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Coordinates: 40°09′30″N 24°19′38″E / 40.15833°N 24.32722°E / 40.15833; 24.32722
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{{short description|Mountain and peninsula in northeastern Greece}}
{{For|the house in the United States|Mount Athos (Kelly, Virginia)}}
{{About|the mountain and peninsula in Greece|the Eastern Orthodox monastic community and the autonomous region of Greece|Monastic community of Mount Athos||Athos (disambiguation){{!}}Athos}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name = <div style="font-size:95%;">
{{unbulleted list
| Άθως / Athos
| Άγιον Όρος / Holy Mountain
}}</div>
|common_name = Mount Athos
|linking_name = Mount Athos
|image_map = Athos in Greece.svg
|alt_map = A map of Greece with Mount Athos shown in red
|map_caption = Location and extent of Mount Athos (red) in [[Greece]].
|map_width = 220px
|capital = [[Karyes (Athos)|Karyes]]<sup>a</sup>
|religion = [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|languages_type = Language
|languages = [[Greek language|Greek]]
|languages2_type = Other Languages
|languages2 = {{hlist|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]|[[Georgian language|Georgian]]|[[Romanian language|Romanian]]|[[Russian language|Russian]]|[[Serbian language|Serbian]]}}
|demonym = {{unbulleted list |Athonite (Αθωνίτης) |{{nowrap|Agiorite (Αγιορείτης)}}}}
|membership_type = Country
|membership = {{flag|Greece}}
|government_type = [[autonomy|Autonomous]] [[theocracy|theocratic]] society led by ecclesiastical council
|leader_title1 = {{nowrap|Civil Governor}}
|leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Aristos Kasmiroglou]]}}
|leader_title2 = {{nowrap|''Protos'' {{small|(Elder Monk)}}}}
|leader_name2 = Elder Stefanos Chilandrinos
|sovereignty_type = [[Autonomy]]
|established_event1 = [[Constitution of Greece|Constitutional]] reaffirmation
|established_date1 =
{{unbulleted list
| 1927<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/syn15.pdf |title=Σύνταγμα της Ελληνικής Δημοκρατίας |year=1927 |publisher=www.hellenicparliament.gr |accessdate=23 April 2011}}</ref>
| 1975
}}
|area_rank =
|area_magnitude= 1 E8
|area_km2 = 335.63
|area_sq_mi = 129.59
|percent_water =
|population_estimate = |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year =
|population_census = 1,811
|population_census_year = 2011
|population_density_km2 = 5.40
|population_density_sq_mi = 14.0
|population_density_rank =
|currency= [[Euro]]{{efn|[[Greek drachma|Drachma]] before 2001.}} ([[Euro sign|€]])
|currency_code= EUR
|time_zone =
|utc_offset =
|time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST =
|footnote_a = Location of the primary church (the ''Protaton'') for the Athonite administration<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/C2.A.3.1.html |title=The Protaton church at Karyes |publisher=Macedonian-heritage.gr |date= |accessdate=2011-06-01}}</ref> and the seat of the ''[[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]]'' (elder monk) since 911.
|footnotes = <div style="font-size:110%;">
{{collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;
|title = {{resize|115%|Sovereign monasteries}}
| [[Great Lavra (Athos)|Great Lavra]] (Μεγίστη Λαύρα, ''Megísti Lávra'')
| [[Vatopedi monastery|Vatopedi]] (Βατοπέδι or Βατοπαίδι)
| [[Iviron monastery|Iviron]] (Ιβήρων, ''Iverta monasteri''; ივერთა მონასტერი)
| [[Hilandar]] (Χιλανδαρίου, ''Chilandariou''; Хиландар)
| [[Dionysiou monastery|Dionysiou]] (Διονυσίου)
| [[Koutloumousiou monastery|Koutloumousiou]] (Κουτλουμούσι)
| [[Pandokratoros monastery|Pantokrator]] (Παντοκράτορος, ''Pantokratoros'')
| [[Xeropotamou monastery|Xeropotamou]] (Ξηροποτάμου)
| [[Zograf Monastery|Zografou]] (Ζωγράφου; Зограф)
| [[Dochiariou monastery|Dochiariou]] (Δοχειαρίου)
| [[Karakalou monastery|Karakalou]] (Καρακάλλου)
| [[Filotheou monastery|Filotheou]] (Φιλοθέου)
| [[Simonopetra monastery|Simonos Petra]] (Σίμωνος Πέτρα or Σιμωνόπετρα)
| [[Agiou Pavlou monastery|Saint Paul's]] (Αγίου Παύλου, ''Agiou Pavlou'')
| [[Stavronikita monastery|Stavronikita]] (Σταυρονικήτα)
| [[Xenophontos monastery|Xenophontos]] (Ξενοφώντος)
| [[Osiou Grigoriou monastery|Osiou Grigoriou]] (Οσίου Γρηγορίου)
| [[Esphigmenou Monastery|Esfigmenou]] (Εσφιγμένου)
| [[Monastery of St Panteleimon|Saint Panteleimon's]] (Αγίου Παντελεήμονος, ''Agiou Panteleimonos'', Пантелеймонов; or ''Rossikon'', Ρωσικό)
| [[Konstamonitou monastery|Konstamonitou]] (Κωνσταμονίτου)
}}</div>
}}

{{Infobox mountain
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Mount Athos
| name = Mount Athos
| photo = Mt. Athos (3939757657).jpg
| photo = Mt. Athos (3939757657).jpg
| photo_size = 260
| photo_size = 280
| elevation_m = 2033<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inathos.gr/athos/en/ |title=Mount Athos Home |date= |accessdate=2016-06-11}}</ref>
| elevation_m = 2033<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inathos.gr/athos/en |title=Mount Athos Home |access-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001070854/http://inathos.gr/athos/en |archive-date=1 October 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| elevation_ref =
| elevation_ref =
| prominence_m = 2012
| prominence_m = 2012
| prominence_ref =
| prominence_ref =
| range =
| range =
| location = [[Greece]]<!--
| location = [[Europe]]
| map = Greece
| country = [[Greece]]
| region = [[Monastic community of Mount Athos|Agio Oros]]
| region_code= GR-69
| map_caption = Location of Mount Athos in Greece.
| map = Greece
| map_caption = Location of Mount Athos in Greece.
| map_size = 240
| map_size = 240
| label = Mount Athos
| label = Mount Athos
| label_position = right-->
| label_position = right
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
|coordinates = {{coord|40|09|26|N|24|19|35|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|40|09|30|N|24|19|38|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =
| topo =
| topo = | first_ascent = | easiest_route =
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
| embedded = {{designation list | embed=yes
| embedded = {{designation list
| designation1 = WHS
|embed = yes
| designation1_date = 1988 <small>(12th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
|designation1 = WHS
| designation1_type = Mixed
|designation1_date = 1988 <small>(12th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
| designation1_criteria = i, ii, iv, v, vi, vii
|designation1_type = Mixed
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/454 454]
|designation1_criteria = i, ii, iv, v, vi, vii
| designation1_free1name = State Party
|designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/454 454]
| designation1_free1value = [[Greece]]
|designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
|designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe]]
}}
}}
}}
}}


