized evidence that current dating techniques put at somewhere between 300,000 and 550,000 years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones associated with H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th to 19th centuries in various areas of [[Eastern Asia]] including [[Indonesia]] (in particular [[Java (island)|Java]]) and [[Malaysia]]. It is thought that these early hominids first evolved in [[Africa]] during the [[Pleistocene]] epoch. By 2 million years ago, the first migration wave of H. erectus settled throughout the [[Old World]].

Fully modern [[human]]s (''Homo sapiens'') are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in the area of [[Ethiopia]] or [[Southern Africa]] ([[Homo sapiens idaltu]]). By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago, modern human beings had settled in all parts of the Old World (25,000 to 11,000 BC in the [[New World]]). In the last 100,000 years, all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction.

The earliest evidence of fully modern humans in China comes from [[Liujiang]], China where a cranium has been found dating from 67,000 years ago. There is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa that is only 18,000 years old.

===Dynastic rule===
The first [[dynasty]] according to Chinese sources was the [[Xia Dynasty]], but it was believed to be mythical until scientific excavations were made at early [[bronze-age]] sites at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in [[Henan]] Province. Since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.

The first reliable historical dynasty is the [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]], which settled along the [[Yellow River]] in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. The Shang were invaded from the west by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BCE. The centralized authority of the Zhou was slowly eroded by warlords. In the [[Spring and Autumn period]] there were many strong, independent states continually warring with each other, who deferred to the [[Zhou state]] in name only.
[[Image:Qinshihuang2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|The first emperor of China, [[Qin Shi Huang]].]]
The first unified Chinese state was established by the [[Qin Dynasty]] in 221 BCE, when the office of the [[emperor]] was set up. This state did not last long, as its [[Legalism (philosophy)|legalist]] approach to control soon led to widespread rebellion.

The [[Han Dynasty]] lasted from 206 BCE until 220 CE. Another period of disunion followed. In 580 CE, China was reunited under the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]]. Under the succeeding [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasties, China had its golden age. Between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced [[civilization]]s in the world in technology, literature, and art, although change was gradual. In 1271, [[Mongol]] [[leadership|leader]] [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan Dynasty]], with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the [[Ming Dynasty]], which lasted until 1644. The Manchu-founded [[Qing Dynasty]], which lasted until the overthrow of [[Puyi]] in 1911, was the final dynasty of China.

Regime change was often violent and the new ruling class usually needed to take special measures to ensure the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the [[Manchus]] conquered China, the Manchu rulers put into effect measures aimed at subduing the [[Han Chinese]] identity, such as the requirement for the Han Chinese to wear the Manchu hairstyle, the [[Queue (hairstyle)|queue]].

In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of [[Central Asia]], with which it had been at war for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe.

In the 19th century China adopted a defensive posture towards European [[imperialism]], even though it engaged in [[Imperialism in Asia|imperialistic]] expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity [[opium]] became available. Two [[Opium War]]s with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. One result was the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping Civil War]] which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was started by [[Hong Xiuquan]], who was partly influenced by Christianity and believed himself the son of [[God]] and the younger brother of [[Jesus]]. Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the [[First World War]]), with some estimates of over 30 million. The flow of opium led to more decline, even in the face of noble efforts by missionaries such as [[Hudson Taylor]] and the [[China Inland Mission]] to stem the tide. Further destruction followed the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900 which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting the rebels, Empress [[Ci Xi]] publicly aided foreign forces suppressing the uprising. In the end the Boxers were defeated by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].

{{see also|Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese sovereign}}

===Republican China===
[[Image:Whampoa1.jpg|thumb|right|At the 1924 inauguration of the [[Whampoa Military Academy]], [[Sun Yat-sen]] delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the [[National Anthem of the Republic of China|ROC's national Anthem]].]]

On [[January 1]], [[1912]], the Republic of China was established, ending the Qing Dynasty. [[Sun Yat-sen]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, [[Yuan Shikai]], a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself. Yuan then attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire.

