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{{Short description|Wood from trees preserved in peat bogs}}
[[File:Morta on site.jpg|thumb|Excavation of morta from [[Sava]] river in [[Croatia]]]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
'''Bog-wood''', also known as '''abonos''' and '''morta''', especially amongst pipesmokers,<ref name="What is abonos-morta?">{{cite web|last=Đenović|first=Davorin|title=What is abonos-morta?|url=http://davorinmortapipes.wordpress.com/what-is-abonos-morta/|accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref> is a material from trees that have been buried in [[peat]] [[bog]]s and preserved from [[Decomposition|decay]] by the [[acid]]ic and [[wikt:anaerobic|anaerobic]] bog conditions, sometimes for hundreds or even thousands of years. The wood is usually stained brown by [[tannin]]s dissolved in the acidic water. Bog-wood represents the early stages in the [[fossil]]isation of wood, with further stages ultimately forming [[lignite]] and [[coal]] over a period of many millions of years. Bog-wood may come from any tree species naturally growing near or in bogs, including [[oak]] (''Quercus'' &ndash; "bog oak"), pine (''[[Pinus]]''), [[taxus|yew]] (''Taxus''), swamp cypress (''[[Taxodium]]'') and kauri (''[[Agathis]]''). Bog-wood is often removed from fields etc. and placed in [[clearance cairn]]s. It is a rare form of timber that is "comparable to some of the world's most expensive tropical hardwoods".<ref>{{Cite news | title = Huge 5,000-year-old oak unearthed | work = BBC | accessdate = 2012-09-27 | date = 2012-09-26 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-norfolk-19722595 }}</ref>
'''Bog-wood''' (also spelled '''bogwood''' or '''bog wood'''), also known as '''abonos''' and, especially amongst pipe smokers, as '''morta''',<ref name="What is abonos-morta?">{{cite web|last=Đenović|first=Davorin|title=What is abonos-morta?|date=13 February 2010 |url=http://davorinmortapipes.wordpress.com/what-is-abonos-morta/|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> is a material from trees that have been buried in [[peat]] [[bog]]s and preserved from [[Decomposition|decay]] by the [[acid]]ic and [[wikt:anaerobic|anaerobic]] bog conditions, sometimes for hundreds or even thousands of years. The wood is usually stained brown by [[tannin]]s dissolved in the acidic water. Bog-wood represents the early stages in the [[fossil]]isation of wood, with further stages ultimately forming [[Jet_(lignite)|jet]], [[lignite]] and [[coal]] over a period of many millions of years. Bog-wood may come from any tree species naturally growing near or in bogs, including [[oak]] (''Quercus'' &ndash; "bog oak"), pine (''[[Pinus]]''), yew (''[[Taxus]]''), swamp cypress (''[[Taxodium]]'') and kauri (''[[Agathis]]''). Bog-wood is often removed from fields and placed in [[clearance cairn]]s. It is a rare form of timber that is claimed to be "comparable to some of the world's most expensive tropical hardwoods".<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" /><ref>{{Cite news | title = Huge 5,000-year-old oak unearthed | work = BBC | access-date = 27 September 2012 | date = 26 September 2012 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-norfolk-19722595 }}</ref>


==Formation process==
==Formation process==
Bog-wood is created from the trunks of trees that have lain in bogs, and bog-like conditions such as lakes, rivers and swamps, for centuries and even millennia. Deprived of oxygen, the wood undergoes the process of fossilization and morta formation.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />
Bog-wood is created from the trunks of trees that have lain in bogs, and bog-like conditions such as lakes, river bottoms and swamps, for centuries and even millennia. Deprived of oxygen, the wood undergoes the process of fossilization.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