'''Mount Athos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|θ|ɒ|s}}; {{lang-el|Άθως}}, ''Áthos'', {{IPA-el|ˈaθos|}}) is a mountain and [[peninsula]] in northeastern [[Greece]] and an important centre of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] [[monasticism]]. It is governed as an [[Territorial autonomy|autonomous polity]] within the Greek Republic. Mount Athos is home to 20 [[monasteries]] under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]].
'''Mount Athos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|θ|ɒ|s}}; {{langx|el|Ἄθως}} {{IPA-el|ˈa.θos|}}) is a mountain on the '''Athos peninsula''' in northeastern [[Greece]] directly on the Aegean Sea. It is an important center of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] [[monasticism]]. The mountain and most of the Athos peninsula are governed as an [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomous region]] in Greece by the [[monastic community of Mount Athos]], which is ecclesiastically under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]]. The remainder of the peninsula forms part of the [[Aristotelis (municipality)|Aristotelis]] municipality. Women are prohibited from entering the area governed by the monastic community by Greek law and by religious tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-36378690|title=Why are women banned from Mount Athos?|last=Why|first=Who, What|date=27 May 2016|publisher=BBC|access-date=11 June 2023|archive-date=14 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214103147/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-36378690|url-status=live}}</ref>


Mount Athos has been inhabited since ancient times and is known for its long Christian presence and historical monastic traditions, which date back to at least 800 AD during the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine era]]. Because of its long history of religious importance, the well-preserved agrarian architecture within the monasteries, and the preservation of the flora and fauna around the mountain, the [[monastic community of Mount Athos]] was added to the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] in 1988.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/454 |title=Mount Athos |website=UNESCO World Heritage Convention |publisher=United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization |access-date=30 October 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115202010/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/454 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Mount Athos is commonly referred to in Greek as the "Holy Mountain" (''Ἅγιον Ὄρος'') and the entity as the "Athonite State" (''Αθωνική Πολιτεία'', ''Athoniki Politia''). Other languages of Orthodox tradition also use names translating to "Holy Mountain" (e.g. [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] {{lang|bg|Света гора}}, [[Russian language|Russian]] Святая Гора, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] მთაწმინდა). In the [[Classical Greece|classical era]], while the mountain was called ''Athos'', the peninsula was known as ''Acté'' or ''Akté'' (Ἀκτή).


== Names ==
Mount Athos has been inhabited since ancient times and is known for its nearly 1,800-year continuous Christian presence and its long historical monastic traditions, which date back to at least 800 A.D. and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine era]]. Today, over 2,000 monks from Greece and many other countries, including Eastern Orthodox countries such as [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]] and [[Russia]], live an [[ascetic]] life in Athos, isolated from the rest of the world. The Athonite monasteries feature a rich collection of well-preserved artifacts, rare books, ancient documents, and [[Byzantine Art|artworks]] of immense historical value, and Mount Athos has been listed as a [[World Heritage Site]] since 1988.
In the [[Classical Greece|classical era]], Mount Athos was called ''Athos'' and the peninsula {{Lang|la|Acté|italic=yes}} or {{Lang|grc-Latn|Akté}} ({{Langx|grc-x-koine|Ἀκτή}}). In modern Greek, the mountain is ''Oros Athos'' ({{langx|el|Όρος Άθως}}) and the peninsula ''Hersonisos tou Atho'' ({{langx|el|Χερσόνησος του Άθω}}), while the designation ''[[Agio Oros]]'' ({{langx|el|Άγιο Όρος}}) translating to 'Holy Mountain' is used to denote the monastic community.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davie |first1=Grace |last2=Leustean |first2=Lucian N. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Europe |date=8 December 2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-257106-9 |page=487 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA487 |language=en |access-date=21 June 2023 |archive-date=21 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621093907/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA487 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Some languages of Orthodox tradition use names that translate to 'Holy Mountain', including [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ({{lang|bg|Света Гора}}, ''Sveta Gora''), and [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ({{Lang|ka|მთაწმინდა}}, {{Lang|ka-Latn|mtats’minda}}). However, not all languages spoken in the Eastern Orthodox world use this name: in the [[East Slavic languages]] ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]) it is simply called {{lang|ru|Афон}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|Afon}}, meaning "Athos"), while in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] it is called "Mount Athos" ({{lang|ro|Muntele Athos}} or {{lang|ro|Muntele Atos}}).{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
Although Mount Athos is technically part of the [[European Union]] like the rest of Greece, the status of the Monastic State of the Holy Mountain, and the jurisdiction of the Athonite institutions, were expressly described and ratified upon admission of Greece to the European Community (precursor to the EU). The [[Freedom of movement|free movement of people]] and [[European Single Market|goods]] in its territory is prohibited, unless formal permission is granted by the Monastic State's authorities, and only males are allowed to enter.


==Geography==
== Geography ==
[[File:Athos - from NW.jpg|thumb|290px|Mount Athos seen from the northwest]]
The peninsula, the easternmost "leg" of the larger [[Chalkidiki]] peninsula in central [[Greek Macedonia|Macedonia]], protrudes {{convert|50|km|mi|0}}<ref name="Draper">Robert Draper, [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/12/athos/draper-text "Mount Athos"], ''National Geographic'' magazine, December 2009</ref> into the [[Aegean Sea]] at a width of between {{convert|7|and|12|km|mi}} and covers an area of {{convert|335.6|km2|sqmi|2}}. The actual Mount Athos has steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to {{convert|2033|m|ft|0}}.


The peninsula, the easternmost "leg" of the larger [[Chalkidiki]] peninsula in central [[Greek Macedonia|Macedonia]], protrudes {{cvt|50|km|mi|0}}<ref name="Draper">Robert Draper, [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/12/athos/draper-text "Mount Athos"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811023226/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/12/athos/draper-text |date=11 August 2011 }}, ''National Geographic'' magazine, December 2009</ref> into the [[Aegean Sea]] at a width of between {{cvt|7|and|12|km|mi}} and covers an area of {{cvt|335.6|km2|sqmi|0}}. The actual Mount Athos has steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to {{cvt|2033|m|ft|0}}. The Athos peninsula, unlike [[Sithonia]] and [[Kassandra, Chalkidiki|Kassandra]], is a geological continuation of the [[Rhodope Mountains]] of northern Greece and Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite book |last=Speake |first=Graham |title=Mount Athos: renewal in paradise |publication-place=Limni, Evia, Greece |date=2014 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-960-7120-34-2 |oclc=903320491 |page=32}}</ref>
The surrounding seas, especially at the end of the peninsula, can be dangerous. In ancient Greek history two fleet disasters in the area are recorded: In 492 BC [[Darius the Great|Darius]], the king of [[Persia]], lost 300 ships under general [[Mardonius]] ([[Herodotus]] "Histories" book VI (Erato), [[Aeschylus]] "The Persians"). In 411 BC the [[Sparta]]ns lost a fleet of 50 ships under admiral [[Epicleas]]. ([[Diodorus Siculus]], "Bibliotheca historica" XIII 41, 1–3).


The surrounding seas, especially at the end of the peninsula, can be dangerous. In ancient Greek history, two fleet disasters in the area are recorded: Herodotus claimed that in 492 BC, [[Darius the Great|Darius]], the king of [[Persia]], lost 300 ships under general [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]].<ref>[[Herodotus]], ''Histories'', book VI ("Erato"); [[Aeschylus]], ''The Persians''.</ref> In 411 BC the [[Sparta]]ns lost a fleet of 50 ships under the admiral Epicleas.<ref>[[Diodorus Siculus]], ''Bibliotheca historica'' XIII 41, 1–3.</ref>
Though land-linked, Mount Athos is practically accessible only by ferry. The ''Agios Panteleimon'' and ''Axion Estin'' travel daily (weather permitting) between [[Ouranoupolis]] and [[Dafni (Athos)|Dafni]], with stops at some monasteries on the western coast. There is also a smaller speed boat, the ''Agia Anna'', which travels the same route, but with no intermediate stops. It is possible to travel by ferry to and from [[Ierissos]] for direct access to monasteries along the eastern coast.


