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{{Short description|Branch of the Min Chinese languages}}
{{weasel|date=August 2016}}
{{more references|date=August 2016}}
{{Distinguish|Southern Ming}}
{{Distinguish|Southern Ming}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language family
|name=Southern Min
| name = Southern Min
|altname=Minnan
| altname = {{ubl|Hoklo-Taiwanese|{{nobold|{{zhi|t=閩南語|s=闽南语|first=t}}}}|{{zhi|poj=Bàn-lâm-gú}}}}
|nativename=閩南語 / 闽南语<br />{{lang|zh-tw|河洛話}} / {{lang|zh-tw|福老話}} <br/>''Hō-ló-oē'' / ''Hô-ló-uē''
| region = {{cslist|semi=yes|[[Fujian]]|[[Chaoshan]]{{efn|group=ibox|[[Chaozhou]]–[[Shantou]]}}, [[Shanwei]], and [[Leizhou Peninsula]] in [[Guangdong]]|extreme south of [[Zhejiang]]|much of [[Hainan]] ''([[Hainanese]])''|most of [[Taiwan]]|[[Hong Kong]]|parts of [[Malaysia]]|[[Singapore]]|[[Philippines]]|[[Thailand]]|[[Indonesia]]|[[Brunei]]|[[Cambodia]]|[[Myanmar]]|[[Vietnam]]}}
|image=農場相褒歌.jpg
| ethnicity = {{ubl|[[Hoklo people]]|[[Teo-Swa people]]}}
|imagecaption=''Koa-a'' books, Minnan written in Chinese characters
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
|states=[[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Singapore]], [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Myanmar]] and other areas of Southern Min and [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] settlement
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
|region=Southern [[Fujian]] province; the [[Chaozhou]]-[[Shantou]] ([[Chaoshan]]) area and [[Leizhou Peninsula]] in [[Guangdong]] province; extreme south of [[Zhejiang]] province; much of [[Hainan]] province ''(if [[Hainanese]] or Qiongwen is included)''; and most of [[Taiwan]].
| fam3 = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|ethnicity = [[Hoklo people]]<br>[[Teochew people]]<br>[[Hainanese people]]
| fam4 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
|speakers = {{sigfig|46.9|2}} million
| fam5 = [[Min Chinese#Coastal Min|Coastal Min]]
|date = 2007
| child1 = {{ubl|[[Hokkien]] (''Quanzhang'' or ''Tsuan-Tsiang''; e.g. [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]], [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]], [[Singaporean Hokkien|Singaporean]])}}
|ref = ne2007
| child2 = [[Chaoshan Min|Chaoshan]] (''Teo-Swa''; e.g. [[Jieyang|Kekyeo]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and [[Shantou dialect|Swatow]])
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
| child3 = [[Zhenan Min|Zhenan]]
|fam2=[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| child4 = [[Datian Min|Datian]] ''(transitional)''
|fam3=[[Min Chinese|Min]]
| child5 = [[Sanxiang dialect|Sanxiang]] (''Sahiu'')
|fam4=Coastal Min
| child6 = [[Haklau Min|Hailufeng]] (''Haklau'')
|dia1=[[Hokkien|Quanzhang]] <br/> (eg.[[Amoy dialect|Amoy]],[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]])&nbsp;
| ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan language|Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
|dia2=[[Teochew dialect|Teo-Swa]]<br/>(eg.[[Teochew dialect|Teochew]],[[Shantou dialect|Swatow]])&nbsp;
| ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]]{{efn|name=minClassification|Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.<ref>{{citation |last=Mei |first=Tsu-lin |author1-link=Mei Tsu-lin |title=Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |year=1970 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |year=1984 |page=3 |location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8}}</ref><ref name="glottoMin">{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Min |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013171747/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |archive-date=2023-10-13 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}
|dia3=[[Longyan Min|Longyan]]
|dia4=[[Zhenan Min|Zhenan]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Min]]
| iso3 = nan
|dia5=[[Datian Min|Datian]] (disputed)
| glotto = minn1241
|dia6=[[Zhongshan Min|Zhongshan]] (disputed)
| glottorefname = Min Nan Chinese
|dia7=[[Hainanese|Qiong]]-[[Leizhou Min|Lei]] (eg.[[Zhanjiang dialect|Zhangjiang]]<br/>,[[Wenchang dialect|Wenchang]]) (disputed)
| lingua = 79-AAA-j

| map = Min dialect map.svg

| mapcaption = {{legend|#7fbfff|Southern Min in mainland [[China]] and [[Taiwan]]}}
|nation=None; one of the statutory languages for public transport announcements in [[Taiwan]]<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%9C%BE%E9%81%8B%E8%BC%B8%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E6%92%AD%E9%9F%B3%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%B9%B3%E7%AD%89%E4%BF%9D%E9%9A%9C%E6%B3%95 大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]</ref>
| map2 = Banlamgu.svg
|agency=None ([[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|The Republic of China Ministry of Education]] and some [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]] are influential in [[Taiwan]])
| mapcaption2 = Subgroups of Southern Min in mainland China and Taiwan
|iso3=nan
| module = {{Infobox Chinese|child=yes|headercolor={{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}}
|glotto=minn1241
|t=閩南語|s=闽南语|l="Language of Southern Min [Fujian]"|p=Mǐnnányǔ
|glottorefname=Minnan Chinese
|lingua=79-AAA-j
|map = Min dialect map.svg
|mapcaption = {{legend|#7fbfff|Southern Min}}
|map2 = Banlamgu.svg
|mapcaption2 = Subgroups of Southern Min
|script = [[Chinese characters]]; [[Latin script|Latin]]
|notice=IPA
|module={{Chinese|child=yes|headercolor={{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}}
|t=閩南語|s=闽南语|l="Language of Southern Min [Fujian]"|p=Mǐnnán yǔ
|w=Min<sup>3</sup>-nan<sup>2</sup> yü<sup>3</sup>|mi={{IPAc-cmn|m|in|3|n|an|2|-|yu|3}}
|w=Min<sup>3</sup>-nan<sup>2</sup> yü<sup>3</sup>|mi={{IPAc-cmn|m|in|3|n|an|2|-|yu|3}}
|poj=Bân-lâm-gí/Bân-lâm-gú|buc=Mìng-nàng-ngṳ̄|h=Mîn-nàm-ngî
|poj=Bân-lâm-gí/Bân-lâm-gú|buc=Mìng-nàng-ngṳ̄|h=Mîn-nàm-ngî
Line 47: Line 37:
|order=st
|order=st
}}
}}
| notes = {{notelist|group=ibox}}
}}
}}
'''Southern Min''', or '''Minnan''' ({{zh|s=闽南语|t=閩南語}}), is a branch of [[Min Chinese]] spoken in certain parts of [[China]] including southern [[Fujian]] (the [[Minnan region]]), eastern [[Guangdong]], [[Hainan]], and southern [[Zhejiang]], and in [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=CAI ZHU|first1=HUANG GUO|title=Chinese language|date=1 October 2015|publisher=Fujian Education Publishing House|location=Xiamen|isbn=7533469518|accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> The Minnan dialects are also spoken by descendants of [[overseas Chinese|emigrants from these areas]] in [[diaspora]], most notably the [[Philippine Hokkien|Philippines]], [[Medan Hokkien|Indonesia]], [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien|Malaysia]] and [[Singaporean Hokkien|Singapore]]. Southern Min is the most widely distributed and the most influential of all Min varieties.
'''Southern Min''' ({{zh|s={{linktext|闽南语}}|t={{linktext|閩南語}}|l=Southern Min language|p=Mǐnnányǔ|poj=Bân-lâm-gí/gú}}), '''Minnan''' (<small>[[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] pronunciation:</small> {{IPAc-cmn|m|in|3|.|n|an|2}}) or '''Banlam''' ({{IPA|nan|bàn.lǎm}}), is a group of linguistically similar and historically related [[Varieties of Chinese|Chinese languages]] that form a branch of [[Min Chinese]] spoken in [[Fujian]] (especially the [[Minnan region]]), most of [[Taiwan]] (many citizens are descendants of settlers from Fujian), Eastern [[Guangdong]], [[Hainan]], and Southern [[Zhejiang]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cai Zhu|first1=Huang Guo|title=Chinese language|date=1 October 2015|publisher=Fujian Education Publishing House|location=Xiamen|isbn=978-7533469511}}</ref> Southern Min dialects are also spoken by descendants of [[Overseas Chinese|emigrants from these areas]] in [[diaspora]], most notably in [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Singaporean Hokkien|Singapore]], [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien|Malaysia]], the [[Philippine Hokkien|Philippines]], [[Medan Hokkien|Indonesia]], [[Ethnic Chinese in Brunei|Brunei]], [[Thai Chinese#Hokkien|Southern Thailand]], [[Chinese people in Myanmar#Hokkien|Myanmar]], [[Cambodian Hokkien|Cambodia]], [[Hoa people#Ancestral affiliations|Southern and Central Vietnam]], as well as major cities in the [[United States]], including [[Chinese in San Francisco|San Francisco]], [[Chinese in Los Angeles|Los Angeles]] and [[Chinese in New York City|New York City]]. Minnan is the most widely-spoken branch of Min, with approximately 48 million speakers as of 2017–2018.<ref>{{Ethnologue23|nan}}</ref>