Water flow and depth play a special role in the creation of morta. Currents bind the minerals and iron in the water with tannins in the wood, naturally staining the wood in the process. This centuries-long process, often termed "maturation," turns the wood from golden-brown to completely black, while increasing its hardness to such a level that it can only be carved with the use of specialty cutting tools.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />
Water flow and depth play a special role in the creation of bog-wood. Currents bind the minerals and iron in the water with tannins in the wood, naturally staining the wood in the process. This centuries-long process, often termed "maturation," turns the wood from golden-brown to completely black, while increasing its hardness to such a level that it can only be carved with the use of specialty cutting tools.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


While the time necessary for the oak to transform into abonos varies, the "maturation" commonly lasts thousands of years. Due to the ecological reasons mentioned above, no two trunks can be found of the same color.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />
While the time necessary for the oak to transform into bog-wood varies, the "maturation" commonly lasts thousands of years. Due to the ecological reasons mentioned above, no two trunks can be found of the same color.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


==Excavation sites==
==Excavation sites==
[[File:Bog-wood from Sava river, BiH.jpg|thumb|Bog-wood from Sava river, BiH]]
[[File:Bog-wood from Sava river, BiH.jpg|thumb|Bog-wood from the Sava River, [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]]]
Sites of quality bog-wood in the world are very rare. In the sites expected to accommodate it, morta is hard to find and access to the river bank and its bed is often difficult. Therefore, excessive preparations and the engagement of professional divers are necessary for morta recovery. Morta is located in conditions of total darkness and its extraction marks its first exposure to light after many thousands of years.
Sites of high quality bog-wood in the world are very rare. In the sites expected to yield it, bog-wood is hard to find, and access to the river bank and its bed is often difficult. Therefore, extensive preparations and the engagement of professional divers are necessary for bog-wood recovery. Bog-wood is located in conditions of total darkness, and its extraction marks its first exposure to light after centuries of entombment.


In England and Ireland, the three main types of bog-wood that can be found are Yew, Oak and Pine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maureenmcghee.com/about/history-of-bog-oak/|title=History of Irish Bog Oak|last=McGhee|first=Maureen|website=Maureen McGhee|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Reserves of the ancient wood can also be found in Russia and Ukraine, where the Northern region has a climate favorable to growth of oak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.teltinc.com/about-1/|title=OUR PRODUCTS|website=teltinc.com|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>
In England and Ireland, the three main types of bog-wood that can be found are yew, oak and pine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maureenmcghee.com/about/history-of-bog-oak/|title=History of Irish Bog Oak|last=McGhee|first=Maureen|website=Maureen McGhee|access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref> Reserves of the ancient wood can also be found in Russia and Ukraine, where the northern region has a climate favorable to the growth of oak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.teltinc.com/about-1/|title=OUR PRODUCTS|website=teltinc.com|access-date=31 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911202358/http://www.teltinc.com/about-1/|archive-date=11 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>


In Croatia, bog-wood is found mainly in the valley of the [[Sava River]] and its tributaries. The age of morta found in Croatian rivers ranges from several hundred years in the rivers on the southern part to the oldest retrieved so far from the [[Krapina River]] being 8290 years old.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />
In Croatia, bog-wood is typically found in the valley of the [[Sava|Sava River]] and its tributaries. The age of bog-wood found in Croatian rivers ranges from several hundred years in the southern rivers to the oldest retrieved so far, from the [[Krapina River]], dated at 8290 years old.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


In Serbia, bog-wood over 8,000 years old is found in the valleys of the [[Danube River]], [[Sava|Sava River]] and their tributaries, primarily in the province of [[Vojvodina]].
Saving the wood for further processing is a very delicate matter. Extracted logs must be wrapped in plastic and meticulously dried to prevent warping. The process of wood desiccation is complex, but despite great care most of the raw wood is unsuitable for further processing. For this reason the price of high quality raw abonos is very high.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />

Saving the wood for further processing is a very delicate matter. Extracted logs must be wrapped in waterproof material and meticulously dried to prevent warping. The process of wood desiccation is complex, and despite great care, most of the raw wood is unsuitable for further processing. For this reason, the price of high quality raw bog-wood is quite high.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