Mount Athos has an extensive [[footpaths of Mount Athos|network of footpaths]], many of which date back to the [[Byzantine period]]. Many are typically not accessible to motor vehicle traffic.<ref name="FOMA 2019">{{cite web |title=Footpaths of the Holy Mountain – FOMA |website=FOMA |date=2019-01-06 |url=https://athosfriends.org/visiting/clear-the-footpaths |access-date=2022-06-16 |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616203905/https://athosfriends.org/visiting/clear-the-footpaths/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Karta Athos.PNG|A map of Mount Athos.
File:Mont Athos 3D version 1.gif|A 3D model of Athos.
File:Athos peninsula.jpg|The peninsula as seen from the summit of Mount Athos ({{Coord|40|9|28|N|24|19|36|E|}}), looking northwest
</gallery>


==Access==
==Flora==
Much of Mount Athos is covered with [[temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|mixed broadleaf deciduous]] and evergreen forests. Black pine (''[[Pinus nigra]]'') forests are found at higher elevations. [[Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests|Sclerophyllous scrub vegetation]] is also found throughout Mount Athos. Typical forest trees are sweet chestnut (''[[Castanea sativa]]''), holm oak (''[[Quercus ilex]]''), kermes oak (''[[Quercus coccifera]]''), Hungarian oak (''[[Quercus frainetto]]''), oriental plane (''[[Platanus orientalis]]''), black pine (''[[Pinus nigra]]''), and cedar (''[[Calocedrus decurrens]]''). Other common plant species include the strawberry tree (''[[Arbutus unedo]]'' and ''[[Arbutus andrachne]]''), cypress (''[[Cupressus sempervirens]]''), laurel (''[[Laurus nobilis]]''), lentisk (''[[Pistacia lentiscus]]''), phillyrea (''[[Phillyrea latifolia]]''), wild olive (''[[Olea europea]]''), and heather (''[[Erica (plant)|Erica]]'' spp.).<ref name="unep-wcmc">{{cite web |title=Mount Athos |website=World Heritage Datasheet |author=UN Environment [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]] |date=2017-05-22 |url=http://world-heritage-datasheets.unep-wcmc.org/datasheet/output/site/mount-athos |access-date=2022-06-10 |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807152226/http://world-heritage-datasheets.unep-wcmc.org/datasheet/output/site/mount-athos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Deciduous trees that are primarily found alongside streams include [[white willow]], [[laurel (plant)|laurel]], [[Oriental plane]], and [[alder]] trees.<ref>{{cite book |last=Speake |first=Graham |title=Mount Athos: renewal in paradise |publication-place=Limni, Evia, Greece |date=2014 |isbn=978-960-7120-34-2 |oclc=903320491 |page=33 |edition=2nd}}</ref>
The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, and all are required to obtain a special entrance permit valid for a limited period. Only men are permitted to visit the territory, which is called the "Garden of [[Virgin Mary]]" by the monks,<ref>''Athonite monasticism at the dawn of the third millennium, Pravmir Portal, September 2007''</ref> with Orthodox Christians taking precedence in permit issuance procedures. Residents on the peninsula must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers.


Aleppo pine (''[[Pinus halepensis]]'') is more commonly found in the northern part of the peninsula. Broadleaf [[maquis shrubland|maquis]] is found further south. Deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by [[sweet chestnut]] lies above the broadleaf maquis zone. There are also mixed forests consisting of deciduous oak trees, as well as [[Tilia|limes]], [[aspen]], [[hop hornbeam]], and [[maple]]. [[Pinus nigra|Black pine]] and [[stinking juniper]] can be found at higher elevations. Some herbaceous plants with tubers and bulbs include [[crocus]], [[anemone]], [[cyclamen]], and [[Fritillaria|fritillary]] species.<ref name="Speake 2014">{{cite book |last=Speake |first=Graham |title=Mount Athos: renewal in paradise |publication-place=Limni, Evia, Greece |date=2014 |isbn=978-960-7120-34-2 |oclc=903320491 |page=34 |edition=2nd}}</ref>
==History==


At least 35 plant species are endemic to Mount Athos, most of which are found in the area of the main summit in the south.<ref>Ganiatsas, K. (2003). ''I vlastesis kai i chloris tis chersonesou tou Agiou Orous''.</ref> ''[[Isatis tinctoria]]'' ssp. ''athoa'', a [[woad]] subspecies, and ''[[Viola athois]]'' are named after Mount Athos.<ref name="Speake 2014"/>
===Antiquity===
''[[Athos (mythology)|Athos]]'' in [[Greek mythology]] is the name of one of the [[Gigantes]] that challenged the [[Greek gods]] during the [[Gigantomachy|Gigantomachia]]. Athos threw a massive rock against [[Poseidon]] which fell in the [[Aegean sea]] and became Mount Athos. According to another version of the story, Poseidon used the mountain to bury the defeated giant.


Mount Athos is also home to 350 species of mushrooms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cosgrove |first1=Denis E. |last2=Della Dora |first2=Veronica |title=High places: cultural geographies of mountains, ice and science |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co |publication-place=London |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4416-2965-4 |oclc=503441715}}</ref><ref>S. Dafis, ‘Anthrōpines drastēriotētes kai fysiko perivallon’, in S. Dafis et al. (eds.), ''Fysekai Perivallon sto Agion Oros'', Thessalonica, 1998.</ref><ref>G. Sideropoulos, ''Agion Oros: anafores stēn anthropogeōgrafia'', Athens, 2000, p. 28.</ref><ref>O. Rackham, ‘Our Lady’s Garden: the historical ecology of the Holy Mountain’, ''Friends of Mount Athos, Annual Report'' (2000), p. 50.</ref><ref>D. Babalonas, ‘Chlōrida kai endemismos tou Agiou Orous’, in M. Parcharidou and M. Fountoulēs (eds.), ''Agion Oros: fysē, latreia, technē'', Vol. I, Thessalonica, 1999, p. 119.</ref>
[[Homer]] mentions the mountain Athos in the [[Iliad]].<ref>Homer, "Iliad" 14.229</ref> [[Herodotus]] writes that, during the Persian invasion of [[Thrace]] in 492 BC, the fleet of the Persian commander [[Mardonius]] was wrecked with losses of 300 ships and 20,000 men, by a strong North wind while attempting to round the coast near Mount Athos.<ref>Herodotus, "Histories" 6.44</ref> [[Herodotus]] mentions the peninsula, then called ''Acte,'' telling us that [[Pelasgians]] from the island of [[Lemnos]] populated it and naming five cities thereon, [[Sane (Acte)|Sane]], [[Cleonae (Chalcidice)|Cleonae]] (Kleonai), Thyssos (Thyssus), Olophyxos (Olophyxis), and Acrothoï (Akrothoön).<ref>Herodotus, "Histories" 7:22</ref> [[Strabo]] also mentions the cities of Dion (Dium) and Acrothoï.<ref>Strabo, "Geography" 7.33.1</ref> [[Eretria]] also established colonies on Acte. At least one other city was established in the Classical period: [[Acanthus (Greece)|Acanthus]] (Akanthos). Some of these cities minted their own coins.


