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{{Short description|Historic theory in geology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:EarthGrowth.jpg|thumb|180px|Movements of the continents as the Earth expands. Left: Atlantic Ocean centered; right: Pacific Ocean centered.]]
[[File:Vom wachsenden Erdball.jpg|thumb|Historical Hilgenberg globes<ref>Ott Christoph Hilgenberg: ''[http://www.nuclearplanet.com/Hilgenberg%201933.pdf Vom wachsenden Erdball]''. Berlin 1933.</ref>]]

[[File:EarthGrowth.jpg|thumb|Potential reconstruction of continents bordering the Atlantic (left column) and Pacific (right column) oceans as they might have appeared at different points, going back in history, using the expanding Earth hypothesis, based on reconstructions by expanding Earth proponent [[Neal Adams]]]]
The '''expanding Earth''' or '''growing Earth''' [[hypothesis]] asserts that the position and relative movement of [[continents]] is at least partially due to the volume of [[Earth]] increasing. Conversely, [[geophysical global cooling]] was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.
The '''expanding Earth''' or '''growing Earth''' was a [[hypothesis]] attempting to explain the position and relative movement of [[continents]] by increase in the volume of [[Earth]]. With the recognition of [[plate tectonics]] in 20th century, the idea has been abandoned.<ref name=Wu/><ref name=williams/><ref name="Bucher2005"/><ref name="NASA">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/earth20110816.html |title=NASA Research Confirms it's a Small World, After All |last1=Buis A. |last2=Clavin W. |date=16 August 2011 |access-date=2018-07-23 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103083053/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/earth20110816.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Schmidt_&_Clark>{{cite journal | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = P. W. | last2 = Clark | first2 = D. A. | year = 1980 | title = The response of palaeomagnetic data to Earth expansion | journal = Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume = 61 | pages = 95–100 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-246X.1980.tb04306.x | bibcode = 1980GeoJ...61...95S | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Although it was suggested historically, since the recognition of [[plate tectonics]] in the 1970s, [[scientific consensus]] has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}}


==Different forms of the hypothesis==
==Different forms of the hypothesis==
There are no forms of the expanding earth hypothesis.



===Expansion with constant mass===
===Expansion with constant mass===
In 1834, during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle|second voyage of HMS ''Beagle'']], [[Charles Darwin]] investigated stepped plains featuring [[raised beach]]es in [[Patagonia]] which indicated to him that a huge area of South America had been "uplifted to its present height by a succession of elevations which acted over the whole of this space with nearly an equal force." While his mentor [[Charles Lyell]] had suggested forces acting near the crust on smaller areas, Darwin hypothesized that uplift at this continental scale required "the gradual expansion of some central mass" [of the earth] "acting by intervals on the outer crust" with the "elevations being concentric with form of globe (or certainly nearly so)". In 1835 he extended this concept to include the [[Andes]] as part of a curved enlargement of the earth's crust due to "the action of one connected force". Not long afterwards, he moved on from this idea and proposed that as mountains rose, the ocean floor subsided, explaining [[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs|the formation of coral reefs]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Herbert | first = Sandra | publication-date = 1991 | title =Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author | periodical =British Journal for the History of Science | volume = 24 | issue=2 | pages =159–192 [184–188] | url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=26 | accessdate =24 October 2008 | doi = 10.1017/S0007087400027060 | jstor=4027165}}, pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=20&itemID=A342&viewtype=text 178], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=26 184], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=31&itemID=A342&viewtype=text 189], also Darwin, C. R. Geological diary: Elevation of Patagonia. (5.1834) CUL-DAR34.40-60 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker (Darwin Online), pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=35&itemID=CUL-DAR34.40-60&viewtype=text 58–59].</ref>
In 1834, during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle|second voyage of HMS ''Beagle'']], [[Charles Darwin]] investigated stepped plains featuring [[raised beach]]es in [[Patagonia]] which indicated to him that a huge area of South America had been "uplifted to its present height by a succession of elevations which acted over the whole of this space with nearly an equal force". While his mentor [[Charles Lyell]] had suggested forces acting near the crust on smaller areas, Darwin hypothesized that uplift at this continental scale required "the gradual expansion of some central mass" [of the Earth] "acting by intervals on the outer crust" with the "elevations being concentric with form of globe (or certainly nearly so)". In 1835 he extended this concept to include the [[Andes]] Mountains as part of a curved enlargement of the Earth's crust due to "the action of one connected force". Not long afterwards, he abandoned this idea and proposed that as the mountains rose, the ocean floor subsided, explaining [[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs|the formation of coral reefs]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Herbert | first = Sandra | date = 1991 | title =Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author | journal =British Journal for the History of Science | volume = 24 | issue=2 | pages =159–192 [184–188] | url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=26 | access-date =24 October 2008 | doi = 10.1017/S0007087400027060 | jstor=4027165| publisher = Cambridge University Press | s2cid = 143748414 }}, pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=20&itemID=A342&viewtype=text 178], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=26 184], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=31&itemID=A342&viewtype=text 189], also Darwin, C. R. Geological diary: Elevation of Patagonia. (5.1834) CUL-DAR34.40-60 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker (Darwin Online), pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=35&itemID=CUL-DAR34.40-60&viewtype=text 58–59].</ref>


In 1889 and 1909 [[Roberto Mantovani]] published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. [[Thermal expansion]] led to [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie.<ref>{{Citation | author=Mantovani, R.| title = Les fractures de l’écorce terrestre et la théorie de Laplace | journal=Bull. Soc. Sc. Et Arts Réunion | pages=41–53| year=1889}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | author=Mantovani, R.| title = L’Antarctide |journal=Je m’instruis. La science pour tous |volume=38 | pages=595–597| year=1909}}</ref> Although [[Alfred Wegener]] noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of [[continental drift]], he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.<ref>{{Citation | author=Wegener, A. | title = The Origin of Continents and Oceans | year=1966 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-61708-4}} See [[:s:de:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane|Online version]] in German.</ref>
In 1889 and 1909 [[Roberto Mantovani]] published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. [[Thermal expansion]] caused [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie.<ref>{{Citation | author=Mantovani, R.| title = Les fractures de l'écorce terrestre et la théorie de Laplace | journal=Bulletin de la Société des Sciences et Arts de l'Île de la Réunion | pages=41–53| year=1889}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | author=Mantovani, R.| title = L'Antarctide |journal=Je M'instruis. La Science Pour Tous |volume=38 | pages=595–597| year=1909}}</ref> Although [[Alfred Wegener]] noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of [[continental drift]], he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.<ref>{{Citation | author=Wegener, A. | title = The Origin of Continents and Oceans | year=1966 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-61708-4}} See [[:s:de:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane|Online version]] in German.</ref>