The most widely spoken Southern Min language is [[Hokkien]], which includes [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]].
In common parlance and in the narrower sense, Southern Min refers to the Quanzhang variety of Southern Min spoken mainly in Southern Fujian in Mainland China, Taiwan as well as certain parts of Southeast Asia. The Quanzhang variety is often called simply '''Minnan Proper''' ({{zh|s=闽南语|t=閩南語}}).
Other varieties of Southern Min have significant differences from Hokkien, some having limited [[mutual intelligibility]] with it, others almost none. [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], [[Longyan Min|Longyan]], and [[Zhenan Min|Zhenan]] are said to have general mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, sharing similar phonology and vocabulary to a large extent.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lee|first=Tong Soon|title=Chinese Street Opera in Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz9CW59OsuIC&dq=chaozhou+percent+intelligible+amoy&pg=PA4|date=2009|publisher=[[University of Illinois]] Press|isbn=9780252032462}}</ref> On the other hand, variants such as [[Datian Min|Datian]], [[Zhongshan Min|Zhongshan]], and [[Hainanese dialect|Qiong]]-[[Leizhou Min|Lei]] have historical linguistic roots with Hokkien, but are significantly divergent from it in terms of phonology and vocabulary, and thus have almost no mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. Linguists tend to classify them as separate languages.


==Geographic distribution==
In the wider scope, Southern Min also includes other Min Chinese variants that are related to Minnan proper (Quanzhang). Southern Min variants include Teochew, Longyan Min, Zhenan Min, Zhongshan Min, Qiong-Lei (Leizhou dialect and Hainanese).
===Mainland China===
Southern Min dialects are spoken in southern [[Fujian]], specifically in the [[List of administrative divisions of Fujian|cities]] of [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and much of [[Longyan]], hence the name. In addition, varieties of Southern Min are spoken in several southeastern counties of [[Wenzhou]] in [[Zhejiang]], the [[Zhoushan archipelago]] off [[Ningbo]] in [[Zhejiang]], the town of [[Sanxiang]] at the southern periphery of [[Zhongshan]] in [[Guangdong]],<ref name="Bodman_1985">{{cite book
| given = Nicholas C. | surname = Bodman
| title = The Reflexes of Initial Nasals in Proto-Southern Min-Hingua | pages = 2–20 | jstor = 20006706
| editor-given1 = Veneeta | editor-surname1 = Acson
| editor-given2 = Richard L. | editor-surname2 = Leed
| series = Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications | volume = 20
| publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1985 | isbn = 978-0-8248-0992-8
}}</ref> and in the [[Chaoshan]] (Teo-swa) region in Guangdong.


The variant spoken in [[Leizhou]], Guangdong as well as in [[Hainan]] is classified as [[Hainanese]] and is not mutually intelligible with mainstream Southern Min or Teochew.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} Hainanese is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate.{{example needed|date=December 2018}}{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
Southern Min variants such as '''[[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], [[Longyan Min|Longyan]] and [[Zhenan Min|Zhenan]]''' have '''limited''' mutual intelligibility with Quanzhang varieties.


[[Puxian Min]] was originally based on the [[Quanzhou dialect]], but over time became heavily influenced by [[Eastern Min]], eventually losing intelligibility with Southern Min.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lien |first1=Chinfa |chapter=Denasalization, Vocalic Nasalization and Related Issues in Southern Min: A Dialectal and Comparative Perspective |editor1-last=Ting |editor1-first=Pang-Hsin |editor2-last=Yue |editor2-first=Anne O. |title=In Memory of Professor Li Fang-Kuei: Essays of Linguistic Change and the Chinese Dialects |date=2000-09-01 |publisher=Academic Sinica |location=Taipei |isbn=957-671-725-6 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237408896_Denasalization_Vocalic_Nasalization_and_Related_Issues_in_Southern_Min_A_Dialectal_and_Comparative_Perspective |access-date=1 September 2024}}</ref>
Southern Min variants such as '''[[Datian Min|Datian]], [[Zhongshan Min|Zhongshan]] and [[Hainanese dialect|Qiong]]-[[Leizhou Min|Lei]]''' are significantly divergent from Quanzhang varieties, thus have '''little''' mutual intelligibility with Minnan Proper. Linguists tend to classify them under separate Min languages.

Southern Min is not [[mutually intelligible]] with [[Eastern Min]], [[Pu-Xian Min]], any other Min branch, [[Hakka language|Hakka]], [[Cantonese]], [[Shanghainese]] or [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]].

==Geographic distribution==
===China and Taiwan===
Southern Min dialects are spoken in the southern part of [[Fujian]], three southeastern counties of [[Zhejiang]], the [[Zhoushan archipelago]] off [[Ningbo]] in [[Zhejiang]], and the [[Chaoshan]] (Teo-swa) region in [[Guangdong]]. The variant spoken in [[Leizhou]], Guangdong as well as [[Hainan]] is [[Hainanese]] and is not mutually intelligible with mainstream Southern Min or Teochew.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} Hainanese is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate.{{such as?}}{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} [[Puxian Min]] was originally based on the [[Quanzhou dialect]], but over time became heavily influenced by [[Eastern Min]], eventually losing intelligibility with Minnan.