==Fauna==
The peninsula was on the invasion route of [[Xerxes I]], who spent three years<ref>Warry, J. 1998 ''Warfare in the Classical World'' Salamander Book Ltd., London p 35</ref> excavating the [[Xerxes Canal]] across the isthmus to allow the passage of his invasion fleet in 483 BC. After the death of [[Alexander the Great]], the architect [[Dinocrates]] (Deinokrates) proposed carving the entire mountain into a statue of Alexander.
Mammals include the [[grey wolf]] (''Canis lupus''), [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa''), red fox (''[[Vulpes vulpes]]''), jackal (''[[Canis aureus]]''), European badger (''[[Meles meles]]''), beech marten (''[[Martes foina]]''), stoat (''[[Mustela erminea]]''), weasel (''[[Mustela nivalis]] vulgaris''), European hedgehog (''[[Erinaceus concolor]]''), shrews (''[[Crocidura]]'' spp.), and Mediterranean monk seal (''[[Monachus monachus]]'').<ref name="unep-wcmc"/> Other mammal species include [[roe deer]], [[European hare|hares]], and [[red squirrel]]s.<ref name="Speake 2014 p. 37">{{cite book |last=Speake |first=Graham |title=Mount Athos: renewal in paradise |publication-place=Limni, Evia, Greece |date=2014 |isbn=978-960-7120-34-2 |oclc=903320491 |page=37 |edition=2nd}}</ref>


Birds include the black stork (''[[Ciconia nigra]]''), short-toed snake-eagle (''[[Circaetus gallicus]]''), golden eagle (''[[Aquila chrysaetos]]''), lesser kestrel (''[[Falco naumanni]]''), capercaillie (''[[Tetrao urogallus]]''), eagle owl (''[[Bubo bubo]]''), yelkouan shearwater (''[[Puffinus yelkouan]]''), and Audouin's gull (''[[Larus audouinii]]'').<ref>Grimmett, R. & Jones, T. (eds) (1989). ''Important Bird Areas in Europe''. Technical Publication #9, ICBP, Cambridge, U.K.</ref><ref>Heath, M. & Evans, M. (eds) (2000). ''Important Bird Areas in Europe: Priority Sites for Conservation'' Vol.2. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.</ref> Other bird species include [[swift (bird)|swift]]s, [[swallow (bird)|swallow]]s, [[martin (bird)|martin]]s, [[nightingale]]s, and [[hoopoe]]s.<ref name="Speake 2014 p. 37"/>
The history of the peninsula during latter ages is shrouded by the lack of historical accounts. Archaeologists have not been able to determine the exact location of the cities reported by Strabo. It is believed that they must have been deserted when Athos' new inhabitants, the monks, started arriving some time before the ninth century AD.<ref name="Kadas1">{{cite book |last=Kadas |first=Sotiris |title=The Holy Mountain |publisher=Ekdotike Athenon |location=Athens |language=Greek |isbn=960-213-199-3 |page=9}}</ref>


===Early Christianity===
== History ==
[[File:Mont Athos 3D version 1.gif|thumb|A 3D model of Athos]]
According to the Athonite tradition, the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] was sailing accompanied by St [[John the Evangelist]] from [[Jaffa|Joppa]] to [[Cyprus]] to visit [[Lazarus of Bethany|Lazarus]]. When the ship was blown off course to then-pagan Athos, it was forced to anchor near the port of Klement, close to the present monastery of Iviron. The Virgin walked ashore and, overwhelmed by the wonderful and wild natural beauty of the mountain, she blessed it and asked her Son for it to be her garden. A voice was heard saying "{{lang|grc|Ἔστω ὁ τόπος οὖτος κλῆρος σὸς καὶ περιβόλαιον σὸν καὶ παράδεισος, ἔτι δὲ καὶ λιμὴν σωτήριος τῶν θελόντων σωθῆναι}}" (Translation: "Let this place be your inheritance and your garden, a paradise and a haven of salvation for those seeking to be saved"). From that moment the mountain was consecrated as the garden of the Mother of God and was out of bounds to all other women.<ref group=note> St Gregory Palamas included this tradition in his book ''Life of Petros the Athonite'', p. 150, 1005 AD.</ref>


=== Antiquity ===
Historical documents on ancient Mount Athos history are very few. It is certain that monks have been there since the fourth century, and possibly since the third. During [[Constantine I]]'s reign (324–337) both Christians and pagans were living there. During the reign of [[Julian the Apostate]] (361–363), the churches of Mount Athos were destroyed, and Christians hid in the woods and inaccessible places.{{citation needed|reason=Julian was not known to destroy any Christian churches, but simply restore pagan temples that had been confiscated and reconsecrated as churches, per his edict of religious toleration.|date=October 2015}}
[[File:Ste01945.jpg|thumb|Imaginary view of the Alexander monument, proposed by [[Dinocrates]]; engraving by [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1725]]


In [[Greek mythology]], [[Athos (mythology)|Athos]] is the name of one of the [[Gigantes]] that challenged the [[Greek gods]] during the [[Gigantomachy|Gigantomachia]]. Athos threw a massive rock at [[Poseidon]] which fell in the [[Aegean Sea]] and became Mount Athos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mythology and History of Chalkidiki (Halkidiki) |url=https://chalkidiki.com/mythology_history.html |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=chalkidiki.com |archive-date=8 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108085611/https://chalkidiki.com/mythology_history.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to another version of the story, Poseidon used the mountain to bury the defeated giant.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
Later, during [[Theodosius I]]'s reign (379–395), the pagan temples were destroyed. The lexicographer [[Hesychius of Alexandria]] states that in the fifth century there was still a temple and a statue of "[[Zeus]] Athonite". After the [[Islamic conquest of Egypt]] in the seventh century, many Orthodox monks from the Egyptian desert tried to find another calm place; some of them came to the Athos peninsula. An ancient document states that monks "built huts of wood with roofs of straw [...] and by collecting fruit from the wild trees were providing themselves improvised meals."<ref>Biography of Saint Athanasius the Athonite</ref>


[[Homer]] mentions the mountain Athos in the [[Iliad]].<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' 14,229.</ref> [[Herodotus]] writes that during the Persian invasion of [[Thrace]] in 492 BC, the fleet of the Persian commander [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] was wrecked with losses of 300 ships and 20,000 men, by a strong North wind while attempting to round the coast near Mount Athos.<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 6,44.</ref> Herodotus also states that [[Pelasgians]] from the island of [[Lemnos]] populated the peninsula, then called ''Akte,'' and names five cities thereon, [[Sane (Acte)|Sane]], [[Cleonae (Athos)|Kleonai]] (Cleonae), [[Thyssos]] (Thyssus), [[Olophyxos]] (Olophyxus), and [[Akrothoon]] (Acrothoum).<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 7,22.</ref> [[Strabo]] also mentions the cities of Dion (Dium) and Akrothoon.<ref>Strabo, ''Geography'' 7,33,1.</ref> [[Eretria]] also established colonies on Akte. At least one other city was established in the Classical period: [[Acanthus (Greece)|Akanthos]] (Acanthus). Some of these cities minted their own coins.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
===Byzantine era: the first monasteries===
[[File:Nikiphoros Phokas.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nicephorus Phocas]]]]
[[File:Athos2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A Byzantine watch tower, protecting the "arsanas" (αρσανάς, =dock) of [[Xeropotamou monastery]]]]
[[File:Athanasios.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Athanasios the Athonite]]]]


The peninsula was on the invasion route of [[Xerxes I]], who spent three years<ref>Warry, J. (1998), ''Warfare in the Classical World'', Salamander Book Ltd., London, p. 35</ref> excavating the [[Xerxes Canal]] across the isthmus to allow the passage of his invasion fleet in 483 BC. After the death of [[Alexander the Great]], the architect [[Dinocrates]] (Deinokrates) proposed carving the entire mountain into a statue of Alexander.
The chroniclers [[Theophanes the Confessor]] (end of eighth century) and [[Georgios Kedrenos]] (11th century) wrote that the 726 eruption of the [[Santorini|Thera volcano]] was visible from Mount Athos, indicating that it was inhabited at the time. The historian [[Genesios]] recorded that monks from Athos participated at the [[Second Council of Nicaea|seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] of 787. Following the [[Battle of Thasos]] in 829, Athos was deserted for some time due to the destructive raids of the [[Cretan Saracens]]. Around 860, the famous monk Efthymios the Younger<ref>{{cite web |editor-last= Kazhdan |editor-first= Alexander P. |editor-link= Alexander Kazhdan | date= 2005 |title= Euthymios the Younger |url= http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-1828 |work= The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | isbn= 9780195046526 |location= |access-date= 2017-03-15 | archiveurl= | archivedate= | quote=also called Euthymios of Thessalonike, saint; baptismal name Niketas; born village of Opso, Galatia 823/4 }}</ref> came to Athos and a number of monk-huts ("[[skete]] of Saint Basil") were created around his habitation, possibly near Krya Nera. During the reign of emperor [[Basil I]] the Macedonian, the former Archbishop of [[Crete]] (and later of [[Thessaloniki]]) [[Basil the Confessor]] built a small monastery at the place of the modern harbour ("arsanas") of Hilandariou Monastery. Soon after this, a document of 883 states that a certain Ioannis Kolovos built a monastery at Megali Vigla.