==Aesthetics==
==Aesthetics==
Bog-wood is characterized by natural staining and variations in color and the direction of growth rings. Well preserved bog-wood is not affected by weather conditions or vermin that would spoil its look and strength. Considered to have healing properties in some cultures<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fableblades.com/Athame%20Quercus.html|website=Fable Blades|accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>, bog-wood sends a strong aesthetic and ethical message about the vastness of the passage of time.
Bog-wood is characterized by natural staining and variations in color, and the direction of growth rings. Well preserved bog-wood is not affected by weather conditions or organisms which would change its strength and appearance.
Semi-dry bog-wood is sometimes of a golden or copper color,<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Bog Oak?|url=http://www.teltinc.com/|website=Telt Inc.|access-date=3 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913232105/http://www.teltinc.com/|archive-date=13 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> or with a tint of some other hue, and is exceptionally hard. Older wood can be completely black, yet possess the rich variations in hue characteristic of “live” wood. This dark hue is a special feature of bog-wood as a construction material, whether it is used for the making of semi-manufactured goods, veneer or planks.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?"/>
[[|thumb|left|The exceptional floor of the Aarhus Town Hall is constructed of bog-oak. Credit: seier+seier]]
Semi-dry bog-wood is sometimes of a golden or copper color<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Bog Oak?|url=http://www.teltinc.com/|website=Telt Inc.|accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>, or with a tint of some other hue, and is exceptionally hard. Older wood can be completely black, yet possess the rich variations in hue characteristic of “live” wood. This dark hue is a special feature of abonos as construction material whether it be used for the making of semi-manufactured goods, veneer or planks.
.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?"/>


==Uses==
==Uses==
[[File:Bogwood Betta.jpg|right|thumb|Bog wood in an aquarium releases tannins into the water, turning the water brown.]]
[[File:Bogwood Betta.jpg|right|thumb|Bog wood in an aquarium releases tannins into the water, turning the water brown.]]
Because bog-wood can remain free of decay for thousands of years it is of use in [[dendrochronology]], often providing records much older than living trees. Wooden artefacts lost or buried in bogs become preserved as bog-wood, and are important in [[archaeology]].
Because bog-wood can remain free of decay for thousands of years it is of use in [[dendrochronology]], often providing records much older than living trees. Wooden artifacts lost or buried in bogs become preserved as bog-wood, and are important in [[archaeology]].


Bog-wood may be used in [[Woodworking joints|joinery]] to make furniture or [[wood carving]]. Bog-wood sometimes has aesthetically interesting shapes (similar to [[driftwood]]) and may be use as ornaments. As bog-wood dries out, it may crack or split, but this does not necessarily detract from its aesthetic qualities. Due to its natural color, it is a traditionally favored wood for the carving of dirks (''bìodagan'') and ''[[sgian-dubh]]'' in the [[Scottish Highlands]].
Bog-wood may be used in [[Woodworking joints|joinery]] to make furniture or [[wood carving]]. Bog-wood sometimes has aesthetically interesting shapes (similar to [[driftwood]]) and may be used as ornaments. As bog-wood dries out, it may crack or split, but this does not necessarily detract from its aesthetic qualities. Due to its natural color, it is a traditionally favored wood for the carving of dirks (''bìodagan'') and ''[[sgian-dubh]]'' in the [[Scottish Highlands]].


Bog-wood is used in [[aquarium|aquaria]] for ornaments, providing hiding places for fish and a growing surface for plants such as [[Microsorum pteropus|Java fern]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aquadaily.com/2009/01/20/how-to-grow-plants-on-bogwood/|title=How to grow plants on bogwood|publisher=AquaDaily|date=2009-01-20|accessdate=2009-01-31}}</ref> Additionally, the leaching of organic compounds such as tannins into the water causes a brown coloration.
Bog-wood is used in [[aquarium|aquaria]] for ornaments, providing hiding places for fish and a growing surface for plants such as [[Microsorum pteropus|Java fern]]. Additionally, the leaching of organic compounds such as tannins into the water causes a brown coloration.