After Yuan Shikai's death, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing. Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under [[Chiang Kai-shek]], was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "[[political tutelage]]", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

The [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945]] (part of [[World War II]]) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists. With the surrender of [[Japan]] in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the [[Chinese Civil War]]. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on the mainland.

===The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China===

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the [[Communist Party of China]] controlled most of [[Mainland China]]. On [[October 1]], [[1949]], they established the People's Republic of China, laying claim to be the [[successor state]] of the ROC. The central government of the ROC was forced to retreat to the island of [[Taiwan]]. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but both sides are technically still at war.

Beginning in the late 1970s, [[Taiwan]] began the implementation of full, multi-party, [[representative democracy]] in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., [[Taiwan Province]], [[Taipei]], [[Kaohsiung]] and some offshore islands of [[Fujian]] province). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual unification with China vs. formal independence.

Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of Communist Party control over many areas of society. However, the Party still has absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples include the jailing of [[dissident|political opponent]]s and [[journalist]]s, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, [[censorship]], and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|an infamous demonstration]] held in Beijing at [[Tiananmen Square]] was put to a bloody end by the Party.

In 1997 [[Hong Kong]] was returned to the PRC by the [[United Kingdom]] and in 1999 [[Macao]] was returned by [[Portugal]].

{{see also|History of Hong Kong|History of Macau|History of Taiwan}}

===Present===

Today, the ROC continues to exist on Taiwan, while the PRC controls the Chinese mainland. The PRC continues as a one-party state, but the ROC has moved towards democracy. Both states are still officially claiming to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "China". The ROC had more international support immediately after 1949, but most international diplomatic recognition eventually shifted to the PRC. The ROC representative to the [[United Nations]] was replaced by the PRC representative in the 1970s.

The ROC has not formally renounced its claim to "China", or changed official maps that show its territory to include the mainland and [[Outer Mongolia]], but it has moved away from this identity and increasingly identifies itself as "Taiwan". The PRC continues to claim to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. The PRC has used diplomatic and economic pressure to advance its [[One China policy]], which attempts to displace the ROC in official world organizations such as the [[World Health Organization]] and the [[Olympic Games]]. Today, there are only twenty-four U.N. member states that still maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC.

The PRC has resisted the ROC's identification of itself as "Taiwan", especially in the [[Taiwanese independence]] movement. Significant disputes persist over the nature and extent of "China", possibility of [[Chinese reunification]], and the [[political status of Taiwan]].

==Territory==
===Historical political divisions===
{{main|History of the political divisions of China}}

Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included [[circuit (political division)|circuit]]s and [[province of China|province]]s. Below that, there have been [[prefecture of China|prefecture]]s, [[subprefecture]]s, [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]], [[commanderies]], [[district of China|district]]s, and [[county of China|counties]]. Recent divisions also include [[prefecture-level cities]], [[county-level cities]], [[town of China|town]]s and [[township of China|township]]s.

Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as [[China proper]]. Various dynasties also [[expansionism|expanded]] into peripheral territories like [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Manchuria]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]]. The [[Manchu]]-established [[Qing Dynasty]] and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into China. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the [[Great Wall]] and the edge of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. [[Manchuria]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] are found to the north of the [[Great Wall of China]], and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between [[Inner Mongolia]] and the [[Northeast China|northeast Chinese]] provinces, or the more historic border of the [[World War II]]-era [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]]. [[Xinjiang]]'s borders correspond to today's administrative [[Xinjiang]]. Historic [[Tibet]] occupies all of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. China is traditionally divided into [[Northern China]] (北方) and [[Southern China]] (南方), the boundary being the [[Huai River]] (淮河) and [[Qinling Mountains]] (秦岭 or 秦嶺).

===Geography and climate===
{{main|Geography of China}}
[[Image:Average annual precipitation in China(English).png|thumb|right|The precipitation in different regions of China]]

China is composed of a vast variety of highly different [[landscapes]], with mostly [[plateaus]] and [[mountains]] in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal [[river]]s flow from west to east, including the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] (central), the [[Huang He]] (central-east), and the [[Amur]] (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]], [[Mekong River]], and [[Brahmaputra]]), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the [[Pacific Ocean]].