===Taiwan===
A forms of Southern Min spoken in Taiwan, collectively known as [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]], Southern Min is a [[first language]] for most of the [[Hoklo people]], the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklo speak Southern Min fluently.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
The Southern Min dialects spoken in Taiwan, collectively known as [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]], is a [[first language]] for most of the [[Hoklo people]], the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklo speak Southern Min fluently.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The politics of language names in Taiwan|url=http://www.ksc.kwansei.ac.jp/~jed/MultilingMulticult/Taiwan/TaiwanLgNames.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=www.ksc.kwansei.ac.jp}}</ref>


===Southeast Asia===
===Southeast Asia===
There are many Southern Min speakers also among [[Overseas Chinese]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. Many ethnic [[Chinese people|Chinese]] immigrants to the region were [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] from southern Fujian and brought the language to what is now [[Burma]], [[Indonesia]] (the former [[Dutch East Indies]]) and present-day [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] (formerly [[British Malaya]] and the [[Straits Settlements]]). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as [[Hokkien]], Hokkienese, Fukien or Fookien in [[Southeast Asia]] and is mostly mutually intelligible with Hokkien spoken elsewhere. Many [[Southeast Asia]]n ethnic Chinese also originated in the [[Chaoshan]] region of [[Guangdong]] and speak [[Teochew language]], the variant of Southern Min from that region. [[Philippine Hokkien]] is reportedly the native language of up to 98.5% of the [[Chinese Filipino]] community in the [[Philippines]], among whom it is also known as Lan-nang or Lán-lâng- ("our people’s language"), although Hoklo people consist of only around 60% of the Chinese Filipino population.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}{{dubious|date=August 2016}}
There are many Southern Min speakers among [[overseas Chinese]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. Many ethnic [[Chinese people|Chinese]] immigrants to the region were [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] from southern Fujian and brought the language to what is now present-day [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] (formerly [[British Malaya]], the [[Straits Settlements]], and [[British Borneo]]), [[Indonesia]] (the former [[Dutch East Indies]]), the [[Philippines]] (former [[Spanish East Indies]] and later, [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|US Philippine Islands (P.I.)]]), [[Brunei]] (former part of [[British Borneo]]), [[Southern Thailand]], [[Myanmar]] ([[British rule in Burma|British Burma]]), [[Cambodia]] (former [[French protectorate of Cambodia|French Cambodia]] of [[French Indochina]]), [[Southern Vietnam|Southern]] [[Vietnam]] (former [[French Cochinchina]] of [[French Indochina]]) and [[Central Vietnam|Central]] [[Vietnam]] (former [[Annam (French protectorate)|French Annam]] of [[French Indochina]]). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as [[Hokkien]], Hokkienese, Fukien, or Fookien in [[Southeast Asia]] and is mostly mutually intelligible with Hokkien spoken elsewhere. Many [[Southeast Asia]]n ethnic Chinese also originated in the [[Chaoshan]] region of [[Guangdong]] and speak [[Teochew language]], the variant of Southern Min from that region, particularly [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], [[Southern Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], etc. In the [[Philippines]], [[Philippine Hokkien]] is reportedly the [[First language|native]] or [[heritage language]] of up to 98.7% of the [[Chinese Filipino]] community in the Philippines, among whom it is known in [[Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe|l=our people's language|c=咱人話 / 咱儂話|s=|p=}}.


Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore, with the largest group being Hokkien and the second largest being [[Teochew people|Teochew]]. Despite the similarities the two groups are rarely seen as part of the same "Minnan" Chinese subgroups.
Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore, with Hokkien being the largest group and the second largest being [[Teochew people|Teochew]]. Despite the similarities, the two groups are rarely viewed together as "Southern Min".


==Classification==
==Classification==
The variants of Southern Min spoken in [[Zhejiang]] province are most akin to that spoken in Quanzhou. The variants spoken in [[Taiwan]] are similar to the three [[Fujian]] variants and are collectively known as [[Taiwanese Minnan|Taiwanese]].
The variants of Southern Min spoken in [[Zhejiang]] province are most akin to that spoken in Quanzhou. The variants spoken in [[Taiwan]] are similar to the three [[Fujian]] variants and are collectively known as [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]].


Those Southern Min variants that are collectively known as "Hokkien" in [[Southeast Asia]] also originate from these variants. The variants of Southern Min in the [[Chaoshan]] region of eastern Guangdong province are collectively known as [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] or Chaozhou. [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] is of great importance in the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[Chinese diaspora]], particularly in [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Sumatra]] and [[West Kalimantan]]. The Philippines variant is mostly from the Quanzhou area as most of their forefathers are from the aforementioned area.
Those Southern Min variants that are collectively known as "Hokkien" in [[Southeast Asia]] also originate from these variants. The variants of Southern Min in the [[Chaoshan]] region of eastern Guangdong province are collectively known as [[Teo-Swa Min|Teo-Swa]] or Chaoshan. Chaoshan Min is of great importance in the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[Chinese diaspora]], particularly in [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Sumatra]], and [[West Kalimantan]]. The [[Philippines]] variant is mostly from the Quanzhou area as most of their forefathers are from the aforementioned area.


The Southern Min language variant spoken around [[Shanwei]] and [[Haifeng]] differs markedly from [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and may represent a later migration from Zhangzhou. Linguistically, it lies between [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and Amoy. In southwestern [[Fujian]], the local variants in [[Longyan]] and [[Zhangping City|Zhangping]] form a separate division of Minnan on their own. Among ethnic Chinese inhabitants of [[Penang]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Medan]], [[Indonesia]], a distinct form based on the [[Zhangzhou dialect]] has developed. In [[Penang]], it is called [[Penang Hokkien]] while across the [[Malacca Strait]] in [[Medan]], an almost identical variant{{cn|date=November 2016}} is known as [[Medan Hokkien]].
The Southern Min language variant spoken around [[Shanwei]] and [[Haifeng]] differs markedly from [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and may represent a later migration from Zhangzhou. Linguistically, it lies between [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and Amoy. In southwestern [[Fujian]], the local variants in [[Longyan]] and [[Zhangping City|Zhangping]] form a separate division of Southern Min on their own. Among ethnic Chinese inhabitants of [[Penang]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Medan]], [[Indonesia]], a distinct form based on the [[Zhangzhou dialect]] has developed. In [[Penang]], it is called [[Penang Hokkien]] while across the [[Malacca Strait]] in Medan, an almost identical variant{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} is known as [[Medan Hokkien]].


==Varieties==
==Varieties==
There are three major divisions of Southern Min :
There are two or three divisions of Southern Min, depending on the criteria for Leizhou and Hainanese inclusion:
* [[Hokkien|Minnan Proper]] ([[Hokkien Chinese|Hokkien]]–[[Taiwanese Minnan|Taiwanese]]) under the Quanzhang division ({{lang|zh-hans|泉漳片}})
* [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] under the Chaoshan division ({{lang|zh-hans|潮汕片}})
* [[Leizhou Min|Leizhou]] and [[Hainanese]] dialects under the Qiong-Lei division ({{lang|zh-hans|琼雷片}}).


{{tree list}}
===Quanzhang===
*'''Southern Min'''
{{main|Hokkien}}
** [[Hokkien]] under the Quanzhang division ({{lang|zh-hans|泉漳片}})
The group of mutually intelligible '''Quanzhang (泉漳片)''' dialects, spoken around the areas of Xiamen, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in Southern Fujian are collectively called '''[[Hokkien|Minnan Proper]] (闽南语/闽南话)''' or '''Hokkien''', is the mainstream variety of Southern Min. It is also the widely spoken non-official regional language in Taiwan. There are two types of standard Minnan. They are classified as '''Traditional Standard Minnan''' and '''Modern Standard Minnan'''. The '''Traditional Standard Minnan''' is based on Quanzhou dialect spoken in areas around Quanzhou, it is mostly used in Liyuan Opera (梨园戏) and Nanying music (南音). The '''Modern standard''' forms of Minnan Proper is based on [[Amoy dialect]] spoken in the city of [[Xiamen]] and [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] dialect spoken around the city of Tainan in Taiwan. Both '''Modern Standard''' forms of Minnan are a combination of [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]] speeches. '''Modern Standard Minnan''' is the form of minnan that is popular in Minnan dialect television programming, radio programming and Minnan songs. All Minnan language books and dictionaries are mostly based on the pronunication of the '''Modern Standard Minnan'''. Taiwanese in northern [[Taiwan]] tends to be based on Quanzhou dialect, whereas the Taiwanese spoken in southern Taiwan tends to be based on Zhangzhou dialect. There are minor variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The grammar is basically the same. Additionally, in Taiwanese Minnan, extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese loanwords.
** [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], [[Swatow dialect|Swatow]], [[Jieyang]], [[Haklau Min]] under the Chaoshan division ({{lang|zh-hans|潮汕片}})
** [[Leizhou Min|Leizhou]] and [[Hainanese]] dialects under the Qiong-Lei division ({{lang|zh-hans|瓊雷片}}).
{{tree list/end}}