During the nineteenth century bog oak was used to make carved decorative items such as jewellery <ref>{{cite book |title= Fabulous Fakes: A Passion for Vintage Costume Jewelry|last= Tanenbaum|first= Carole|author2=Rita Silvan|year= 2006|publisher= Madison Press|location= Toronto |page= 22}}</ref> and in some parts of the world it is still used for making of unique artifacts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Souvenirs made out of abonos|url=http://abonos-galerija.com/abonos.php?stranica=19|accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref>Prized in the Tudor period for its dark hue, bog oak was used to construct the throne of Peter the Great and Mary, Queen of Scotts as well in the construction of Venetian places and the bedroom suite of Louis XIV.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bog Oak History|url=http://royaloakglobal.com/BogOakHistory.aspx|website=Royal Oak|accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Curran & Sons Throne Chair|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/28295/throne-chair|website=Royal Collection Trust|accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>
During the nineteenth century bog oak was used to make carved decorative items such as jewelry<ref>{{cite book |title= Fabulous Fakes: A Passion for Vintage Costume Jewelry|last= Tanenbaum|first= Carole|author2=Rita Silvan|year= 2006|publisher= Madison Press|location= Toronto |page= 22}}</ref> and in some parts of the world it is still used to craft unique artifacts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Souvenirs made out of abonos|url=http://abonos-galerija.com/abonos.php?stranica=19|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> Prized in the Tudor period for its dark hue, bog oak was used to construct the throne of Peter the Great as well in the construction of Venetian palaces and the bedroom suite of Louis XIV.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bog Oak History|url=http://royaloakglobal.com/BogOakHistory.aspx|website=Royal Oak|access-date=3 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923224651/http://royaloakglobal.com/BogOakHistory.aspx|archive-date=23 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Curran & Sons Throne Chair|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/28295/throne-chair|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=3 September 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Bog-wood souvenirs.jpg|thumb|Souvenirs made out of morta / bog-wood]]
[[File:Bog-wood souvenirs.jpg|thumb|Souvenirs made out of morta / bog-wood]]


[[File:Morta tobacco pipe.JPG|thumb|Tobacco pipe made of morta / bog-wood]]
[[File:Morta tobacco pipe.JPG|thumb|Tobacco pipe made of morta / bog-wood]]


One of the uses of morta is for making of [[tobacco pipe]]s. It is an ideal material because of a high percentage of minerals, reaching up to 12%, which makes morta especially resistant to burning. Because underground currents erase all traces of tannin, resin and similar ingredients in bog-wood, pipes constructed of the ancient wood provide a neutral taste during tobacco smoking. Due to the challenges of extraction and processing, today there is a relatively small number of pipemakers who make pipes out of morta.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?"/>
One of the uses of bog-wood is for making of [[tobacco pipe]]s. It is an ideal material because of a high percentage of minerals, reaching up to 12%, which makes bog-wood especially resistant to burning. Because underground currents erase all traces of tannin, resin and similar ingredients in bog-wood, pipes constructed of the ancient wood provide a neutral taste during tobacco smoking. Due to the challenges of extraction and processing, today there are a relatively small number of pipemakers who make pipes out of bog-wood.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?"/>


In addition to pipes, bog-wood has traditionally been used to construct decorative objects and items for everyday use. Today, modern drying techniques have made it possible to preserve larger planks of bog oak that are suitable for floor coverings, furniture, doors, window frames, and sculptures.[1]
In addition to pipes, bog-wood has traditionally been used to construct decorative objects and items for everyday use. It has also been utilized as a tonewood in the construction of high-end guitars. Today, modern drying techniques have made it possible to preserve larger planks of bog oak that are suitable for floor coverings, furniture, doors, window frames, and sculptures.<ref name="What is abonos-morta?" />