In the east, along the shores of the [[Yellow Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]] there are extensive and densely populated [[alluvial]] plains;. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low [[mountain range]]s. In the central-east are the [[river delta|deltas]] of China's two major rivers, the [[Huang He]] and [[Yangtze River]] (Chang Jiang). Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers; they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the [[Pearl River]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur]].

In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast [[calcareous]] [[tableland]] traversed by [[hill]] ranges of moderate elevation, and the [[Himalaya]]s, containing our planet's highest point [[Mount Everest]]. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid [[desert]] landscapes such as the [[Takla-Makan]] and the [[Gobi Desert]], which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high [[mountain]]s and deep valleys of [[Yunnan]], which separate modern China from [[Burma]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]].

The [[Paleozoic]] formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the [[Carboniferous]] system, are [[sea|marine]], while the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Tertiary]] deposits are [[estuarine]] and [[freshwater]] or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of [[Volcano|volcanic]] cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the [[Liaodong]] and [[Shandong]] Peninsulas, there are [[basalt]]ic plateaus.

The [[climate]] of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing [[Beijing]]) has winters of [[Arctic]] severity. The central zone (containing [[Shanghai]]) has a [[temperate]] climate. The southern zone (containing [[Guangzhou]]) has a [[subtropical]] climate.

Due to a prolonged [[drought]] and poor agricultural practices, [[dust storm]]s have become usual in the spring in China.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4915690.stm "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm"]. BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006.</ref> Dust has blown to southern China and Taiwan, and has even reached the West Coast of the [[United States]]. Water, [[erosion]], and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.

{{seealso|Environment of China}}

==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Ethnic groups in Chinese history|Ethnic minorities in China|Demographics of China}}

China's overall population exceeds 1.3 billion, about one-fifth of the world's population. While over a hundred [[ethnicity|ethnic groups]] have existed in China, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] officially recognizes a total of [[Ethnic minorities in China|56]]. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the [[Han Chinese|Han]]. This group is diverse and can be divided into smaller ethnic groups that share some traits.

Many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been [[Sinicization|Sinicized]] into the Han, causing its population to increase dramatically. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Many foreign groups have shaped Han language and culture; the queue was a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced by the Manchurians on the Han populace. The term [[Chinese nation]] (''Zhonghua Minzu'') is usually used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of China}}

Most languages in China belong to the [[Sino-Tibetan]] language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major "dialects" within the [[Chinese language]] itself. The most spoken dialects are [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] (spoken by over 70% of the population), [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] (Shanghainese), <!--Shanghainese is the common name for the Wu dialects. Please do not remove. Western sinologists and linguists use the term "Shanghainese" to generalize the Wu dialects. This is identical to Cantonese (Guangzhou-hua) being used to generalize the diverse Yue dialects.--> [[Yue (linguistics)|Yue]] (Cantonese), [[Min (linguistics)|Min]], [[Xiang (linguistics)|Xiang]], [[Gan (linguistics)|Gan]], and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]]. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]] (Thai), [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] (Turkic), [[Hmong language|Hmong]] and [[Korean language|Korean]].<ref name=language>[http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm Languages]. 2005. GOV.cn. ''URL accessed 3 May 2006.''</ref>

[[Putonghua]] (Standard Mandarin) is the official language and is based on the Mandarin dialect spoken in Beijing. Standard Mandarin is taught in all schools and used by the government.<ref>[http://english.gov.cn/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)]. 2005. GOV.cn. ''URL accessed 15 May 2006.''</ref> Non-Sinitic languages are co-official in some autonomic minority regions.<ref name=language> [http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm Languages]. 2005. GOV.cn. ''URL accessed 3 May 2006.''</ref>

"[[Vernacular Chinese]]" or "''baihua''" is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect which has been in use since the early 20th century. An older written standard, [[Classical Chinese]], was used by literati for thousands of years before the 20th century. Classical Chinese is still a part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. Spoken variants other than Standard Mandarin are usually not written, except for [[Standard Cantonese]] (see [[Written Cantonese]]) which is sometimes used in informal contexts.