A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal cycles" by Irish physicist [[John Joly]]. He assumed that heat flow from [[radioactive decay]] inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist [[Arthur Holmes]], Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to cracks and [[joint (geology)|joints]] in Earth's interior, that could fill with [[magma]]. This was followed by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink.<ref>{{Citation | author=Hohl, R.| title = Geotektonische Hypothesen | journal=Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Erde. Brockhaus Nachschlagewerk Geologie mit einem ABC der Geologie |edition=4. |volume=Bd. 1 | pages=279–321 | year =1970}}</ref>
A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal cycles" by Irish physicist [[John Joly]]. He assumed that heat flow from [[radioactive decay]] inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist [[Arthur Holmes]], Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. By their hypothesis, expansion caused cracks and [[joint (geology)|joints]] in Earth's interior that could fill with [[magma]]. This was succeeded by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink.<ref>{{Citation | author=Hohl, R.| title = Geotektonische Hypothesen | journal=Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Erde. Brockhaus Nachschlagewerk Geologie mit Einem ABC der Geologie |edition=4. |volume=Bd. 1 | pages=279–321 | year =1970}}</ref>


===Mass addition===
===Mass addition===
In 1888 [[Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky]] suggested that some sort of [[aether theories|aether]] is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements, forcing the celestial bodies to expand. This was connected with his [[mechanical explanations of gravitation|mechanical explanation of gravitation]].<ref>{{Citation | author=Yarkovsky, Ivan Osipovich| title =
In 1888 [[Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky]] suggested that some sort of [[aether theories|aether]] is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements, forcing the celestial bodies to expand. This was associated with his [[mechanical explanations of gravitation|mechanical explanation of gravitation]].<ref>{{Citation | author=Yarkovsky, Ivan Osipovich| title = Hypothèse cinétique de la Gravitation universelle et la connexion avec la formation des éléments chimiques | place= Moscow | year=1888}}</ref> Also the theses of [[Ott Christoph Hilgenberg]] (1933, 1974)<ref>Ott Christoph Hilgenberg: ''[http://www.nuclearplanet.com/Hilgenberg%201933.pdf Vom wachsenden Erdball]''. Berlin 1933, page 29–35.</ref><ref name="Hilgenberg.1933">{{Citation | author=Hilgenberg, O.C. | title = Vom wachsenden Erdball (The Expanding Earth) | bibcode=1933vwe..book.....H | place=Berlin | publisher=Giessmann & Bartsch | year=1933}}</ref><ref name="Hilgenberg.1974">{{Citation | author=Hilgenberg, O.C. | title = Geotektonik, neuartig gesehen | journal=Geotektonische Forschungen| volume=45|pages=1–194 | year=1974 | isbn= 978-3-510-50011-6}}</ref> and [[Nikola Tesla]] (1935)<ref>{{Citation |last=Tesla |first=N. |title=Expanding Sun Will Explode Someday Tesla Predicts |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Herald_Tribune/1935/08/18/Expanding_Sun_Will_Explode_Some_Day_Tesla_Predicts |year=1935 |place=New York |publisher=New York Herald Tribune |author-link=Nikola Tesla |via=WikiSource}}</ref> were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter.
[[File:S Warren Carey.jpg|thumb|Samuel Warren Carey]]
Hypothèse cinétique de la Gravitation universelle et la connexion avec la formation des éléments chimiques | place= Moscow | year=1888}}</ref> Also the theses of [[Ott Christoph Hilgenberg]] (1933, 1974)<ref name="Hilgenberg.1933">{{Citation | author=Hilgenberg, O.C. | title = Vom wachsenden Erdball (The Expanding Earth) | bibcode=1933vwe..book.....H | place=Berlin | publisher=Giessmann & Bartsch | year=1933}}</ref><ref name="Hilgenberg.1974">{{Citation | author=Hilgenberg, O.C. | title = Geotektonik, neuartig gesehen | journal=Geotektonische Forschungen| volume=45|pages=1–194 | year=1974 | isbn= 978-3-510-50011-6}}</ref> and [[Nikola Tesla]] (1935)<ref>{{Citation | author=Tesla, N. | title = Expanding Sun Will Explode Someday Tesla Predicts | place=New York | publisher=New York Herald Tribune | year=1935 | url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Herald_Tribune/1935/08/18/Expanding_Sun_Will_Explode_Some_Day_Tesla_Predicts}} [[:wikisource:The New York Herald Tribune/1935/08/18/Expanding Sun Will Explode Some Day Tesla Predicts]]</ref> were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter.
After initially endorsing the idea of continental drift, Australian geologist [[Samuel Warren Carey]] advocated expansion from the 1950s (before the idea of plate tectonics was generally accepted) to his death,<ref name="japantimes1">{{Citation | first=Jeff | last=Ogrisseg | url= http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2009/11/22/life/dogmas-may-blinker-mainstream-scientific-thinking/ | title=Dogmas may blinker mainstream scientific thinking | date=22 November 2009 | work=The Japan Times | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303203221/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2009/11/22/life/dogmas-may-blinker-mainstream-scientific-thinking/ | archive-date=3 March 2015}}</ref> alleging that [[subduction]] and [[Convergent boundary|other events]] could not balance the [[sea-floor spreading]] at [[oceanic ridge]]s, and describing yet unresolved paradoxes that continue to plague plate tectonics.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0012-8252(75)90097-5 | volume=11 | title=The expanding earth an essay review | year=1975 | journal=Earth-Science Reviews | pages=105–143 | last1 = Carey | first1 = S. Warren| issue=2 | bibcode=1975ESRv...11..105C }}</ref> Starting in 1956, he proposed some sort of mass increase in the planets and said that a final solution to the problem is only possible by [[cosmology|cosmological]] processes associated with the [[expansion of the universe]].<ref>{{citation |title= Theories of the earth and universe: a history of dogma in the earth sciences |author= Samuel Warren Carey |edition= illustrated |publisher= Stanford University Press |year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-8047-1364-1 |pages=347–350 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=l_0l0KOdHLoC&pg=PA347}}</ref>