[[Pliny the Elder]] stated in 77 AD that the inhabitants of Mount Athos could "live to their four hundredth year" due to the fact that they eat the skin of vipers.<ref>Pliny the Elder. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029223357/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book%3D7:chapter%3D2|date=29 October 2021}}, Retrieved on 30 October 2021.</ref>
On a [[chrysobull]] of emperor Basil I, dated 885, the Holy Mountain is proclaimed a place of monks, and no laymen or farmers or cattle-breeders are allowed to be settled there. The next year, in an imperial edict of emperor [[Leo VI the Wise]] we read about the "so-called ancient seat of the council of [[Starets|geron]]des (council of elders)", meaning that there was already a kind of monks' administration and that it was already "ancient". In 887, some monks expostulate to the emperor Leo the Wise that as the monastery of Kolovos is grows more and more, they are losing their peace.


The lack of historical accounts shrouds the history of the peninsula during the later ages. Archaeologists have not been able to determine the exact location of the cities reported by Strabo. It is believed that they must have been deserted when Athos's new inhabitants, the monks, started arriving sometime before the ninth century AD.<ref name="Kadas1">{{cite book |last=Kadas |first=Sotiris |title=The Holy Mountain |year=1981 |publisher=Ekdotike Athenon |location=Athens |language=el |isbn=978-960-213-199-2 |page=9}}</ref>
In 908 the existence of a ''[[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]]'' ("First monk"), the "head" of the monastic community, is documented. In 943 the borders of the monastic state were precisely mapped; we know that Karyes was already the capital and seat of the administration, named "Megali Mesi Lavra" (Big Central Assembly). In 956, a decree offered land of about {{convert|940000|m²| acre|abbr=on}} to the Xeropotamou monastery, which means that this monastery was already quite big.


=== Early Christianity ===
In 958, the monk [[Athanasios the Athonite]] (Άγιος Αθανάσιος ο Αθωνίτης) arrived on Mount Athos. In 962 he built the big central church of the "Protaton" in Karies. In the next year, with the support of his friend Emperor [[Nikephoros II|Nicephorus Phocas]], the monastery of [[Great Lavra (Athos)|Great Lavra]] was founded, still the largest and most prominent of the twenty monasteries existing today. It enjoyed the protection of the [[Byzantine Empire |Byzantine]] emperors during the following centuries, and its wealth and possessions grew considerably.<ref>{{Cite book| title=The Late Medieval Balkans |last=Fine |first=John |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1987 |isbn= 978-0-472-10079-8 |location= |pages=381 |via=}}</ref>
[[File:Athos peninsula.jpg|thumb|The peninsula as seen from the summit of Mount Athos]]


According to the Athonite tradition, the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] was sailing accompanied by St [[John the Evangelist]] from [[Jaffa|Joppa]] to [[Cyprus]] to visit [[Lazarus of Bethany|Lazarus]]. When the ship was blown off course to then-pagan Athos, it was forced to anchor near the port of Klement, close to the present monastery of Iviron. The Virgin walked ashore and, overwhelmed by the mountain's wonderful and wild natural beauty, she blessed it and asked her Son for it to be her garden. A voice was heard saying, {{lang|grc|{{"-}}Ἔστω ὁ τόπος οὗτος κλῆρος σὸς καὶ περιβόλαιον σὸν καὶ παράδεισος, ἔτι δὲ καὶ λιμὴν σωτήριος τῶν θελόντων σωθῆναι"}} (Translation: "Let this place be your inheritance and your garden, a paradise and a haven of salvation for those seeking to be saved"). From that moment the mountain was consecrated as the garden of the Mother of God and was out of bounds to all other women.<ref group="note">St Gregory Palamas included this tradition in his book ''Life of Petros the Athonite'', p. 150, 1005 AD.</ref>
During the 11th century, Mount Athos offered a meeting place for Serbian and Russian monk [[Scribe]]s. Russian monks first settled there in the 1070s, in '''Xylourgou Monastery''' (now [[Skiti Bogoroditsa]]); in 1089 they moved to the [[St. Panteleimon Monastery]], while the Serbs took over the Xylourgou. From 1100 to 1169 the St. Panteleimon Monastery was in a state of decay and such Russian monks as remained in Mount Athos lived at Xylourgou among the Serbs. In 1169 the Serbs received St. Panteleimon, which they shared with the Russians until 1198, when the Serbs moved to the [[Hilandar]] monastery, which became the main centre of Serbian [[monasticism]]; the Russians then remained in possession of St. Panteleimon, known since as ''[[Russikon]]''.


Historical documents on ancient Mount Athos history are very few. Monks have certainly been there since the fourth century, and possibly since the third. During [[Constantine I]]'s reign (324–337) both Christians and followers of traditional Greek religion were living there. During the reign of [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (361–363), the churches of Mount Athos were destroyed, and Christians hid in the woods and inaccessible places.<ref>{{cite book |last=Speake |first=Graham |date=2002 |title=Mount Athos: Renewal in Paradise |publisher=Yale University Press |page=27 |isbn=0-300-093535}}</ref>
The [[Fourth Crusade]] in the 13th century brought new Roman Catholic overlords, which forced the monks to complain and ask for the intervention of [[Pope Innocent III]] until the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The peninsula was raided by [[Catalan Company| Catalan mercenaries]] in the 14th century, a century that also saw the theological conflict over the [[hesychasm]] practised on Mount Athos and defended by [[Gregory Palamas]] (Άγιος Γρηγόριος ο Παλαμάς). In late 1371 or early 1372 the Byzantines defeated an Ottoman attack on Athos.<ref>{{Cite book| title=The Late Medieval Balkans |last=Fine |first=John |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1987 |isbn= 978-0-472-10079-8 |location= |pages=381 |via=}}</ref>


Later, during [[Theodosius I]]'s reign (379–395), the temples of the traditional Greek religion were destroyed. The lexicographer [[Hesychius of Alexandria]] states that in the fifth century, there was still a temple and a statue of "[[Zeus]] Athonite". After the [[Islamic conquest of Egypt]] in the seventh century, many Orthodox monks from the Egyptian desert tried to find another calm place; some of them came to the Athos peninsula. An ancient document states that monks "built huts of wood with roofs of straw ... and by collecting fruit from the wild trees were providing themselves improvised meals."<ref>Biography of Saint Athanasius the Athonite</ref>
===Serbian era and influences===