More recently, Kwok (2018: 157)<ref>{{cite book|title=Southern Min: comparative phonology and subgrouping|first=Bit-Chee|last=Kwok|series=Routledge studies in East Asian linguistics|volume=2|place=New York|publisher=Routledge|date=2018|isbn=978-1-138-94365-0}}</ref> has proposed an alternative classification, with a divergent Northern branch that includes [[Quanzhou dialect]] but not [[Zhangzhou dialect]], as shown below:
===Teo-Swa===

{{main|Teochew dialect}}
{{tree list}}
'''Teochew, or Chaoshan speech (潮汕片)''', includes [[Swatow dialect]]. It has limited mutual intelligibility with Quanzhang speech though they share some cognates with each other. [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] speech is significantly different from Quanzhang speech in both pronunciation and vocabulary. It had its origins from Proto-Putian dialect (闽南语古莆田话), a sub-dialect of Proto Minnan - which is closely related to Quanzhou dialect. As the Proto-Putian dialect speaking Chinese emigrants from Putian perfecture settled on Chaoshan region, it later received influence from Zhangzhou dialect and absorbed the She (畲) minority indigenous language to form the Teochew dialect today. It follows the same grammar pattern as [[Hokkien|Minnan Proper]]. It is marginally understood by [[Hokkien|Minnan Proper]] speakers to a small degree.<ref>{{e18|nan Minnan}}</ref>
*'''Southern Min'''
**'''Northern'''
***[[Cangnan]]
***[[Quanzhou]], [[Zihu]]
**'''Central-Southern'''
***'''Central'''
****[[Zhangzhou]]
****[[Longyan]], [[Datian County|Datian]]
***'''Southern'''
****Guangdong
*****? [[Haifeng]]
*****[[Jieyang]], [[Chaoyang District, Shantou|Chaoyang]]
****Hainan
*****[[Leizhou]]
*****[[Haikou]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Hokkien===
{{main|Hokkien}}
Hokkien is the most widely spoken form of Southern Min, including [[Amoy dialect]] and [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]]. Both of these developed as a combination of [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]] speech.
Varieties in South-East Asia include [[Singaporean Hokkien]], [[Penang Hokkien]], [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien]], [[Medan Hokkien]], and [[Philippine Hokkien]].


===Qiong-Lei===
===Chaoshan (Teo-Swa)===
{{main|Leizhou Min||Hainanese}}
{{Main|Chaoshan Min}}
Teo-Swa or Chaoshan speech ({{Zh|c=潮汕片|s=|t=|labels=no}}) is a closely related variant of Southern Min that includes the [[Jieyang|Kekyeo dialect]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and [[Shantou dialect|Swatow]] dialects, and some consider [[Haklau Min]] to also be part of. It has limited mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, though they share some [[cognate]]s with each other. Chaoshan Min is significantly different from Hokkien in both pronunciation and vocabulary, and mutual intelligibility is difficult.<ref>{{e18|nan Minnan}}</ref>
'''Qiong-Lei speech (琼雷片)''' is spoken in the Leizhou peninsula and the southern Chinese island province of Hainan. The Qiong-Lei speeches originated from the mainstream Southern Min varieties but it developed into a distinctive language of its own due to geographical isolation from the Southern Min region. Over time, these dialects evolved into a stage which featured drastic changes to initial consonants, including a series of implosive consonants, that have been attributed to contact with the aborginal languages such as Tai-Kadai languages. As a result, it has lost much of its mutual intelligibility with mainstream [[Hokkien|Minnan]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]. It is not understood well by speakers of mainstream [[Hokkien|Minnan]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]. Since the late 20th century, many linguists consider this Southern Min variety as a separate Min language.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 100: Line 117:
Southern Min has one of the most diverse phonologies of Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Mandarin or Cantonese. Vowels, on the other hand, are more-or-less similar to those of Mandarin. In general, Southern Min dialects have five to six<!--they have 7 to 8 聲, but only 5 to 6 tones. A final consonant does not count as a "tone" in English-language linguistics; 'tone' and '聲' are not synonymous.--> [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s, and [[tone sandhi]] is extensive. There are minor variations within Hokkien, and the Teochew system differs somewhat more.
Southern Min has one of the most diverse phonologies of Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Mandarin or Cantonese. Vowels, on the other hand, are more-or-less similar to those of Mandarin. In general, Southern Min dialects have five to six<!--they have 7 to 8 聲, but only 5 to 6 tones. A final consonant does not count as a "tone" in English-language linguistics; 'tone' and '聲' are not synonymous.--> [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s, and [[tone sandhi]] is extensive. There are minor variations within Hokkien, and the Teochew system differs somewhat more.


Southern Min's nasal finals consist m, n, ŋ, ~.
Southern Min's [[Nasal consonant|nasal]] [[Final (linguistics)|finals]] consist of {{Ipa|/m/}}, {{Ipa|/n/}}, {{Ipa|/ŋ/}}, and {{Ipa|/~/}}.


==Writing systems==
{{see also|Written Hokkien}}
Southern Min dialects lack a standardized written language. Southern Min speakers are taught how to read [[Standard Chinese]] in school. As a result, there has not been an urgent need to develop a writing system.{{Synthesis inline|date=March 2017}} In recent years, an increasing number of Southern Min speakers have become interested in developing a standard writing system (either by using Chinese Characters, or using [[Romanization|Romanized]] script).{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}


===Sino-Xenic comparisons===
==History==
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2020}}
The Min homeland of Fujian was opened to Chinese settlement by the defeat of the [[Minyue]] state by the armies of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] in 110 BC.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=328}}
Southern Min can trace its origins through the [[Tang dynasty]], and it also has roots from earlier periods. [[Hokkien people]] call themselves "[[Names of China#Tang|Tang]] people", (''{{lang|nan-Latn|Tn̂g-lâng}}'' {{lang|zh-hant|[[:zh:唐人|唐人]]}}/{{lang|zh-hant|[[:zh:唐儂|唐儂]]}}) which is synonymous to "Chinese people". Because of the widespread influence of the Tang culture during the [[Great Tang]] dynasty, there are today still many Southern Min pronunciations of words shared by the [[Sino-Xenic vocabularies|Sino-xenic pronunciations]] of [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages.
The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the [[South China Sea]].
Most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the [[Xiang River|Xiang]] and [[Gan River (Jiangxi)|Gan]] rivers to the west, so that Min varieties have experienced less northern influence than other southern groups.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=210, 228}}
As a result, whereas most [[varieties of Chinese]] can be treated as derived from [[Middle Chinese]], the language described by [[rime dictionary|rhyme dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Qieyun]]'' (601 AD), Min varieties contain traces of older distinctions.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=228–229}}
Linguists estimate that the oldest layers of Min dialects diverged from the rest of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].{{sfnp|Ting|1983|pp=9–10}}{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=33, 79}}
However, significant waves of migration from the [[North China Plain]] occurred:{{sfnp|Yan|2006|p=120}}
* The [[Uprising of the Five Barbarians]] during the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]], particularly the [[Disaster of Yongjia]] in 311 AD, caused a tide of immigration to the south.
* In 669, [[Chen Zheng (Tang dynasty)|Chen Zheng]] and his son [[Chen Yuanguang]] from [[Gushi County]] in [[Henan]] set up a regional administration in [[Fujian]] to suppress an insurrection by the [[She people]].
* [[Wang Chao (Tang dynasty)|Wang Chao]] was appointed governor of Fujian in 893, near the end of the [[Tang dynasty]], and brought tens of thousands of troops from [[Henan]]. In 909, following the fall of the Tang dynasty, his son [[Wang Shenzhi]] founded the [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]], one of the [[Ten Kingdoms]] in the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]].
[[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties:
# A non-Chinese substratum from the original languages of [[Minyue]], which Norman and Mei Tsu-lin believe were [[Austroasiatic]].{{sfnp|Norman|Mei|1976}}{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=331–332}}
# The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from [[Zhejiang]] to the north during the Han dynasty.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=334–336}}
# A layer from the [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]] period, which is largely consistent with the phonology of the ''Qieyun'' dictionary.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=336}}
# A [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary layer]] based on the [[koiné language|koiné]] of [[Chang'an]], the capital of the [[Tang dynasty]].{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=337}}