[[Bruce Heezen]] initially interpreted his work on the mid-Atlantic ridge as confirming S. Warren Carey's Expanding Earth Theory, but later ended his endorsement, finally convinced by the data and analysis of his assistant, [[Marie Tharp]].<ref>[[Naomi Oreskes|Oreskes, Naomi]], 2003, ''Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History of the Modern Theory of the Earth'', Westview Press, p. 23, {{ISBN|0813341329}}</ref><ref>Frankel, Henry, ''The Continental Drift Debate'', Ch. 7 in ''Scientific controversies'', p. 226, 1987, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-27560-6}}</ref> The remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Carey's ideas.<ref name="japantimes1" /><ref name=JSTOR>{{cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |date=8 October 2016 |title=The Mother of Ocean Floor Cartography |url= http://daily.jstor.org/the-mother-of-ocean-floor-cartography/ |work=[[JSTOR]] |access-date=2016-10-14 | quote=While working with the North Atlantic data, she noted what must have been a rift between high undersea mountains. This suggested earthquake activity, which then [was] only associated with [the] fringe theory of continental drift. Heezen infamously dismissed his assistant's idea as "girl talk." But she was right, and her thinking helped to vindicate Alfred Wegener's 1912 theory of moving continents. Yet Tharp's name isn't on any of the key papers that Heezen and others published about plate tectonics between 1959-1963, which brought this once controversial idea to the mainstream of earth sciences.}}</ref>
After initially supporting continental drift, the late Australian geologist [[Samuel Warren Carey|S. Warren Carey]] advocated expansion from the 1950s (before the development of plate tectonics provided the generally accepted explanation of the movement of continents) to his death,<ref name="japantimes1">{{Citation | first=Jeff | last=Ogrisseg | url= http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2009/11/22/life/dogmas-may-blinker-mainstream-scientific-thinking/ | title=Dogmas may blinker mainstream scientific thinking | date=2009-11-22 | work=The Japan Times | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303203221/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2009/11/22/life/dogmas-may-blinker-mainstream-scientific-thinking/ | archivedate=2015-03-03}}</ref> demonstrating that [[subduction]] and [[Convergent boundary|other events]] could not balance the [[sea-floor spreading]] at [[oceanic ridge]]s, and piling yet unresolved paradoxes that continue to plague plate tectonics.<ref>S. W. Carey, The Expanding Earth An essay review, 1975, Earth Science Reviews, vol. 11-2, pp.105-143, {{DOI|10.1016/0012-8252(75)90097-5}}</ref> Starting in 1956, he proposed some sort of mass increase in the planets and said that a final solution to the problem is only possible in a [[cosmology|cosmological]] perspective in connection with the [[expansion of the universe]].<ref>{{citation |title= Theories of the earth and universe: a history of dogma in the earth sciences |author= Samuel Warren Carey |edition= illustrated |publisher= Stanford University Press |year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-8047-1364-1 |pages=347–350 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=l_0l0KOdHLoC&pg=PA347&lpg=PA347}}</ref>


To date no scientific mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass. Although the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/01mar_meteornetwork/ | title=What's Hitting Earth? &#124; Science Mission Directorate | access-date=16 September 2016 | archive-date=25 May 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525193605/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/01mar_meteornetwork/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the growing earth hypothesis.
[[Bruce Heezen]] initially interpreted his work on the mid-Atlantic ridge as supporting S. Warren Carey's Expanding Earth Theory, but later withdrew his support, finally convinced by the data and analysis of his assistant, [[Marie Tharp]].<ref>Oreskes, Naomi, 2003, ''Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History Of The Modern Theory Of The Earth'', Westview Press, p. 23, ISBN 0813341329</ref><ref>Frankel, Henry, ''The Continental Drift Debate,'' Ch. 7 in ''Scientific controversies'', p. 226, 1987, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27560-6</ref> The remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Carey's ideas.<ref name="japantimes1" /><ref name=JSTOR>{{cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |date=2016-10-08 |title=The Mother of Ocean Floor Cartography |url= http://daily.jstor.org/the-mother-of-ocean-floor-cartography/?utm_campaign=jstordaily_101362016 |work=[[JSTOR]] |location= |access-date=2016-10-14 | archiveurl= | archivedate= | quote=While working with the North Atlantic data, she noted what must have been a rift between high undersea mountains. This suggested earthquake activity, which then [was] only associated with [the] fringe theory of continental drift. Heezen infamously dismissed his assistant’s idea as “girl talk. But she was right, and her thinking helped to vindicate Alfred Wegener’s 1912 theory of moving continents. Yet Tharp’s name isn’t on any of the key papers that Heezen and others published about plate tectonics between 1959-1963, which brought this once controversial idea to the mainstream of earth sciences.}}</ref>