Chinese banknotes are multilingual and contain written scripts for Standard Mandarin ([[Chinese characters]] and [[Hanyu Pinyin]]), Zhuang ([[Roman alphabet]]), Tibetan ([[Tibetan alphabet]]), Uyghur ([[Arabic alphabet]]) and Mongolian ([[Mongolian alphabet|traditional Mongolian alphabet]]).

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in China}}

[[image:500lohan longhuatemple.jpg|thumb|right|500 Buddha lohans in [[Shanghai]]'s [[Longhua temple]] (first built during the [[Three Kingdoms]] era)]]
Due to the [[Cultural Revolution]], 59% of the mainland Chinese from the [[People's Republic of China]] ([[PRC]]), or about 767 million people, identify themselves as non-religious or [[atheist]].<ref>''World Desk Reference''. D K Publishing. ISBN 0-7566-1099-0</ref> However, religion and rituals play a significant part in the lives of many in the [[PRC]], especially the traditional beliefs of [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]]. About 33% of the population in the [[PRC]] follow a mixture of beliefs usually referred to by statisticians as "Traditional Beliefs," "Ancient Chinese Beliefs," or just "Other". This is in contrast to the demographics of religion in the [[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] which was not affected by the [[Cultural Revolution]] in the [[People's Republic of China]]. Religion and ancient Chinese traditions play a big role in the daily lives of modern [[Taiwanese]] people. According to the official figures released by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] ([[CIA]]) of the [[United States of America]]:
* 93% of Taiwanese are adherents of a combination of [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Taoism]].
* 2.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of other religions, such as [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and others.
* 4.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of [[Christianity]], this group includes a combination of [[Protestants]], [[Catholics]], [[Mormons]], and other non-denominational Christian groups.

The major religions of the {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} [[People's Republic of China]] are:
*[[Confucianism]]
*[[Taoism]]
*[[Ancestor worship]]
*[[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]]
*[[Islam in China|Islam]]
*[[Christianity in China|Christianity]]

The major religions of the {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] are:
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Taoism]]
*[[Confucianism]]

Only about 6% of the mainland Chinese population in the [[PRC]] are avowed [[Buddhists]], with [[Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[Zen Buddhism]] being the most widely practiced, in contrast to the combined 93% of the [[ROC]] ([[Taiwan]]) population who are devout adherents of a symbiotic combination of [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Confucianism]]. With an estimated 100 million adherents, Buddhism is the [[PRC]]'s largest organized religion. Other forms of Buddhism, such as [[Theravada Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]], are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the [[PRC]].<ref>Macintosh, R. Scott. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0309/p01s04-woap.html China's prosperity inspires rising spirituality] (March 09, 2006). Retrieved April 15, 2006.</ref> Official figures indicate that there are currently about 20 million [[Muslims]] (mostly [[Hui people|Hui]]), more than 15 million [[Protestants]], and 5 million [[Catholics]] in the country.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35396.htm "China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)"]. 2004. International Religious Freedom Report 2004 - U.S. Department of State. ''URL accessed 30 May 2006.''</ref>

The [[People's Republic of China]] ([[PRC]]) is officially secular and atheist but it does allow personal religion or supervised religious organization. Taoism and Buddhism, along with an underlying Confucian morality, have been the dominant religions of Chinese society for almost two millennia. Personal religion is widely tolerated in the PRC today, so there has been a resurrection of interest in Buddhism and Taoism in the past decade. Among the younger, urban secular population, Taoist spiritual ideas of [[Feng Shui]] have become popular in recent years, spawning a large home decoration market in China.

In recent years [[Falun Gong]] has attracted great controversy after the government labeled it a malicious [[cult]][http://english.people.com.cn/english/200102/02/eng20010202_61435.html] and attempted to eradicate it. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a cult or a religion. The Falun Gong claims approximately 70-100 million followers, higher than estimates by foreign independent groups; exact numbers are unknown.