==Comparisons with Sino-Xenic character pronunciations==
{{refimprove|date=August 2012}}
{{tone|section|date=October 2014}}
{{undue|reason=the table may give undue weight to similarities to JKV|date=August 2016}}
Minnan (or Hokkien) can trace its origins through the [[Tang Dynasty]], and it also has roots from earlier periods. Minnan (Hokkien) people call themselves "[[Names of China#Tang|Tang]] people", ({{lang|zh-hans|[[:zh:唐人|唐人]]}}, pronounced as "{{lang|zh-hans|唐儂}}" ''{{lang|nan|Thn̂g-lâng}}'') which is synonymous to "Chinese people". Because of the widespread influence of the Tang culture during the great Tang dynasty, there are today still many Minnan pronunciations of words shared by the [[Sino-xenic]] pronunciations of [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! English !! Han characters !! Mandarin Chinese !! Taiwanese Minnan<ref>{{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/SoannTeng/chil/Taihoa.asp |script-title=zh:台文/華文線頂辭典 |title=Tâi-bûn/Hôa-bûn Sòaⁿ-téng Sû-tián |trans-title=Taiwanese/Chinese Online Dictionary |accessdate=1 October 2014}}</ref>!! Teochew
! English !! Han characters !! Mandarin Chinese !! Hokkien<ref>{{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/SoannTeng/chil/Taihoa.asp |script-title=zh:台文/華文線頂辭典 |title=Tâi-bûn/Hôa-bûn Sòaⁿ-téng Sû-tián |trans-title=Taiwanese/Chinese Online Dictionary |access-date=1 October 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006113321/http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/SoannTeng/chil/Taihoa.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref>!! Teochew
!Cantonese!! Korean !! Vietnamese !! Japanese
!Cantonese!! Korean !! Vietnamese !! Japanese
|-
|-
| Book || {{lang|zh-hant|冊}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|}} || {{lang|nan|Chhek/Chheh}} || {{lang|nan| ze1 }}
| book || {{lang|zh-hant|冊}} || {{transliteration|zh|}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|chhek/chheh}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|cêh4 }}
|caak3|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Chaek}} ({{lang|ko|책}}) || {{lang|vi|Tập/Sách}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Saku/Satsu/Shaku}}
|{{Lang-zh|j=caak3|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|chaek}} ({{lang|ko|책}}) || {{lang|vi|sách}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|saku/satsu/shaku}} ({{lang|ja|さく/さつ/しゃく}})
|-
|-
| Bridge || {{lang|zh-hant|橋}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Qiáo}} || {{lang|nan|Kiâu/Kiô}} || {{lang|nan|giê5}}
| bridge || {{lang|zh-hant|橋}} || {{transliteration|zh|qiáo}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|kiâu/kiô}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|giê5/gio5}}
|kiu4|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Gyo}} ({{lang|ko|교}}) || {{lang|vi|Cầu/Kiều}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Kyō}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=kiu4|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|gyo}} ({{lang|ko|교}}) || {{lang|vi|kiều}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|kyō}} ({{lang|ja|きょう}})
|-
|-
| Dangerous || {{lang|zh-hant|危險}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Wēixiǎn}} || {{lang|nan|Guî-hiám}} || {{lang|nan|guîn5/nguín5 hiem2}}
| dangerous || {{lang|zh-hant|危險}} || {{transliteration|zh|wēixiǎn / wéixiǎn}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|guî-hiám}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|guîn5/nguín5 hiem2}}
|ngai4 him2|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Wiheom}} ({{lang|ko|위험}}) || {{lang|vi|Nguy hiểm}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Kiken}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=ngai4 him2|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|wiheom}} ({{lang|ko|위험}}) || {{lang|vi|nguy hiểm}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|kiken}} ({{lang|ja|きけん}})
|-
|-
| Embassy || {{lang|zh-hant|大使館}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Dàshǐguǎn}} || {{lang|nan|Tāi-sài-koán}} || {{lang|nan|dai6 sái2 guêng2}}
| embassy || {{lang|zh-hant|大使館}} || {{transliteration|zh|dàshǐguǎn}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|tāi-sài-koán}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|dai6 sái2 guêng2}}
|daai6 si3 gun2|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Daesagwan}} ({{lang|ko|대사관}}) || {{lang|vi|Đại Sứ Quán}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Taishikan}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=|j=daai6 si3 gun2|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|daesagwan}} ({{lang|ko|대사관}}) || {{lang|vi|đại sứ quán}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|taishikan}} ({{lang|ja|たいしかん}})
|-
|-
| Flag || {{lang|zh-hant|旗}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|}} || {{lang|nan|}} || {{lang|nan|kî5}}
| flag || {{lang|zh-hant|旗}} || {{transliteration|zh|}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|kî5}}
|kei4|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Gi}} ({{lang|ko|기}}) || {{lang|vi|Cờ/Kỳ}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Ki}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=kei4|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|gi}} ({{lang|ko|기}}) ||{{lang|vi|}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|ki}} ({{lang|ja|き}})
|-
|-
| Insurance || {{lang|zh-hant|保險}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Bǎoxiǎn}} || {{lang|nan|-hiám}} || {{lang|nan|Bó2-hiém}}
| insurance || {{lang|zh-hant|保險}} || {{transliteration|zh|bǎoxiǎn}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|-hiám}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|bó2-hiém}}
|bou2 him2|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Boheom}} ({{lang|ko|보험}}) || {{lang|vi|Bảo hiểm}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Hoken}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=bou2 him2|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|boheom}} ({{lang|ko|보험}}) || {{lang|vi|bảo hiểm}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|hoken}} ({{lang|ja|ほけん}})
|-
|-
| News || {{lang|zh-hant|新聞}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Xīnwén}} || {{lang|nan|Sin-bûn}} || {{lang|nan|sing1 bhung6}}
| news || {{lang|zh-hant|新聞}} || {{transliteration|zh|xīnwén}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|sin-bûn}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|sing1 bhung6}}
|san1 man4|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Shinmun}} ({{lang|ko|신문}}) || {{lang|vi|Tân Văn}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Shinbun}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=san1 man4|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|shinmun}} ({{lang|ko|신문}}) || ''tân văn''|| {{lang|ja-Latn|shinbun}} ({{lang|ja|しんぶん}})
|-
|-
| Student || {{lang|zh-hant|學生}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Xuéshēng}} || {{lang|nan|Ha̍k-seng}} || {{lang|nan|Hak8 sêng1}}
| student || {{lang|zh-hant|學生}} || {{transliteration|zh|xuéshēng}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|ha̍k-seng}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|hak8 sêng1}}
|hok6 saang1|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Haksaeng}} ({{lang|ko|학생}}) || {{lang|vi|Học sinh}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Gakusei}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=hok6 saang1|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|haksaeng}} ({{lang|ko|학생}}) || {{lang|vi|học sinh}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|gakusei}} ({{lang|ja|がくせい}})
|-
|-
| University || {{lang|zh-hant|大學}} || {{lang|zh-Latn|Dàxué}} || {{lang|nan|Tāi-ha̍k/Tōa-o̍h}} || {{lang|nan|dai6 hag8/dua7 oh8}}
| university || {{lang|zh-hant|大學}} || {{transliteration|zh|dàxué}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|tāi-ha̍k/tōa-o̍h}} || {{lang|nan-Latn|dai6 hag8/dua7 oh8}}
|daai6 hok6|| {{lang|ko-Latn|Daehak}} ({{lang|ko|대학}}) || {{lang|vi|Đại học}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|Daigaku}}
|{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|j=daai6 hok6|labels=no}}||{{lang|ko-Latn|daehak}} ({{lang|ko|대학}}) || {{lang|vi|đại học}} || {{lang|ja-Latn|daigaku}} ({{lang|ja|だいがく}})
|}
|}