===Decrease of the gravitational constant===
In the last few decades, no credible mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass, and there is no credible evidence for new mass having been added in the past.<ref name=novella2009/> The increased gravity of Earth would have altered the orbits of the celestial objects in the Solar System, including Moon's orbit and Earth's own orbit; proponents have no adequate explanation to address this problem.<ref name=novella2009/> This is a big obstacle for acceptance of the theory by other geologists.<ref name=novella2009>{{cite web |title= No Growing Earth, But a Growing Problem With Science Journalism |author= Steven Novella |publisher= skepticblog.org| date= 2009-11-03 |url= http://www.skepticblog.org/2009/11/23/no-growing-earth-but-a-growing-problem-with-science-journalism/ }}</ref>
[[Paul Dirac]] suggested in 1938 that the universal [[gravitational constant]] had ''decreased'' during the billions of years of its existence. This caused German physicist [[Pascual Jordan]] to propose in 1964, a modification of the theory of [[general relativity]], that all planets slowly expand. This explanation is considered a viable hypothesis within the context of physics.<ref>{{Citation | author=Jordan, P. | title = The expanding earth: some consequences of Dirac's gravitation hypothesis | place=Oxford | publisher=Pergamon Press | year=1971| bibcode = 1971eesc.book.....J }}</ref>


Measurements of a possible variation of the gravitational constant showed an upper limit for a relative change of {{val|5e-12}} per year, excluding Jordan's idea.<ref>{{Citation | author=Born, M. | title = Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins (Einstein's theory of relativity)| place=Berlin-Heidelberg-New York | publisher=Springer-publisher | orig-year =1964| year =2003 |isbn=978-3-540-00470-7}}</ref>
It is a well known fact that the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space, as are all other planetary bodies in our system. According to NASA, "Every day about 100 tons of meteoroids -- fragments of dust and gravel and sometimes even big rocks – enter the Earth's atmosphere."<ref>https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/01mar_meteornetwork/</ref> The majority of this debris burns up in the atmosphere and lands as dust. Such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the expanding Earth hypothesis.


===Decrease of the gravitational constant===
===Formation from a gas giant===
According to the hypothesis of [[J. Marvin Herndon]] (2005, 2013) the Earth originated in its [[Protoplanetary disk|protoplanetary]] stage from a [[Jupiter]]-like [[gas giant]]. During the development phases of the young [[Sun]], which resembled those of a [[T Tauri star]], the dense atmosphere of the gas giant was stripped off by infrared eruptions from the sun. The remnant was a rocky planet. Due to the loss of pressure from its atmosphere it would have begun a progressive decompression. Herndon regards the energy released due to the lack of compression as a primary energy source for geotectonic activity, to which some energy from radioactive decomposition processes was added. He terms the resulting changes in the course of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]] by the name of his theory ''Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics''. He considered [[seafloor spreading]] at [[Divergent boundary|divergent plate boundaries]] as an effect of it.<ref name="herndon">{{Cite journal |last=Herndon |first=J. Marvin |author-link=J. Marvin Herndon |date=10 December 2005 |orig-year=30 Jun 2005 |title=Whole-earth decompression dynamics |journal=Current Science |volume=89 |pages=1937–1941 |arxiv=astro-ph/0507001 |jstor=24111129 |number=11|bibcode=2005astro.ph..7001M }}</ref> In his opinion [[mantle convection]] as used as a concept in the theory of [[plate tectonics]] is physically impossible. His theory includes the effect of [[solar wind]] ([[geomagnetic storms]]) as cause for the reversals of the [[Earth magnetic field]]. The question of mass increase is not addressed.<ref name="herndon" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal=NCGT Journal|first=J. Marvin |last=Herndon|author-link=J. Marvin Herndon|arxiv=1307.1692|title= A New Basis of Geoscience: Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics|publisher=Cornell University Physics|date= 4 Jul 2013}}</ref>
[[Paul Dirac]] suggested in 1938 that the universal [[gravitational constant]] had ''decreased'' in the billions of years of its existence. This led German physicist [[Pascual Jordan]] to a modification of [[general relativity]] and to propose in 1964 that all planets slowly expand. Contrary to most of the other explanations this one was at least within the framework of physics considered as a viable hypothesis.<ref>{{Citation | author=Jordan, P. | title = The expanding earth: some consequences of Dirac's gravitation hypothesis | place=Oxford | publisher=Pergamon Press | year=1971}}</ref>

Measurements of a possible variation of the gravitational constant showed an upper limit for a relative change of 5•10<sup>−12</sup> per year, excluding Jordan's idea.<ref>{{Citation | author=Born, M. | title = Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins (Einstein's theory of relativity)| place=Berlin-Heidelberg-New York | publisher=Springer-publisher | origyear =1964| year =2003 |isbn=3-540-00470-X}}</ref>


==Main arguments against Earth expansion ==
==Scientific consensus==


The hypothesis had never developed a plausible and verifiable mechanism of action.<ref name="japantimes1" /> During the 1960s, the theory of [[plate tectonics]]—initially based on the assumption that Earth's size remains constant, and relating the [[subduction zones]] to burying of lithosphere at a scale comparable to seafloor spreading<ref name="japantimes1" />—became the accepted explanation in the Earth Sciences.
The hypothesis had never developed a plausible and verifiable mechanism of action.<ref name="japantimes1" /> During the 1960s, the theory of [[plate tectonics]] based initially on the assumption that Earth's size remains constant, and relating the [[subduction zones]] to burying of lithosphere at a scale comparable to seafloor spreading<ref name="japantimes1" />—became the accepted explanation in the Earth Sciences.