==See also==
==See also==
Line 50: Line 51:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|1}}
{{reflist|30em}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons category|Bog-wood}}
{{commons category|Bog-wood}}
{{wiktionary|bogwood}}
{{wiktionary|bogwood}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071118224335/http://www.ipcc.ie/infobogwood.html Irish Peatland Conservation Council] - Information sheet on bogwood and its formation in Irish peat bogs.
*[http://mtss-woodblog.blogspot.com/2013/02/celtic-irish-bog-oak.html Information and pictures on Bog Oak in natural form as well as finished artworks.]
*[http://www.spirited-ireland.net/images/kettle-fire-turf/ Image of 5000-year-old bogwood recovered from an Irish bog as well as other bog images]
*[http://www.ipcc.ie/infobogwood.html Irish Peatland Conservation Council] - Information sheet on bogwood and its formation in Irish peat bogs.


{{Forestry}}
{{Forestry}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Bog-Wood}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bog-Wood}}
[[Category:Aquaria]]
[[Category:Aquariums]]
[[Category:Bogs]]
[[Category:Bogs]]
[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Dendrology]]
[[Category:Dendrology]]
[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Organic gemstones]]
[[Category:Wood]]
[[Category:Wood]]
[[Category:Wood-related terminology]]

Latest revision as of 01:57, 18 September 2024

Bog-wood (also spelled bogwood or bog wood), also known as abonos and, especially amongst pipe smokers, as morta,[1] is a material from trees that have been buried in peat bogs and preserved from decay by the acidic and anaerobic bog conditions, sometimes for hundreds or even thousands of years. The wood is usually stained brown by tannins dissolved in the acidic water. Bog-wood represents the early stages in the fossilisation of wood, with further stages ultimately forming jet, lignite and coal over a period of many millions of years. Bog-wood may come from any tree species naturally growing near or in bogs, including oak (Quercus – "bog oak"), pine (Pinus), yew (Taxus), swamp cypress (Taxodium) and kauri (Agathis). Bog-wood is often removed from fields and placed in clearance cairns. It is a rare form of timber that is claimed to be "comparable to some of the world's most expensive tropical hardwoods".[1][2]

Formation process

[edit]

Bog-wood is created from the trunks of trees that have lain in bogs, and bog-like conditions such as lakes, river bottoms and swamps, for centuries and even millennia. Deprived of oxygen, the wood undergoes the process of fossilization.[1]

Water flow and depth play a special role in the creation of bog-wood. Currents bind the minerals and iron in the water with tannins in the wood, naturally staining the wood in the process. This centuries-long process, often termed "maturation," turns the wood from golden-brown to completely black, while increasing its hardness to such a level that it can only be carved with the use of specialty cutting tools.[1]

While the time necessary for the oak to transform into bog-wood varies, the "maturation" commonly lasts thousands of years. Due to the ecological reasons mentioned above, no two trunks can be found of the same color.[1]

Excavation sites

[edit]
Bog-wood from the Sava River, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sites of high quality bog-wood in the world are very rare. In the sites expected to yield it, bog-wood is hard to find, and access to the river bank and its bed is often difficult. Therefore, extensive preparations and the engagement of professional divers are necessary for bog-wood recovery. Bog-wood is located in conditions of total darkness, and its extraction marks its first exposure to light after centuries of entombment.

In England and Ireland, the three main types of bog-wood that can be found are yew, oak and pine.[3] Reserves of the ancient wood can also be found in Russia and Ukraine, where the northern region has a climate favorable to the growth of oak.[4]

In Croatia, bog-wood is typically found in the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. The age of bog-wood found in Croatian rivers ranges from several hundred years in the southern rivers to the oldest retrieved so far, from the Krapina River, dated at 8290 years old.[1]

In Serbia, bog-wood over 8,000 years old is found in the valleys of the Danube River, Sava River and their tributaries, primarily in the province of Vojvodina.