==Writing systems==
{{see also|Written Hokkien|Pe̍h-ōe-jī|Peng'im}}
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2024}}
Both Hokkien and Chaoshan ([[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and [[Shantou dialect]]s) have romanized writing systems and also respective Chinese characters. In [[mainland China]], it is known as 閩南文 (Bân-lâm-bûn), while in [[Taiwan]], it is known as 台文 (Tâi-bûn). The [[Chinese characters|Han Chinese characters]] are known in mainland China and Taiwan as 漢字 (Hàn-jī / Hàn-lī). In Malaysia and Singapore, the Chinese characters are sometimes known as 唐儂字 / 唐人字 (Tn̂g-lâng-jī / Tn̂g-lâng-lī). In the Philippines, the Chinese characters are known as 咱儂字 / 咱人字 (Lán-nâng-dī) or 漢文字 (Hàm-bûn-dī).

==History==
The Min homeland of Fujian was opened to Han Chinese settlement by the defeat of the [[Minyue]] state by the armies of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] in 110 BC.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=328}} The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the [[South China Sea]]. Most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the [[Xiang River|Xiang]] and [[Gan River (Jiangxi)|Gan]] rivers to the west, so that Min varieties have experienced less northern influence than other southern groups.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=210, 228}} As a result, whereas most [[varieties of Chinese]] can be treated as derived from [[Middle Chinese]], the language described by [[rime dictionary|rhyme dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Qieyun]]'' (601 AD), Min varieties contain traces of older distinctions.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=228–229}} Linguists estimate that the oldest layers of Min dialects diverged from the rest of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].{{sfnp|Ting|1983|pp=9–10}}{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=33, 79}} However, significant waves of migration from the [[North China Plain]] occurred.{{sfnp|Yan|2006|p=120}} These include:

* The [[Uprising of the Five Barbarians]] during the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]], particularly the [[Disaster of Yongjia]] in 311 AD, caused a tide of immigration to the south.
* In 669, [[Chen Zheng (Tang dynasty)|Chen Zheng]] and his son [[Chen Yuanguang]] from [[Gushi County]] in [[Henan]] set up a regional administration in [[Fujian]] to suppress an insurrection by the [[She people]].
* [[Wang Chao (Tang dynasty)|Wang Chao]], also from Gushi, moved south to Fujian and was appointed its governor in 893, near the end of the [[Tang dynasty]], and brought tens of thousands of troops from [[Henan]]. In 909, following the fall of the Tang dynasty, his younger brother [[Wang Shenzhi]] founded the [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]], one of the [[Ten Kingdoms]] in the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]].

[[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties:

# A non-Chinese substratum from the [[Minyue language|original languages of Minyue]], which Norman and [[Mei Tsu-lin]] believe were [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]].{{sfnp|Norman|Mei|1976}}{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=331–332}}
# The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from [[Zhejiang]] to the north during the Han dynasty.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=334–336}}
# A layer from the [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]] period, which is largely consistent with the phonology of the ''Qieyun'' dictionary.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=336}}
# A [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary layer]] based on the [[koiné language|koiné]] of [[Chang'an]], the capital of the [[Tang dynasty]].{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=337}}


==See also==
==See also==
Line 168: Line 183:
* [[Languages of Thailand]]
* [[Languages of Thailand]]
* [[Malaysian Chinese]]
* [[Malaysian Chinese]]
* [[Protection of the Varieties of Chinese]]

===Related languages===
* [[Fuzhou dialect]] (Min Dong branch)
* [[Lan-nang]] (Philippine dialect of Minnan)
* [[Medan Hokkien]] (North-Sumatra, Indonesia dialect of Minnan)
* [[Penang Hokkien]]
* [[Singaporean Hokkien]]
* [[Southern Malaysia Hokkien]]
* [[Taiwanese Minnan]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{citation
| surname1 = Baxter | given1 = William H.
| surname2 = Sagart | given2 = Laurent
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| surname1 = Norman | given1 = Jerry | author-link1 = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
| surname2 = Mei | given2 = Tsu-lin
| title = The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence
| journal = Monumenta Serica | year = 1976 | volume = 32 | pages = 274–301
| url = http://tlmei.com/tm17web/1976a_austroasiatics.pdf
| doi = 10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 | jstor = 40726203
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| surname = Norman | given = Jerry | author-link = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
| title = Chinese
| location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988
| isbn = 978-0-521-29653-3
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| contribution = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| given = Margaret Mian | surname = Yan
| title = Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
| publisher = LINCOM Europa | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-3-89586-629-6
| postscript = .
}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
Line 191: Line 247:
{{incubator|nan|wikibooks}}
{{incubator|nan|wikibooks}}
{{Wikibooks|Minnan}}
{{Wikibooks|Minnan}}
{{Wiktionary|Minnan}}
{{Wiktionary|Minnan|Appendix:Amoy Minnan Swadesh list|Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists}}
{{wikivoyage|Minnan phrasebook}}
{{wikivoyage|Minnan phrasebook|Minnan|a phrasebook}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Amoy Minnan Swadesh list|Amoy Minnan Swadesh list]] (Wiktionary)
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]] (Wiktionary)
* [http://alt.reasoning.cs.ucla.edu/jinbo/dzl/ 當代泉州音字彙], a dictionary of Quanzhou speech
* [http://alt.reasoning.cs.ucla.edu/jinbo/dzl/ 當代泉州音字彙], a dictionary of Quanzhou speech
* {{R:nan:taihoa}}
* {{R:nan:taihoa}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |language=Taiwanese, Chinese |trans-title=Taiwanese Hokkien Online Character Dictionary |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |language=nan, zh-TW |trans-title=Taiwanese Hokkien Online Character Dictionary |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |access-date=2015-02-06 |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225061147/http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp%20 |url-status=dead }}
* [http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/tw/index.htm 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典], Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan by Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111118031511/http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/tw/index.htm 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典], [[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] by the Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html 臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統], Taiwanese-Hakka-Mandarin on-line conversion
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html 臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統], Taiwanese-Hakka-Mandarin online conversion
* [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/languages/amoy.html Voyager - Spacecraft - Golden Record - Greetings From Earth - Amoy] The voyager clip says: {{lang|nan|Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá--bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē--ô·!}} <!-- The double hyphen is correctly a part of the POJ orthography. -->太空朋友,恁好。恁食飽未?有閒著來阮遮坐哦!
* [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/languages/amoy.html Voyager - Spacecraft - Golden Record - Greetings from Earth - Amoy] The voyager clip says: {{lang|nan|Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá--bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē--ô·!}} <!-- The double hyphen is correctly a part of the POJ orthography. -->{{zh|labels=no|t=太空朋友,恁好。恁食飽未?有閒著來阮遮坐哦!}}
* [http://daiwanway.dynip.com/cgi/tdict.acgi?w=&p=&e=&m= 台語詞典]{{dead link|date=August 2017}} Taiwanese-English-Mandarin Dictionary
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010525232644/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/cgi/tdict.acgi?w=&p=&e=&m= 台語詞典] Taiwanese-English-Mandarin Dictionary
* [http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language by Victor H. Mair University of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html "How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language"] by Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania
* [http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/chg_detail.asp?id=2008-083&lang=nan ISO 639-3 change request 2008-083], requesting to replace code [http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=nan nan] (Minnan Chinese) with dzu (Chaozhou) and xim (Xiamen), rejected because it did not include codes to cover the rest of the group.
* [https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2008-083 ISO 639-3 Change Request Documentation: 2008-083], requesting to replace code [http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=nan nan] (Minnan Chinese) with dzu (Chaozhou) and xim (Xiamen), rejected because it did not include codes to cover the rest of the group.
* [https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2021-045 ISO 639-3 Change Request Documentation: 2021-045], requesting to replace code <code>nan</code> with 11 new codes. Codes were added for Leizhou and Hainan Min, but the others were rejected for lack of evidence in published research.
** {{cite web |url=https://github.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan |title=Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions|website=[[GitHub]]|date=18 December 2021}} – supporting documentation