The scientific community finds that significant evidence contradicts the Expanding Earth theory, and that evidence used in support of it is better explained by plate tectonics:
The scientific community finds that significant evidence contradicts the Expanding Earth theory, and that the evidence used for it is explained better by plate tectonics:
*Measurements with modern high-precision [[geodesy|geodetic]] techniques and modelization of the measurements by the horizontal motions of independent rigid plates at the surface of a globe of free radius, were proposed as evidence that Earth is not currently increasing in size to within a measurement accuracy of 0.2&nbsp;mm per year.<ref name=Wu>{{Cite journal
*Measurements with modern high-precision [[geodesy|geodetic]] techniques and modeling of the measurements by the horizontal motions of independent rigid plates at the surface of a globe of free radius, were proposed as evidence that Earth is not currently increasing in size to within a measurement accuracy of 0.2&nbsp;mm per year.<ref name=Wu>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1029/2011GL047450
| doi = 10.1029/2011GL047450
| volume = 38
| volume = 38
| pages = 5 PP.
| issue = 13
| pages = 5 PP
| last = Wu
| last = Wu
| first = X.
| first = X.
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| title = Accuracy of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame origin and Earth expansion
| title = Accuracy of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame origin and Earth expansion
| journal=Geophysical Research Letters
| journal=Geophysical Research Letters
| accessdate = 17 July 2011
| date = 8 July 2011
| date = 8 July 2011
|bibcode = 2011GeoRL..3813304W | url = https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3A72ed93c0-d13e-427c-8c5f-f013b737750e/datastream/OBJ/download
| url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2011GL047450/pdf
| doi-access = free
|bibcode = 2011GeoRL..3813304W }}</ref> The lead author of the study stated "Our study provides an independent confirmation that the solid Earth is not getting larger at present, within current measurement uncertainties".<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110817120527.htm ''It's a Small World, After All: Earth Is Not Expanding, NASA Research Confirms,'' ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2011)]</ref>
}}</ref> The main author of the study stated "Our study provides an independent confirmation that the solid Earth is not getting larger at present, within current measurement uncertainties".<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110817120527.htm ''It's a Small World, After All: Earth Is Not Expanding, NASA Research Confirms,'' ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2011)]</ref>
* The motions of [[tectonic plates]] and subduction zones measured by a large range of geological, geodetic and geophysical techniques supports plate tectonics.<ref>Fowler (1990), pp 281 & 320–327; Duff (1993), pp 609–613; Stanley (1999), pp 223–226</ref><ref name="Bucher2005">{{Citation|doi=10.2138/am.2005.1718|title=Blueschists, eclogites, and decompression assemblages of the Zermatt-Saas ophiolite: High-pressure metamorphism of subducted Tethys lithosphere|year=2005|last1=Bucher|first1=K.|journal=American Mineralogist|volume=90|pages=821}}</ref><ref name="VanDerLee1997">{{Citation|doi=10.1038/386266a0|title=Seismic image of the subducted trailing fragments of the Farallon plate|year=1997|last1=Van Der Lee|first1=Suzan|last2=Nolet|first2=Guust|journal=Nature|volume=386|pages=266|issue=6622|bibcode = 1997Natur.386..266V }}</ref>
* The motions of [[tectonic plates]] and subduction zones measured by a large range of geological, geodetic and geophysical techniques helps verify plate tectonics.<ref>Fowler (1990), pp 281 & 320–327; Duff (1993), pp 609–613; Stanley (1999), pp 223–226</ref><ref name="Bucher2005">{{Citation|doi=10.2138/am.2005.1718|title=Blueschists, eclogites, and decompression assemblages of the Zermatt-Saas ophiolite: High-pressure metamorphism of subducted Tethys lithosphere|year=2005|last1=Bucher|first1=K.|journal=American Mineralogist|volume=90|issue=5–6|pages=821–835|bibcode=2005AmMin..90..821B|s2cid=129874595}}</ref><ref name="VanDerLee1997">{{Citation|doi=10.1038/386266a0|title=Seismic image of the subducted trailing fragments of the Farallon plate|year=1997|last1=Van Der Lee|first1=Suzan|last2=Nolet|first2=Guust|journal=Nature|volume=386|pages=266|issue=6622|bibcode = 1997Natur.386..266V |s2cid=4340130}}</ref>
* Imaging of lithosphere fragments within the mantle supports lithosphere consumption by subduction.<ref name="Bucher2005"/><ref name="VanDerLee1997"/>
* Imaging of [[lithosphere]] fragments within the mantle is evidence for lithosphere consumption by subduction.<ref name="Bucher2005"/><ref name="VanDerLee1997"/>
*[[Paleomagnetic]] data has been used to calculate that the radius of Earth 400 million years ago was 102 ± 2.8 percent of today's radius.<ref name=mcelhinney>{{Citation |author1=McElhinney, M. W. |author2=Taylor, S. R. |author3= Stevenson, D. J. |last-author-amp=yes | title = Limits to the expansion of Earth, Moon, Mars, and Mercury and to changes in the gravitational constant | year = 1978 | journal=Nature | volume=271 | pages=316–321 | doi=10.1038/271316a0 | issue=5643|bibcode = 1978Natur.271..316M }}</ref><ref>Schmidt, P. W. and Clark, D. A. (1980), ''The response of palaeomagnetic data to Earth expansion'', Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 61: 95–100, 1980, {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-246X.1980.tb04306.x}}</ref> However, the methodology employed has been criticised by the Russian geologist Yuriy Chudinov.<ref>Yu. Chudinov, Eduction concept of the earth's expansion theory: main grounds, VSP, Utrecht, 2001, ISBN 90-6764-299-1</ref>
*Examinations of data from the Paleozoic and Earth's [[moment of inertia]] suggest that there has been no significant change of Earth's radius in the last 620 million years.<ref name=williams>{{Citation | author=Williams, G.E.| title = Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth’s rotation and the moon’s orbit | url=http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~mjelline/453website/eosc453/E_prints/1999RG900016.pdf | format=PDF | year =2000 |journal=Reviews of Geophysics| volume=38 |number=1 |pages=37–59 | doi=10.1029/1999RG900016 | bibcode=2000RvGeo..38...37W}}</ref>
*[[Paleomagnetic]] data has been used to calculate that the radius of Earth 400 million years ago was 102 ± 2.8 percent of the present radius.<ref name=mcelhinney>{{Citation |author1=McElhinney, M. W. |author2=Taylor, S. R. |author3= Stevenson, D. J. |name-list-style=amp | title = Limits to the expansion of Earth, Moon, Mars, and Mercury and to changes in the gravitational constant | year = 1978 | journal=Nature | volume=271 | pages=316–321 | doi=10.1038/271316a0 | issue=5643|bibcode = 1978Natur.271..316M |s2cid=4258162 }}</ref><ref name="Schmidt_&_Clark"/>
*Examinations of data from the Paleozoic and Earth's [[moment of inertia]] suggest that there has not been any significant change of Earth's radius during the last 620 million years.<ref name=williams>{{Citation | author = Williams, G.E. | title = Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the moon's orbit | url = http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~mjelline/453website/eosc453/E_prints/1999RG900016.pdf | year = 2000 | journal = Reviews of Geophysics | volume = 38 | number = 1 | pages = 37–59 | doi = 10.1029/1999RG900016 | bibcode = 2000RvGeo..38...37W | citeseerx = 10.1.1.597.6421 | s2cid = 51948507 | access-date = 23 November 2007 | archive-date = 24 December 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151224032245/http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~mjelline/453website/eosc453/E_prints/1999RG900016.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Geophysical global cooling]] - a converse hypothesis
* [[:Category:Plate tectonics]]
* [[:Category:Plate tectonics]]
* [[Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)]]
* [[Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)]]
Line 66: Line 65:


===Bibliography===
===Bibliography===
* {{aut|Carey, S.W.}}; 1976: "The Expanding Earth", Developments in Geotectonics (10), Elsevier, ISBN 0-444-41485-1; digital edition 2013: ASIN B01E3II6VY.
* {{aut|Carey, S.W.}}; 1976: "The Expanding Earth", Developments in Geotectonics (10), Elsevier, {{ISBN|0-444-41485-1}}; digital edition 2013: ASIN B01E3II6VY.
* {{aut|Carey, S.W.}};1988: "Theories of the Earth and Universe: A History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences", Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-804-71364-2.
* {{aut|Carey, S.W.}};1988: "Theories of the Earth and Universe: A History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences", Stanford University Press, {{ISBN|0-804-71364-2}}.
* {{aut|[[Donald Duff|Duff, D.]]}}; 1993: ''[[Arthur Holmes|Holmes']] principles of physical geology'', Chapman & Hall (4th ed.), ISBN 0-412-40320-X.
* {{aut|[[Donald Duff (geologist and author)|Duff, D.]]}}; 1993: ''[[Arthur Holmes|Holmes']] principles of physical geology'', Chapman & Hall (4th ed.), {{ISBN|0-412-40320-X}}.
* {{aut|Fowler, C.M.R.}}; 1990: ''The Solid Earth, an introduction to Global Geophysics'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-38590-3.
* {{aut|[[Mary Fowler (geologist)|Fowler, C.M.R.]]}}; 1990: ''The Solid Earth, an introduction to Global Geophysics'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-38590-3}}.
* {{aut|Stanley, S.M.}}; 1999: ''Earth System History'', W.H. Freeman & Co, ISBN 0-7167-2882-6.
* {{aut|Stanley, S.M.}}; 1999: ''Earth System History'', W.H. Freeman & Co, {{ISBN|0-7167-2882-6}}.


== External links ==
== External links ==
* {{Commons-inline|Category:Expanding Earth|Expanding Earth}}
* {{Commons-inline}}


===Historical===
===Historical===
* [[:de:Ott Christoph Hilgenberg|Ott Christoph Hilgenberg]]:
* [[:de:Ott Christoph Hilgenberg|Ott Christoph Hilgenberg]]:
* G. Scalera: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2017 Roberto Mantovani an Italian defender of the continental drift and planetary expansion]
* G. Scalera: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2017 Roberto Mantovani an Italian defender of the continental drift and planetary expansion]
* Giancarlo Scalera: [http://www.wachsende-erde.de/web-content/bilder/scalera/scalera_geodesy.pdf Variable Radius CartographyBirth and Perspectives of a New Experimental Discipline]
* G. Scalera, Braun: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2015 Ott Christoph Hilgenberg in twentieth-century geophysics]
* G. Scalera, Braun: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2015 Ott Christoph Hilgenberg in twentieth-century geophysics]
* G. Scalera: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2016 Samuel Warren Carey – Commemorative memoir]
* G. Scalera: [http://hdl.handle.net/2122/2016 Samuel Warren Carey – Commemorative memoir]

* Andrew Alden: [http://geology.about.com/od/biographies_ac/a/warrencarey.htm Warren Carey, Last of the Giants]
* Andrew Alden: [http://geology.about.com/od/biographies_ac/a/warrencarey.htm Warren Carey, Last of the Giants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821074924/http://geology.about.com/od/biographies_ac/a/warrencarey.htm |date=21 August 2016 }}


===Contemporary===
===Contemporary===
* [http://db.naturalphilosophy.org/topic/?topicid=1&subpage=scientists Database of Expansion Tectonic Scientists, living and deceased]
* [http://www.ncgt.org New Concepts in Global Tectonics]
* [http://db.naturalphilosophy.org/topic/?topicid=1=Expansion_Tectonics Database of Expansion Tectonic Scientists, living and deceased]


[[Category:Structure of the Earth]]
[[Category:Structure of the Earth]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:Geophysics]]
[[Category:Geophysics]]
[[Category:Geology theories]]
[[Category:Geodynamics]]
[[Category:Geodynamics]]
[[Category:Obsolete geology theories]]

Latest revision as of 14:39, 25 September 2024

Historical Hilgenberg globes[1]
Potential reconstruction of continents bordering the Atlantic (left column) and Pacific (right column) oceans as they might have appeared at different points, going back in history, using the expanding Earth hypothesis, based on reconstructions by expanding Earth proponent Neal Adams

The expanding Earth or growing Earth was a hypothesis attempting to explain the position and relative movement of continents by increase in the volume of Earth. With the recognition of plate tectonics in 20th century, the idea has been abandoned.[2][3][4][5][6]

Different forms of the hypothesis

[edit]

Expansion with constant mass

[edit]

In 1834, during the second voyage of HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin investigated stepped plains featuring raised beaches in Patagonia which indicated to him that a huge area of South America had been "uplifted to its present height by a succession of elevations which acted over the whole of this space with nearly an equal force". While his mentor Charles Lyell had suggested forces acting near the crust on smaller areas, Darwin hypothesized that uplift at this continental scale required "the gradual expansion of some central mass" [of the Earth] "acting by intervals on the outer crust" with the "elevations being concentric with form of globe (or certainly nearly so)". In 1835 he extended this concept to include the Andes Mountains as part of a curved enlargement of the Earth's crust due to "the action of one connected force". Not long afterwards, he abandoned this idea and proposed that as the mountains rose, the ocean floor subsided, explaining the formation of coral reefs.[7]