Saving the wood for further processing is a very delicate matter. Extracted logs must be wrapped in waterproof material and meticulously dried to prevent warping. The process of wood desiccation is complex, and despite great care, most of the raw wood is unsuitable for further processing. For this reason, the price of high quality raw bog-wood is quite high.[1]

Aesthetics

[edit]

Bog-wood is characterized by natural staining and variations in color, and the direction of growth rings. Well preserved bog-wood is not affected by weather conditions or organisms which would change its strength and appearance. Semi-dry bog-wood is sometimes of a golden or copper color,[5] or with a tint of some other hue, and is exceptionally hard. Older wood can be completely black, yet possess the rich variations in hue characteristic of “live” wood. This dark hue is a special feature of bog-wood as a construction material, whether it is used for the making of semi-manufactured goods, veneer or planks.[1]

Uses

[edit]
Bog wood in an aquarium releases tannins into the water, turning the water brown.

Because bog-wood can remain free of decay for thousands of years it is of use in dendrochronology, often providing records much older than living trees. Wooden artifacts lost or buried in bogs become preserved as bog-wood, and are important in archaeology.

Bog-wood may be used in joinery to make furniture or wood carving. Bog-wood sometimes has aesthetically interesting shapes (similar to driftwood) and may be used as ornaments. As bog-wood dries out, it may crack or split, but this does not necessarily detract from its aesthetic qualities. Due to its natural color, it is a traditionally favored wood for the carving of dirks (bìodagan) and sgian-dubh in the Scottish Highlands.

Bog-wood is used in aquaria for ornaments, providing hiding places for fish and a growing surface for plants such as Java fern. Additionally, the leaching of organic compounds such as tannins into the water causes a brown coloration.

During the nineteenth century bog oak was used to make carved decorative items such as jewelry[6] and in some parts of the world it is still used to craft unique artifacts.[7] Prized in the Tudor period for its dark hue, bog oak was used to construct the throne of Peter the Great as well in the construction of Venetian palaces and the bedroom suite of Louis XIV.[8][9]

Souvenirs made out of morta / bog-wood
Tobacco pipe made of morta / bog-wood

One of the uses of bog-wood is for making of tobacco pipes. It is an ideal material because of a high percentage of minerals, reaching up to 12%, which makes bog-wood especially resistant to burning. Because underground currents erase all traces of tannin, resin and similar ingredients in bog-wood, pipes constructed of the ancient wood provide a neutral taste during tobacco smoking. Due to the challenges of extraction and processing, today there are a relatively small number of pipemakers who make pipes out of bog-wood.[1]

In addition to pipes, bog-wood has traditionally been used to construct decorative objects and items for everyday use. It has also been utilized as a tonewood in the construction of high-end guitars. Today, modern drying techniques have made it possible to preserve larger planks of bog oak that are suitable for floor coverings, furniture, doors, window frames, and sculptures.[1]

See also

[edit]
  • Aquarium substrates
  • Driftwood
  • Mopane wood, recovered from deserts and often sold as an alternative to bogwood for aquaria; it is sometimes incorrectly labelled as bogwood or charred bogwood.
  • Swamp kauri
  • Sweet Track, a timber causeway in Somerset, England, its timbers preserved in waterlogged ground for over 5,800 years.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Đenović, Davorin (13 February 2010). "What is abonos-morta?". Retrieved 2 December 2013.
  2. ^ "Huge 5,000-year-old oak unearthed". BBC. 26 September 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  3. ^ McGhee, Maureen. "History of Irish Bog Oak". Maureen McGhee. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  4. ^ "OUR PRODUCTS". teltinc.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  5. ^ "What is Bog Oak?". Telt Inc. Archived from the original on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
  6. ^ Tanenbaum, Carole; Rita Silvan (2006). Fabulous Fakes: A Passion for Vintage Costume Jewelry. Toronto: Madison Press. p. 22.
  7. ^ "Souvenirs made out of abonos". Retrieved 2 December 2013.
  8. ^ "Bog Oak History". Royal Oak. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
  9. ^ "Curran & Sons Throne Chair". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
[edit]