{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}

Latest revision as of 06:24, 24 November 2024

Southern Min
  • Hoklo-Taiwanese
  • 閩南語; 闽南语
  • Bàn-lâm-gú
Geographic
distribution
Ethnicity
Linguistic classificationSino-Tibetan
Early forms
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-3nan
Linguasphere79-AAA-j
Glottologminn1241
  Southern Min in mainland China and Taiwan

Subgroups of Southern Min in mainland China and Taiwan
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese闽南语
Traditional Chinese閩南語
Literal meaning"Language of Southern Min [Fujian]"
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinMǐnnányǔ
Wade–GilesMin3-nan23
IPA[mìnnǎn ỳ]
Gan
RomanizationMîn-lōm-ngî
Hakka
RomanizationMîn-nàm-ngî
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationMáhn-nàahm yúh
JyutpingMan5-naam4 jyu5
Southern Min
Hokkien POJBân-lâm-gí/Bân-lâm-gú
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUCMìng-nàng-ngṳ̄
Northern Min
Jian'ou RomanizedMâing-nâng-ngṳ̌
Notes
  1. ^ ChaozhouShantou
  2. ^ Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.[1][2][3]

Southern Min (simplified Chinese: 闽南语; traditional Chinese: 閩南語; pinyin: Mǐnnányǔ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Bân-lâm-gí/gú; lit. 'Southern Min language'), Minnan (Mandarin pronunciation: [mìn.nǎn]) or Banlam (Min Nan Chinese pronunciation: [bàn.lǎm]), is a group of linguistically similar and historically related Chinese languages that form a branch of Min Chinese spoken in Fujian (especially the Minnan region), most of Taiwan (many citizens are descendants of settlers from Fujian), Eastern Guangdong, Hainan, and Southern Zhejiang.[4] Southern Min dialects are also spoken by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora, most notably in Southeast Asia, such as Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei, Southern Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Southern and Central Vietnam, as well as major cities in the United States, including San Francisco, Los Angeles and New York City. Minnan is the most widely-spoken branch of Min, with approximately 48 million speakers as of 2017–2018.[5]

The most widely spoken Southern Min language is Hokkien, which includes Taiwanese. Other varieties of Southern Min have significant differences from Hokkien, some having limited mutual intelligibility with it, others almost none. Teochew, Longyan, and Zhenan are said to have general mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, sharing similar phonology and vocabulary to a large extent.[6] On the other hand, variants such as Datian, Zhongshan, and Qiong-Lei have historical linguistic roots with Hokkien, but are significantly divergent from it in terms of phonology and vocabulary, and thus have almost no mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. Linguists tend to classify them as separate languages.

Geographic distribution

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Mainland China

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Southern Min dialects are spoken in southern Fujian, specifically in the cities of Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, and much of Longyan, hence the name. In addition, varieties of Southern Min are spoken in several southeastern counties of Wenzhou in Zhejiang, the Zhoushan archipelago off Ningbo in Zhejiang, the town of Sanxiang at the southern periphery of Zhongshan in Guangdong,[7] and in the Chaoshan (Teo-swa) region in Guangdong.

The variant spoken in Leizhou, Guangdong as well as in Hainan is classified as Hainanese and is not mutually intelligible with mainstream Southern Min or Teochew.[citation needed] Hainanese is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate.[example needed][citation needed]

Puxian Min was originally based on the Quanzhou dialect, but over time became heavily influenced by Eastern Min, eventually losing intelligibility with Southern Min.[8]

Taiwan

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The Southern Min dialects spoken in Taiwan, collectively known as Taiwanese, is a first language for most of the Hoklo people, the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklo speak Southern Min fluently.[9]

Southeast Asia

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There are many Southern Min speakers among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese immigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian and brought the language to what is now present-day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly British Malaya, the Straits Settlements, and British Borneo), Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies), the Philippines (former Spanish East Indies and later, US Philippine Islands (P.I.)), Brunei (former part of British Borneo), Southern Thailand, Myanmar (British Burma), Cambodia (former French Cambodia of French Indochina), Southern Vietnam (former French Cochinchina of French Indochina) and Central Vietnam (former French Annam of French Indochina). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, Fukien, or Fookien in Southeast Asia and is mostly mutually intelligible with Hokkien spoken elsewhere. Many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong and speak Teochew language, the variant of Southern Min from that region, particularly Thailand, Cambodia, Southern Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, etc. In the Philippines, Philippine Hokkien is reportedly the native or heritage language of up to 98.7% of the Chinese Filipino community in the Philippines, among whom it is known in Hokkien Chinese: 咱人話 / 咱儂話; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe; lit. 'our people's language'.

Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore, with Hokkien being the largest group and the second largest being Teochew. Despite the similarities, the two groups are rarely viewed together as "Southern Min".

Classification

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The variants of Southern Min spoken in Zhejiang province are most akin to that spoken in Quanzhou. The variants spoken in Taiwan are similar to the three Fujian variants and are collectively known as Taiwanese.

Those Southern Min variants that are collectively known as "Hokkien" in Southeast Asia also originate from these variants. The variants of Southern Min in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province are collectively known as Teo-Swa or Chaoshan. Chaoshan Min is of great importance in the Southeast Asian Chinese diaspora, particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Sumatra, and West Kalimantan. The Philippines variant is mostly from the Quanzhou area as most of their forefathers are from the aforementioned area.

The Southern Min language variant spoken around Shanwei and Haifeng differs markedly from Teochew and may represent a later migration from Zhangzhou. Linguistically, it lies between Teochew and Amoy. In southwestern Fujian, the local variants in Longyan and Zhangping form a separate division of Southern Min on their own. Among ethnic Chinese inhabitants of Penang, Malaysia and Medan, Indonesia, a distinct form based on the Zhangzhou dialect has developed. In Penang, it is called Penang Hokkien while across the Malacca Strait in Medan, an almost identical variant[citation needed] is known as Medan Hokkien.