In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion caused volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie.[8][9] Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.[10]

A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal cycles" by Irish physicist John Joly. He assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. By their hypothesis, expansion caused cracks and joints in Earth's interior that could fill with magma. This was succeeded by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink.[11]

Mass addition

[edit]

In 1888 Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky suggested that some sort of aether is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements, forcing the celestial bodies to expand. This was associated with his mechanical explanation of gravitation.[12] Also the theses of Ott Christoph Hilgenberg (1933, 1974)[13][14][15] and Nikola Tesla (1935)[16] were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter.

Samuel Warren Carey

After initially endorsing the idea of continental drift, Australian geologist Samuel Warren Carey advocated expansion from the 1950s (before the idea of plate tectonics was generally accepted) to his death,[17] alleging that subduction and other events could not balance the sea-floor spreading at oceanic ridges, and describing yet unresolved paradoxes that continue to plague plate tectonics.[18] Starting in 1956, he proposed some sort of mass increase in the planets and said that a final solution to the problem is only possible by cosmological processes associated with the expansion of the universe.[19]

Bruce Heezen initially interpreted his work on the mid-Atlantic ridge as confirming S. Warren Carey's Expanding Earth Theory, but later ended his endorsement, finally convinced by the data and analysis of his assistant, Marie Tharp.[20][21] The remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Carey's ideas.[17][22]

To date no scientific mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass. Although the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space[23] such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the growing earth hypothesis.

Decrease of the gravitational constant

[edit]

Paul Dirac suggested in 1938 that the universal gravitational constant had decreased during the billions of years of its existence. This caused German physicist Pascual Jordan to propose in 1964, a modification of the theory of general relativity, that all planets slowly expand. This explanation is considered a viable hypothesis within the context of physics.[24]

Measurements of a possible variation of the gravitational constant showed an upper limit for a relative change of 5×10−12 per year, excluding Jordan's idea.[25]

Formation from a gas giant

[edit]

According to the hypothesis of J. Marvin Herndon (2005, 2013) the Earth originated in its protoplanetary stage from a Jupiter-like gas giant. During the development phases of the young Sun, which resembled those of a T Tauri star, the dense atmosphere of the gas giant was stripped off by infrared eruptions from the sun. The remnant was a rocky planet. Due to the loss of pressure from its atmosphere it would have begun a progressive decompression. Herndon regards the energy released due to the lack of compression as a primary energy source for geotectonic activity, to which some energy from radioactive decomposition processes was added. He terms the resulting changes in the course of Earth's history by the name of his theory Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics. He considered seafloor spreading at divergent plate boundaries as an effect of it.[26] In his opinion mantle convection as used as a concept in the theory of plate tectonics is physically impossible. His theory includes the effect of solar wind (geomagnetic storms) as cause for the reversals of the Earth magnetic field. The question of mass increase is not addressed.[26][27]

Main arguments against Earth expansion

[edit]

The hypothesis had never developed a plausible and verifiable mechanism of action.[17] During the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics— based initially on the assumption that Earth's size remains constant, and relating the subduction zones to burying of lithosphere at a scale comparable to seafloor spreading[17]—became the accepted explanation in the Earth Sciences.

The scientific community finds that significant evidence contradicts the Expanding Earth theory, and that the evidence used for it is explained better by plate tectonics:

  • Measurements with modern high-precision geodetic techniques and modeling of the measurements by the horizontal motions of independent rigid plates at the surface of a globe of free radius, were proposed as evidence that Earth is not currently increasing in size to within a measurement accuracy of 0.2 mm per year.[2] The main author of the study stated "Our study provides an independent confirmation that the solid Earth is not getting larger at present, within current measurement uncertainties".[28]
  • The motions of tectonic plates and subduction zones measured by a large range of geological, geodetic and geophysical techniques helps verify plate tectonics.[29][4][30]
  • Imaging of lithosphere fragments within the mantle is evidence for lithosphere consumption by subduction.[4][30]
  • Paleomagnetic data has been used to calculate that the radius of Earth 400 million years ago was 102 ± 2.8 percent of the present radius.[31][6]
  • Examinations of data from the Paleozoic and Earth's moment of inertia suggest that there has not been any significant change of Earth's radius during the last 620 million years.[3]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Ott Christoph Hilgenberg: Vom wachsenden Erdball. Berlin 1933.
  2. ^ a b Wu, X.; X. Collilieux; Z. Altamimi; B. L. A. Vermeersen; R. S. Gross; I. Fukumori (8 July 2011). "Accuracy of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame origin and Earth expansion". Geophysical Research Letters. 38 (13): 5 PP. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..3813304W. doi:10.1029/2011GL047450.
  3. ^ a b Williams, G.E. (2000), "Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the moon's orbit" (PDF), Reviews of Geophysics, 38 (1): 37–59, Bibcode:2000RvGeo..38...37W, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.597.6421, doi:10.1029/1999RG900016, S2CID 51948507, archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2015, retrieved 23 November 2007
  4. ^ a b c Bucher, K. (2005), "Blueschists, eclogites, and decompression assemblages of the Zermatt-Saas ophiolite: High-pressure metamorphism of subducted Tethys lithosphere", American Mineralogist, 90 (5–6): 821–835, Bibcode:2005AmMin..90..821B, doi:10.2138/am.2005.1718, S2CID 129874595
  5. ^ Buis A.; Clavin W. (16 August 2011). "NASA Research Confirms it's a Small World, After All". Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  6. ^ a b Schmidt, P. W.; Clark, D. A. (1980). "The response of palaeomagnetic data to Earth expansion". Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 61: 95–100. Bibcode:1980GeoJ...61...95S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1980.tb04306.x.
  7. ^ Herbert, Sandra (1991), "Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author", British Journal for the History of Science, 24 (2), Cambridge University Press: 159–192 [184–188], doi:10.1017/S0007087400027060, JSTOR 4027165, S2CID 143748414, retrieved 24 October 2008, pp. 178, 184, 189, also Darwin, C. R. Geological diary: Elevation of Patagonia. (5.1834) CUL-DAR34.40-60 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker (Darwin Online), pp. 58–59.
  8. ^ Mantovani, R. (1889), "Les fractures de l'écorce terrestre et la théorie de Laplace", Bulletin de la Société des Sciences et Arts de l'Île de la Réunion: 41–53
  9. ^ Mantovani, R. (1909), "L'Antarctide", Je M'instruis. La Science Pour Tous, 38: 595–597
  10. ^ Wegener, A. (1966), The Origin of Continents and Oceans, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-61708-4 See Online version in German.
  11. ^ Hohl, R. (1970), "Geotektonische Hypothesen", Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Erde. Brockhaus Nachschlagewerk Geologie mit Einem ABC der Geologie, Bd. 1 (4. ed.): 279–321
  12. ^ Yarkovsky, Ivan Osipovich (1888), Hypothèse cinétique de la Gravitation universelle et la connexion avec la formation des éléments chimiques, Moscow{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ Ott Christoph Hilgenberg: Vom wachsenden Erdball. Berlin 1933, page 29–35.
  14. ^ Hilgenberg, O.C. (1933), Vom wachsenden Erdball (The Expanding Earth), Berlin: Giessmann & Bartsch, Bibcode:1933vwe..book.....H
  15. ^ Hilgenberg, O.C. (1974), "Geotektonik, neuartig gesehen", Geotektonische Forschungen, 45: 1–194, ISBN 978-3-510-50011-6
  16. ^ Tesla, N. (1935), Expanding Sun Will Explode Someday Tesla Predicts, New York: New York Herald Tribune – via WikiSource
  17. ^ a b c d Ogrisseg, Jeff (22 November 2009), "Dogmas may blinker mainstream scientific thinking", The Japan Times, archived from the original on 3 March 2015
  18. ^ Carey, S. Warren (1975). "The expanding earth — an essay review". Earth-Science Reviews. 11 (2): 105–143. Bibcode:1975ESRv...11..105C. doi:10.1016/0012-8252(75)90097-5.
  19. ^ Samuel Warren Carey (1988), Theories of the earth and universe: a history of dogma in the earth sciences (illustrated ed.), Stanford University Press, pp. 347–350, ISBN 978-0-8047-1364-1
  20. ^ Oreskes, Naomi, 2003, Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History of the Modern Theory of the Earth, Westview Press, p. 23, ISBN 0813341329
  21. ^ Frankel, Henry, The Continental Drift Debate, Ch. 7 in Scientific controversies, p. 226, 1987, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27560-6
  22. ^ Wills, Matthew (8 October 2016). "The Mother of Ocean Floor Cartography". JSTOR. Retrieved 14 October 2016. While working with the North Atlantic data, she noted what must have been a rift between high undersea mountains. This suggested earthquake activity, which then [was] only associated with [the] fringe theory of continental drift. Heezen infamously dismissed his assistant's idea as "girl talk." But she was right, and her thinking helped to vindicate Alfred Wegener's 1912 theory of moving continents. Yet Tharp's name isn't on any of the key papers that Heezen and others published about plate tectonics between 1959-1963, which brought this once controversial idea to the mainstream of earth sciences.
  23. ^ "What's Hitting Earth? | Science Mission Directorate". Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
  24. ^ Jordan, P. (1971), The expanding earth: some consequences of Dirac's gravitation hypothesis, Oxford: Pergamon Press, Bibcode:1971eesc.book.....J
  25. ^ Born, M. (2003) [1964], Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins (Einstein's theory of relativity), Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer-publisher, ISBN 978-3-540-00470-7
  26. ^ a b Herndon, J. Marvin (10 December 2005) [30 Jun 2005]. "Whole-earth decompression dynamics". Current Science. 89 (11): 1937–1941. arXiv:astro-ph/0507001. Bibcode:2005astro.ph..7001M. JSTOR 24111129.
  27. ^ Herndon, J. Marvin (4 July 2013). "A New Basis of Geoscience: Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics". NCGT Journal. Cornell University Physics. arXiv:1307.1692.
  28. ^ It's a Small World, After All: Earth Is Not Expanding, NASA Research Confirms, ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2011)
  29. ^ Fowler (1990), pp 281 & 320–327; Duff (1993), pp 609–613; Stanley (1999), pp 223–226
  30. ^ a b Van Der Lee, Suzan; Nolet, Guust (1997), "Seismic image of the subducted trailing fragments of the Farallon plate", Nature, 386 (6622): 266, Bibcode:1997Natur.386..266V, doi:10.1038/386266a0, S2CID 4340130
  31. ^ McElhinney, M. W.; Taylor, S. R. & Stevenson, D. J. (1978), "Limits to the expansion of Earth, Moon, Mars, and Mercury and to changes in the gravitational constant", Nature, 271 (5643): 316–321, Bibcode:1978Natur.271..316M, doi:10.1038/271316a0, S2CID 4258162

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Carey, S.W.; 1976: "The Expanding Earth", Developments in Geotectonics (10), Elsevier, ISBN 0-444-41485-1; digital edition 2013: ASIN B01E3II6VY.
  • Carey, S.W.;1988: "Theories of the Earth and Universe: A History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences", Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-804-71364-2.
  • Duff, D.; 1993: Holmes' principles of physical geology, Chapman & Hall (4th ed.), ISBN 0-412-40320-X.
  • Fowler, C.M.R.; 1990: The Solid Earth, an introduction to Global Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-38590-3.
  • Stanley, S.M.; 1999: Earth System History, W.H. Freeman & Co, ISBN 0-7167-2882-6.
[edit]

Historical

[edit]

Contemporary

[edit]