=== Byzantine era and onwards ===
[[Serbian]] kings from the Nemanjic Dynasty gave much assistance to Mount Athos. Under different kings donations were received and Serbian lords often made pilgrimages to Mount Athos and some of them became monks.
{{expand section|date=October 2024}}
[[Stefan Nemanja]] helped build the [[Hilandar]] monastery on Mount Athos together with his son Archbishop [[Saint Sava]] in 1198.
{{see|Monastic community of Mount Athos#History}}
[[File:Icon in the Monastery of Great Lavra, Mount Athos, 15th century.png|thumb|Icon in the Monastery of Great Lavra, Mount Athos, 15th century.png]]
[[File:Refectory in a Greek Monastery, Mount Athos, Theodore Jacques Ralli, 1885.jpg|thumb|''Refectory in a Greek Monastery, Mount Athos'' by Theodore Jacques Ralli, 1885]]


== Notes ==
From 1342 until 1372 Mount Athos was directly under Serbian administration. Emperor [[Stefan Dušan]] helped Mount Athos with many large donations to all monasteries. In The charter of emperor Stefan Dušan to the Monastery of Hilandar <ref>http://www.academia.edu/12794128/I._Komatina_Povelja_cara_Stefana_Du%C5%A1ana_manastiru_Hilandaru_The_charter_of_emperor_Stefan_Du%C5%A1an_to_the_Monastery_Hilandar_SSA_13_2014_</ref> the Emperor gave to the monastery [[Hilandar]] direct rule over many villages and churches, including the church of Svetog Nikole u Dobrušti in Prizren, the church of Svetih Arhanđela in Štip<ref>http://www.panacomp.net/manastir-svetog-arhandela-mihajla-stip/</ref>, the Church of Svetog Nikole in Vranje and surrounding lands and possessions. He also gave large possessions and donations to the Karyes Hermitage of St. Sabas and the Holy Archangels in Jerusalem <ref>http://www.atlantaserbs.com/learnmore/history/serbian-church.htm#serbian_patriarchate</ref> and to many other monasteries. Emperor Dušan was the only medieval lord who spent a lot of his time in Mount Athos and at the same time from there ruled the Empire. He spent 9 monts on Mount Athos from 1. September 1347. do June 1348. together with his queen.
{{Reflist|group="note"}}


== References ==
Empress Jelena, wife of the Emperor [[Stefan Dušan]], was a rare women thanks to her position and her husband, who was allowed to visit and stay in Mount Athos in 1347. <ref>http://www.srpsko-nasledje.rs/sr-l/1998/06/article-19.html</ref>
{{Reflist}}


== See also ==
Thanks to the donations made by emperor Stefan, the Serbian monastery of [[Hilandar]] was enlarged to more than 10.000 hectares, thus having the largest possessions on Mount Athos among other monasteries, and occupying 1/3 of the area.
{{commonscat}}
{{Wikivoyage|Mount Athos}}
*[[Sacred mountains]]
*[[Okinoshima (Fukuoka)|Okinoshima]]
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Athos |volume= III |page=14 |short= 1}}


{{-}}
The Serbian nobleman Antonije Bagaš, together with Nikola Radonja, bought and restored the ruined [[Agiou Pavlou monastery]] monastery between 1355 and 1365, becoming its abbott.<ref>https://books.google.rs/books?id=vBy7CTYVBeMC&pg=PA160&redir_esc=y</ref>
{{Mount Athos}}

The time of the Serbian Empire was a most prosperous time for Hilandar and other monasteries on Mount Athos many of them being restored and rebuilt to their previous glory and significantly enlarged.<ref>http://www.srpsko-nasledje.rs/sr-l/1998/06/article-19.html</ref>

Donations continued after the end of the Serbian empire and [[Lazar of Serbia]] and the later [[Branković dynasty]] continued to support monks on Mount Athos. On 11 September 1429, [[Đurađ Branković]] made a donation to the [[Esphigmenou]] Monastery at Mount Athos.

Serbian magnate [[Radič (veliki čelnik)]] restored the [[Konstamonitou Monastery]] after the 1420 fire and then took monastic vows and received the name Roman (after 1433).

[[Mara Branković]] a Serbian princess born in Kosovo was the second women of Serbian origin that was granted permissions to visit monasteries on Mount Athos.<ref>http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SERBIA.htm#DjuradjVukovicdied1456</ref> As a women of [[Murad II]], [[Mara Branković]] used her influence on the Ottoman court to secure that Mount Athos preserved independence under later Ottoman rule.

At the end of the 15th century five monasteries on Mount Athos had Serbian monks and were under the Serbian Prior - Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, Ayiou Dionysiou and Hilandar <ref>https://books.google.rs/books?id=V5z_cQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y</ref>

Under Ottoman rule many Serbian nobles including ones who were under direct Ottoman rule or had accepted the Muslim faith continued their support for Mount Athos.

In modern times after the end of Ottoman rule new Serbian kings from the [[Obrenović dynasty]] and [[Karađorđević dynasty]] and the new bourgeois class continued their support of Mount Athos. After the dissolution of SFRY many presidents and prime ministers of Serbia visited Mount Athos. <ref>http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/378441/Blagoslov-Hilandara-za-kraljeve-i-predsednike</ref>

===Ottoman era===
The Byzantine Empire was conquered in the 15th century and the [[Ottoman Empire]] took its place. The Athonite monks tried to maintain good relations with the [[Ottoman Sultan]]s, and therefore when [[Murad II]] conquered [[Thessaloniki]] in 1430 they immediately pledged allegiance to him. In return, Murad recognized the monasteries' properties, something which [[Mehmed II]] formally ratified after the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453. In this way Athonite independence was somewhat guaranteed.

From the account of the Russian pilgrim Isaiah, by the end of the 15th century half of the monasteries were either Slav or Albanian. In particular, [[Docheiariou monastery|Docheiariou]], [[Osiou Gregoriou monastery|Grigoriou]], [[Agiou Pavlou monastery|Ayiou Pavlou]], [[Dionysiou monastery|Ayiou Dionysiou]], and [[Hilandar|Chilandariou]] were Serbian; [[Karakalou monastery|Karakalou]] and [[Philotheou monastery|Philotheou]] were Albanian; [[Agiou Panteleimonos monastery|Panteleïmon]] was Russian; [[Simonopetra monastery|Simonopetra]] was Bulgarian; Pantokratoros and Stavronikita were Greek; and [[Zograf monastery |Zographou]], Kastamonitou, Xeropotamou, Koutloumousiou, Xenophontos, [[Iviron]] and Protaton did not bear any designation.<ref name="Bakalopulos1973">{{cite book |title=History of Macedonia, 1354–1833. |first=A.E. | last=Vacalopoulos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V5z_cQAACAAJ |year=1973 |pages=166–167 |quote=At the end of the 15th century, the Russian pilgrim Isaiah relates that the monks support themselves with various kinds of work including the cultivation of their vineyards....He also tells us that nearly half the monasteries are Slav or Albanian. As Serbian he instances Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, a monastery near Ayiou Pavlou and dedicated to St. John the Theologian (he no doubt means the monastery of Ayiou Dionysiou), and Chilandariou. Panteleïmon is Russian, Simonopetra is Bulgarian, and Karakallou and Philotheou are Albanian. Zographou, Kastamonitou (see fig. 58), Xeropotamou, Koutloumousiou, Xenophontos, Iveron and Protaton he mentions without any designation; while Lavra, Vatopedi (see fig. 59), Pantokratoros, and Stavronikita (which had been recently founded by the patriarch Jeremiah I) he names specifically as being Greek (see map 6).}}</ref>

The 15th and 16th centuries were particularly peaceful for the Athonite community. This led to relative prosperity for the monasteries. An example of this is the foundation of [[Stavronikita monastery]] which completed the current number of Athonite monasteries. Following the conquest of the [[Serbian Despotate]] by the Ottomans many Serbian monks came to Athos. The extensive presence of Serbian monks is depicted in the numerous elections of Serbian monks to the office of the [[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]] during the era.