{{see also|Catholicism in China|Chinese folk religion|Chinese mythology|Protestantism in China|Way of Former Heaven}}

===Culture===
{{main|Culture of China}}
[[image:Tang_horse.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A [[Chinese porcelain|Chinese]] [[Tang Dynasty]] tri-color [[glaze]]d porcelain horse (ca. 700 CE).]]
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of [[Imperial China]]'s history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for [[Imperial examination|entry into the imperial bureaucracy]]. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]] was a higher art form than painting or drama. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of [[Confucianism]] and [[conservatism]]. A number of more [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] strains of thought have also been influential, such as [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]. There was often conflict between the philosophies, such as the [[individualism|individualistic]] [[Song Dynasty]] [[Neo-Confucianism|neo-Confucians]], who believed [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a [[meritocracy|culture of merit]] remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of [[New Confucianism|New Confucians]] have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".<ref>Bary, Theodore de. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050311041507/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values"]. Columbia University.</ref>

With the rise of Western [[Economics|economic]] and [[military]] power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, [[political]], and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

The first leaders of the PRC were born in the old society but were influenced by the [[May Fourth Movement]] and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and obedience to the state. Many observers believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional Chinese [[dynastic]] history, while others say that the CPC's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the [[Cultural Revolution]], where many aspects of traditional culture were labeled "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism" by the regime. They further argue that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as [[Confucianism]], [[Chinese art]], literature, and performing arts like [[Beijing opera]], were altered to conform to government policies and communist propaganda. The institution of the [[Simplified Chinese]] orthography reform is controversial as well. Today, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional [[Chinese culture]] as an integral part of Chinese society, lauding it as an important achievement of the Chinese civilization and emphasizing it as being vital to the formation of a [[Chinese nationalism|Chinese national identity]].

{{see also|Chinese law|Chinese philosophy}}

===Arts, scholarship, and literature===
[[Image:mifu01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chinese calligraphy]] by Mifu, [[Song Dynasty]]]]
[[Chinese character]]s have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from [[Oracle bones]] to Qing edicts. [[Calligraphy]] is a major art form in China, more highly regarded than [[painting]] and [[music]]. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly [[Confucian]], [[Taoist]], and [[Buddhist]]) were handwritten by [[ink brush]]. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.

[[Printmaking]] was developed during the [[Song Dynasty]]. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions.

For centuries, economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the [[imperial examination]]s. This led to a [[meritocracy]], although it was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as ''jinshi,'' a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets were highly respected, and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.
[[image:Lian Zhu Shi90.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Chinese stringed instrument ''[[guqin|qin]]'' (琴), often referred to in English as a "lute"]]
The Chinese invented numerous [[musical instrument]]s, such as the [[Guzheng|Zheng]] (箏), [[guqin|Qin]] (琴), [[sheng (instrument)|Sheng]] (笙), [[xiao (flute)|Xiao]] (箫 or 簫), and [[Erhu]] (二胡), that have later spread throughout [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], particularly to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.

{{see also|Chinese art|Chinese painting|Chinese paper art|Chinese calligraphy|Chinese poetry|Cinema of China|Music of China}}

===Sports and recreation===
{{main|Sports in China}}

There is evidence that a form of [[football (soccer)|football]] (i.e. soccer) was first played in China around 1000 CE, leading many historians to believe that it originated there.<ref>[http://athleticscholarships.net/history-of-soccer.htm Origins of the Great Game]. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.</ref>. Besides football, the most popular sports are [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[basketball]], [[American football]], and more recently, [[golf]]. Basketball is especially popular with the young, in urban centers where space is limited. The [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] has a great following and many idolize [[Yao Ming]].

There are also many traditional sports. Chinese [[dragon boat racing]] occurs during the [[Duan Wu festival]]. In [[Inner Mongolia]], Mongolian-style wrestling and [[horse racing]] are popular. In [[Tibet]], archery and [[equestrian sports]] are part of traditional festivals.<ref>Qinfa, Ye. [http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm Sports History of China]. About.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.</ref>

China has become a sports power in the Asian region and around the world. China finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,<ref>http://www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html</ref> and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.<ref>http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/index_uk.asp</ref> The [[2008 Summer Olympics]], officially known as the ''Games of the XXIX Olympiad'', will be held in [[Beijing, China]].