Varieties

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There are two or three divisions of Southern Min, depending on the criteria for Leizhou and Hainanese inclusion:

More recently, Kwok (2018: 157)[10] has proposed an alternative classification, with a divergent Northern branch that includes Quanzhou dialect but not Zhangzhou dialect, as shown below:

Hokkien

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Hokkien is the most widely spoken form of Southern Min, including Amoy dialect and Taiwanese. Both of these developed as a combination of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Varieties in South-East Asia include Singaporean Hokkien, Penang Hokkien, Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien, Medan Hokkien, and Philippine Hokkien.

Chaoshan (Teo-Swa)

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Teo-Swa or Chaoshan speech (潮汕片) is a closely related variant of Southern Min that includes the Kekyeo dialect, Teochew and Swatow dialects, and some consider Haklau Min to also be part of. It has limited mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, though they share some cognates with each other. Chaoshan Min is significantly different from Hokkien in both pronunciation and vocabulary, and mutual intelligibility is difficult.[11]

Phonology

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Southern Min has one of the most diverse phonologies of Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Mandarin or Cantonese. Vowels, on the other hand, are more-or-less similar to those of Mandarin. In general, Southern Min dialects have five to six tones, and tone sandhi is extensive. There are minor variations within Hokkien, and the Teochew system differs somewhat more.

Southern Min's nasal finals consist of /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, and /~/.


Sino-Xenic comparisons

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Southern Min can trace its origins through the Tang dynasty, and it also has roots from earlier periods. Hokkien people call themselves "Tang people", (Tn̂g-lâng 唐人/唐儂) which is synonymous to "Chinese people". Because of the widespread influence of the Tang culture during the Great Tang dynasty, there are today still many Southern Min pronunciations of words shared by the Sino-xenic pronunciations of Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese languages.

English Han characters Mandarin Chinese Hokkien[12] Teochew Cantonese Korean Vietnamese Japanese
book chhek/chheh cêh4 caak3 chaek () sách saku/satsu/shaku (さく/さつ/しゃく)
bridge qiáo kiâu/kiô giê5/gio5 kiu4 gyo () kiều kyō (きょう)
dangerous 危險 wēixiǎn / wéixiǎn guî-hiám guîn5/nguín5 hiem2 ngai4 him2 wiheom (위험) nguy hiểm kiken (きけん)
embassy 大使館 dàshǐguǎn tāi-sài-koán dai6 sái2 guêng2 daai6 si3 gun2 daesagwan (대사관) đại sứ quán taishikan (たいしかん)
flag kî5 kei4 gi () ki ()
insurance 保險 bǎoxiǎn pó-hiám bó2-hiém bou2 him2 boheom (보험) bảo hiểm hoken (ほけん)
news 新聞 xīnwén sin-bûn sing1 bhung6 san1 man4 shinmun (신문) tân văn shinbun (しんぶん)
student 學生 xuéshēng ha̍k-seng hak8 sêng1 hok6 saang1 haksaeng (학생) học sinh gakusei (がくせい)
university 大學 dàxué tāi-ha̍k/tōa-o̍h dai6 hag8/dua7 oh8 daai6 hok6 daehak (대학) đại học daigaku (だいがく)

Writing systems

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Both Hokkien and Chaoshan (Teochew and Shantou dialects) have romanized writing systems and also respective Chinese characters. In mainland China, it is known as 閩南文 (Bân-lâm-bûn), while in Taiwan, it is known as 台文 (Tâi-bûn). The Han Chinese characters are known in mainland China and Taiwan as 漢字 (Hàn-jī / Hàn-lī). In Malaysia and Singapore, the Chinese characters are sometimes known as 唐儂字 / 唐人字 (Tn̂g-lâng-jī / Tn̂g-lâng-lī). In the Philippines, the Chinese characters are known as 咱儂字 / 咱人字 (Lán-nâng-dī) or 漢文字 (Hàm-bûn-dī).

History

[edit]

The Min homeland of Fujian was opened to Han Chinese settlement by the defeat of the Minyue state by the armies of Emperor Wu of Han in 110 BC.[13] The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the South China Sea. Most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the Xiang and Gan rivers to the west, so that Min varieties have experienced less northern influence than other southern groups.[14] As a result, whereas most varieties of Chinese can be treated as derived from Middle Chinese, the language described by rhyme dictionaries such as the Qieyun (601 AD), Min varieties contain traces of older distinctions.[15] Linguists estimate that the oldest layers of Min dialects diverged from the rest of Chinese around the time of the Han dynasty.[16][17] However, significant waves of migration from the North China Plain occurred.[18] These include:

Jerry Norman identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties:

  1. A non-Chinese substratum from the original languages of Minyue, which Norman and Mei Tsu-lin believe were Austroasiatic.[19][20]
  2. The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from Zhejiang to the north during the Han dynasty.[21]
  3. A layer from the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, which is largely consistent with the phonology of the Qieyun dictionary.[22]
  4. A literary layer based on the koiné of Chang'an, the capital of the Tang dynasty.[23]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Mei, Tsu-lin (1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 30: 86–110, doi:10.2307/2718766, JSTOR 2718766
  2. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984), Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, p. 3, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8
  3. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). "Glottolog 4.8 - Min". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7398962. Archived from the original on 2023-10-13. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  4. ^ Cai Zhu, Huang Guo (1 October 2015). Chinese language. Xiamen: Fujian Education Publishing House. ISBN 978-7533469511.
  5. ^ Southern Min at Ethnologue (23rd ed., 2020) Closed access icon
  6. ^ Lee, Tong Soon (2009). Chinese Street Opera in Singapore. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252032462.
  7. ^ Bodman, Nicholas C. (1985). Acson, Veneeta; Leed, Richard L. (eds.). The Reflexes of Initial Nasals in Proto-Southern Min-Hingua. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 20. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 2–20. ISBN 978-0-8248-0992-8. JSTOR 20006706.
  8. ^ Lien, Chinfa (2000-09-01). "Denasalization, Vocalic Nasalization and Related Issues in Southern Min: A Dialectal and Comparative Perspective". In Ting, Pang-Hsin; Yue, Anne O. (eds.). In Memory of Professor Li Fang-Kuei: Essays of Linguistic Change and the Chinese Dialects. Taipei: Academic Sinica. ISBN 957-671-725-6. Retrieved 1 September 2024.
  9. ^ "The politics of language names in Taiwan". www.ksc.kwansei.ac.jp. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
  10. ^ Kwok, Bit-Chee (2018). Southern Min: comparative phonology and subgrouping. Routledge studies in East Asian linguistics. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-94365-0.
  11. ^ Minnan/ Southern Min at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  12. ^ Iûⁿ, Ún-giân. "Tâi-bûn/Hôa-bûn Sòaⁿ-téng Sû-tián" 台文/華文線頂辭典 [Taiwanese/Chinese Online Dictionary]. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  13. ^ Norman (1991), pp. 328.
  14. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 210, 228.
  15. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 228–229.
  16. ^ Ting (1983), pp. 9–10.
  17. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), pp. 33, 79.
  18. ^ Yan (2006), p. 120.
  19. ^ Norman & Mei (1976).
  20. ^ Norman (1991), pp. 331–332.
  21. ^ Norman (1991), pp. 334–336.
  22. ^ Norman (1991), p. 336.
  23. ^ Norman (1991), p. 337.

Sources

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Further reading

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