[[File:Vatopedi 2.jpg|thumb|220px|View of the area around [[Vatopedi monastery]]]]

[[Selim I|Sultan Selim I]] was a substantial benefactor of the [[Xeropotamou monastery]]. In 1517, he issued a [[Fatwā|fatwa]] and a ''[[Hatt-i Sharif]]'' ("noble edict") that "the place, where the Holy Gospel is preached, whenever it is burned or even damaged, shall be erected again." He also endowed privileges to the Abbey and financed the construction of the dining area and underground of the Abbey as well as the renovation of the wall paintings in the central church that were completed between the years 1533–1541.<ref>[http://www.ierissos.gr/en/agiooros_abbey06.htm Municipality of Stagira, Acanthos] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041227053212/http://www.ierissos.gr/en/agiooros_abbey06.htm |date=27 December 2004 }}</ref>

Although most time the monasteries were left on their own, the Ottomans heavily taxed them and sometimes they seized important land parcels from them.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} This eventually culminated in an economic crisis in Athos during the 17th century. This led to the adoption of the so-called "[[idiorrhythmic]]" lifestyle (a [[Hermit#Semi-eremitic variants|semi-eremitic variant]] of [[Christian monasticism]]) by a few monasteries at first and later, during the first half of the 18th century, by all.

This new way of monastic organization was an emergency measure taken by the monastic communities to counter their harsh economic environment. Contrary to the [[cenobitic]] system, monks in idiorrhythmic communities have private property, work for themselves, they are solely responsible for acquiring food and other necessities and they dine separately in their cells, only meeting with other monks at church. At the same time, the monasteries' [[abbot]]s were replaced by committees and at Karyes the Protos was replaced by a four-member committee.<ref name="Skadas2">{{cite book |last=Kadas |first=Sotiris |title=The Holy Mountain |publisher=Ekdotike Athenon |location=Athens |language=Greek |isbn=960-213-199-3 |pages=14–16}}</ref>

In 1749, with the establishment of the [[Athonite Academy]] near Vatopedi monastery, the local [[monasticism|monastic]] community took a leading role in the [[modern Greek Enlightenment]] movement of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Dana |last1=Facaros |first2=Linda |last2=Theodorou|title=Greece|year=2003|page= 578|isbn=978-1-86011-898-2| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UlBjpoeo9-gC&pg=PA578&hl=el&ei=zLAGTY7QIsWL4gbbo7XwBw&sa=X&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22Athonite%20Academy%22%2Benlightenment&f=false |publisher=New Holland Publishers}}</ref> This institution offered high level education, especially under [[Eugenios Voulgaris]], where ancient philosophy and modern physical science were taught.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Lorenzo |last1=Scupoli |last2=Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain |title=Unseen warfare: the Spiritual combat and Path to paradise of Lorenzo Scupoli |language=|year=1978 |page= 41 |ref= |isbn=978-0-913836-52-1| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ed4DF8tmS8C&pg=PA43&dq=%22athonite+academy%22&hl=el&ei=FSj4TOnVDoOVswa0psXZCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22athonite%20academy%22&f=false |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press}}</ref>

[[Russia]]n tsars, and princes from [[Moldavia]], [[Wallachia]] and [[Serbia]] (until the end of the 15th century), helped the monasteries survive with large donations. The population of monks and their wealth declined over the next centuries, but were revitalized during the 19th century, particularly by the patronage of the Russian government. As a result, the monastic population grew steadily throughout the century, reaching a high point of over 7,000 monks in 1902.

In November 1912, during the [[First Balkan War]], the Ottomans were forced out by the [[Greek Navy]].<ref>{{cite news|title= The Famous Abode of Monks in Greek Hands|newspaper= London Standard | location = London | date = November 16, 1912 | page=9| url=https://newspaperarchive.com/uk/middlesex/london/london-standard/1912/11-16/page-9}} {{open access}}</ref> Greece claimed the peninsula as part of the peace [[Treaty of London (1913)|treaty of London]] signed on 30 May 1913. As a result of the shortcomings of the Treaty of London, the [[Second Balkan War]] broke out between the combatants in June 1913. A final peace was agreed at the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1913)|Treaty of Bucharest]] on 10 August 1913.

In June 1913, a small Russian fleet, consisting of the gunboat ''Donets'' and the transport ships ''Tsar'' and ''Kherson'', delivered the archbishop of [[Vologda]], and a number of troops to Mount Athos to intervene in the theological controversy over ''[[imiaslavie]]'' (a Russian Orthodox movement).

The archbishop held talks with the ''imiaslavtsy'' and tried to make them change their beliefs voluntarily, but was unsuccessful. On 31 July 1913, the troops stormed the St. Panteleimon Monastery. Although the monks were not armed and did not actively resist, the troops showed very heavy-handed tactics. After the storming of St. Panteleimon Monastery, the monks from the Andreevsky Skete ([[Skiti Agiou Andrea]]) surrendered voluntarily. The military transport ''Kherson'' was converted into a prison ship and more than a thousand ''imiaslavtsy'' monks were sent to Odessa where they were excommunicated and dispersed throughout Russia.

After a brief diplomatic conflict between Greece and Russia over sovereignty, the peninsula formally came under Greek sovereignty after [[World War I]].

{{wide image|Dafni-Athos-Halkidiki.jpg|650px|align-cap=center|View of [[Dafni (Athos)|Dafni]]}}

===Modern times===
[[File:Mount Athos by cod gabriel 36.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Agiou Panteleimonos monastery]], traditional home of [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] monks, was the main theater of the [[Imiaslavie]] dogmatic controversy during the early 20th century]]

The self-governed region of the Holy Mountain, according to the Decree passed by the Holy Community on 3 October 1913 and according to the international treaties of [[Treaty of London, 1913|London]] (1913), [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1913|Bucharest]] (1913), [[Treaty of Neuilly|Neuilly]] (1919), [[Treaty of Sèvres|Sèvres]] (1920) and [[Treaty of Lausanne|Lausanne]] (1923), is considered part of the Greek state. The Decree, "made in the presence of the [[Axion Estin#Icon and legend|Holy Icon of Axion Estin]]", stated that the Holy Community recognised the Kings of Greece as the lawful sovereigns and "successors on the Mountain" of the [[List of Byzantine emperors|"Emperors who built"]] the monasteries and declared its territory as belonging to the then Kingdom of Greece.

Political instability in Greece during the mid-20th century that affected Mount Athos included [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Nazi occupation]] from the Easter season of 1941 through late 1944, followed immediately by the [[Greek Civil War]] in a struggle where Communist efforts failed. The [[Battle of Greece]] was reported in ''Time'' magazine, "The Stukas swooped across the Aegean skies like dark, dreadful birds, but they dropped no bombs on the monks of Mount Athos".<ref name="TIME Apr'41">{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,765498-1,00.html |title=MOUNT ATHOS: Failing Light |publisher=TIME |date=28 April 1941 |accessdate=2011-09-15}}</ref>

After the Nazi takeover of Greece, the Epistassia, Athos's four-member executive committee, formally asked Hitler to place the Autonomous Monastic State under his personal protection, and Hitler agreed. Mount Athos survived World War II nearly untouched, and for the remainder of the war, the monks of Mount Athos referred to Adolf Hitler as "High Protector of the Holy Mountain" ({{lang-de|Hoher Protektor des heiligen Berges}}).<ref name="HitlerEra">{{cite web |url=http://open.salon.com/blog/lost_in_berlin/2010/10/27/the_hitler_icon_how_mount_athos_honored_the_fhrer |title=The Hitler icon: How Mount Athos honored the Führer&nbsp;– Alan Nothnagle |publisher=Open Salon |date=27 October 2010 |accessdate=2011-09-15 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.fo/20130202055537/open.salon.com/blog/lost_in_berlin/2010/10/27/the_hitler_icon_how_mount_athos_honored_the_fhrer |archivedate=2 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Later a "Special Double Assembly" of the Holy Community in Karyes passed the constitutional charter of the Holy Mountain, which was ratified by the Greek Parliament. This regime originates from the "self-ruled monastic state" as stated on a [[chrysobull]] parchment signed and sealed by the Byzantine Emperor [[John Tzimisces|Ioannis Tzimisces]] in 972.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}} This important document is preserved in the House of the Holy Administration in Karyes. The self-rule of the Holy Mountain was later reaffirmed by the Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] in 1095.