[[Physical fitness]] is highly regarded. Morning exercises are a common activity and the elderly are often seen practicing [[qigong]] in parks.

[[Board games]] such as [[International Chess]], [[Go (board game)|Go]] (Weiqi), and [[Xiangqi]] (Chinese chess) are also common and have organised formal competitions.

===Science and technology===
{{main|Science and technology in China}}

[[image:Yanghui_triangle.gif|thumb||right|[[Yanghui Triangle]], known as [[Pascal's Triangle]] in West, was first drawn by the Chinese]]
In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:
* Asian [[abacus]]
* [[Blast furnace]] (steel)
* Block [[Printmaking]] / [[Printing Technology]]
* [[Bronze]]
* [[Clock]]
* [[Compass]]
* [[Crossbow]]
* [[Dry dock]]
* [[Fan (implement)|Fan]]s
* [[Fireworks]] and solid-fuel [[rocket]]
* [[Fishing pole]] (hook)
* [[Gunpowder]]
* [[Glider]]
* [[Hot air balloon]]
* [[Kite]]
* [[Lacquer]]
* [[Matches]]
* [[Paper]]
* [[Paper money]] and necessary monetary institutions
* [[Parachute]]
* [[Petroleum#History|Petroleum well]]
* [[Porcelain]] (China)
* [[Rudder]]
* [[Seismograph]]
* [[Silk]]
* [[Stirrup]]
* [[Toilet Paper]]
* [[Toothbrush]]
* [[Umbrella]]
* [[Wallpaper]]
* [[Wheelbarrow]]
* [[Whiskey]] (medicinal/surgical use)

Other areas of technological study:
* [[Mathematics]], applied to [[architecture]] and [[geography]]. Pi ([[Pi|π]]) was calculated by 5th century mathematician [[Zu Chongzhi]] to the seventh digit. The [[decimal system]] was used in China as early as the 14th Century BCE. [[Pascal's Triangle]], known as [[Yanghui Triangle]] in China, was discovered by mathematicians [[Chia Hsien]], [[Yang Hui]], [[Zhu Shijie]] and [[Liu Ju-Hsieh]], about 500 years before [[Pascal]] was born.
* [[Biology]], such as [[pharmacopoeia]]s of [[herbology|medicinal plant]]s.
* [[Chinese medicine|Traditional medicine]] and [[surgery]] have achieved recognition over the last few decades in the West as alternative and complementary therapies.
* [[Military]] innovations, such as the [[crossbow]] and the grid sight, the crossbow [[stirrup]], [[repeating crossbow]]s, the [[trebuchet]], [[poison gas]] (smoke from burning dried mustard), [[tear gas]] made from powdered lime, [[relief maps]] for battle planning, manned [[kite flying|kites]], the fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, and early bronze [[cannon]].


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Sinosphere]]
{{Portal}}
* [[Adoption of Chinese literary culture]]
{{sisterlinks|China}}
* [[Chinese calendar]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Chinese dragon]]
* [[Chinese State Flood Control and Drought Relief Headquarters]]
* [[Chinese name]]
* [[Chinese New Year]]
* [[Chinese units of measurement]]
* [[Fenghuang]]
* [[History of postage in China]]
* [[Military history of China]]
* [[Overseas Chinese]]

==Notes==
{{ChineseText}}
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</div>

==External links==
*[http://tour-cities.com/shanghai.html Shanghai]
*[http://chinadigitaltimes.net/ China Digital Times] Online China news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of University of California at Berkeley.
*[http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/Default.aspx?economyid=42 Doing Business in China] World Bank Group's guide
*[http://rru.worldbank.org/EnterpriseSurveys/ExploreEconomies/Default.aspx?economyid=42 Enterprise Surveys: China]
*[http://ppi.worldbank.org/explore/ppi_exploreCountry.aspx?countryID=50 Infrastructure Projects Database: China]
*[http://rru.worldbank.org/Privatization/Results.aspx?countryid=42 Privatization Database: China]

[[Category:Ancient history]]
[[Category:China|*]]

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Latest revision as of 07:01, 26 April 2024

Chinese civilization may refer to:

See also

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