According to the constitution of Greece,<ref name="GreekConstitution">[http://www.hri.org/MFA/syntagma/artcl120.html#A105 Article 105 of the Constitution of Greece]&nbsp;– The regime of Mount Athos.</ref> Mount Athos (the "Monastic State of Agion Oros") is, "following ancient privilege", "a self-governed part of the Greek State, whose sovereignty thereon shall remain intact", and consists of 20 main monasteries which constitute the Holy Community, and the capital town and administrative centre, Karyes, also home to a governor as the representative of the Greek state. The governor is an executive appointee. The status of the Holy Mountain and the jurisdiction of the Agiorite institutions were expressly described and ratified upon admission of Greece to the [[European Union]] (then the [[European Community]]).

On 11 September 2004, the [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]], [[Patriarch Peter VII of Alexandria|Peter VII]], was killed, together with 16 others, when a Greek military Chinook helicopter in which he was travelling crashed in the [[Aegean Sea]] off the peninsula. The Patriarch was heading to Mount Athos. The cause of the crash remains unknown.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goarch.org/news/observer/04-09-SEP.pdf/issuu |title=Patriarch Petros of Alexandria Dies in Helicopter Crash Near Mt. Athos |publisher=Orthodox Observer, vol. 69, no. 1210, September 2014 |date= |accessdate=2014-01-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.pravda.ru/news/world/12-09-2004/59223-0/ |title=Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria died in a weekend helicopter crash |publisher=Pravda article, 2004-09-12 |date= |accessdate=2014-01-07}}</ref>

The monasteries of Mount Athos have a history of opposing [[ecumenism]], or movements towards reconciliation between the [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople]] and the Roman Catholic Church. The [[Esphigmenou]] monastery is particularly outspoken in this respect, having raised black flags to protest against the meeting of [[Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople]] and [[Pope Paul VI]] in 1972. Esphigmenou was subsequently expelled from the representative bodies of the Athonite Community. The conflict escalated in 2002 with [[Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople]] declaring the monks of Esphigmenou an illegal brotherhood and ordering their eviction; the monks refused to be evicted, and the Patriarch ordered a new brotherhood to replace them.

After reaching a low point of just 1,145 mainly elderly monks in 1971, the monasteries have been undergoing a steady and sustained renewal. By the year 2000, the monastic population had reached 1,610, with all 20 monasteries and their associated sketes receiving an infusion of mainly young well-educated monks. In 2009, the population stood at nearly 2,000.<ref name="Draper"/> Many younger monks possess university education and advanced skills that allow them to work on the cataloging and restoration of the Mountain's vast repository of manuscripts, vestments, icons, liturgical objects and other works of art, most of which remain unknown to the public because of their sheer volume. Projected to take several decades to complete, this restorative and archival work is well under way, funded by [[UNESCO]] and the EU, and aided by many academic institutions.

==Administration and organization==
Athos is governed by the "Holy Community" (Ιερά Κοινότητα&nbsp;– Iera Koinotita) which consists of the representatives of the 20 Holy Monasteries, having as executive committee the four-membered "Holy Administration" (Ιερά Επιστασία&nbsp;– Iera Epistasia), with the [[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]] (Πρώτος) being its head.

Civil authorities are represented by the Civil Governor, appointed by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, whose main duty is to supervise the function of the institutions and the public order. The current Civil Governor is [[Aristos Kasmiroglou]].<ref>{{fr}}[http://www.orthodoxie.com/2010/05/montathos-intronisation-du-nouvel-higoum%C3%A8ne-du-monast%C3%A8re-de-chilandar.html www.orthodoxie.com]</ref>

In each of the 20 monasteries&nbsp;– which today all follow again the [[coenobitic]] system&nbsp;– the administration is in the hands of the Abbot (Ηγούμενος&nbsp;– Hēgoumenos) who is elected by the brotherhood for life. He is the lord and spiritual father of the monastery. The Convention of the brotherhood (Γεροντία) is the legislative body. All the other establishments (sketes, cells, huts, retreats, hermitages) are dependencies of some of the 20 monasteries and are assigned to the monks by a document called ''homologon'' (ομόλογον).

All persons leading a monastic life thereon acquire Greek citizenship without further formalities, upon admission as novices or monks. Visits to the peninsula are possible for laymen, but they need a special permit known as a {{transl|el|ISO|''diamonētērion''}} ({{lang|el|διαμονητήριον}}), similar to a visa.

Of the 20 monasteries located on the Holy Mountain, the brethren of 17 are predominantly ethnically Greek. Of the other 3, brethren are drawn from monks of primarily other origins, who become Greek subjects. These are the [[Hilandar|Helandariou Monastery]] (Serbian), the [[Zograf Monastery|Zografou Monastery]] (Bulgarian) and the [[Agiou Panteleimonos monastery|Agiou Panteleimonos Monastery]] (Russian).

Among the sketes, most are predominantly ethnic Greek. However, two are Romanian, the coenobitic "[[Prodromos (Mount Athos)|Skētē Timiou Prodromou]]" (which belongs to the [[Great Lavra (Athos)|Megistis Lavras Monastery]]) and the idiorrythmic "Skētē Agiou Dēmētriou tou Lakkou", also called "[[Lakkoskiti|Lakkoskētē]]" (which belongs to the [[Agiou Pavlou monastery|Agiou Pavlou Monastery]]). Another one is Russian, "[[Skiti Vogoroditsa|Skētē Bogoroditsa]]" (which belongs to the [[Agiou Panteleimonos monastery|Agiou Panteleimonos Monastery]]).

===Visiting procedure===
[[File:Diamonitirion 1978.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A diamonētērion to visit Mount Athos, 1978.]]

Entry to the mountain is usually by ferry boat either from the port of Ouranoupoli (for west coast monasteries) or from Ierrisos for those on the east coast. Before embarking on the boat all visitors must have been issued a {{transl|el|ISO|diamonētērion}} ({{lang|el|διαμονητήριον}}), a form of Byzantine visa that is written in Greek, dated using the Julian calendar, and signed by four of the secretaries of leading monasteries. Clergy of the Orthodox Church are required to obtain permission of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

For laymen there are generally two kinds of diamonētēria: the general diamonētērion that enables the visitor to stay overnight at any one of the monasteries but only to stay in the mountain for several days (more in winter, when there are fewer visitors, than in summer), and the special diamonētērion which allows a visitor to visit only one monastery or [[skete]] but to stay as many days as he has agreed with the monks. Laymen are required to have short hair and any non-cleric arriving on Athos with long hair has his hair cut.

The general diamonētērion is available upon application to the Pilgrims' Bureau in Thessaloniki. Once this has been granted it will be issued at the port of departure, on the day of departure. Once granted, the pilgrim can contact the monastery where he would like to stay in order to reserve a bed (one night only per monastery). The ferries require reservations, both ways.

The duration of the general visa can be extended by several days by personally applying at the main office in Karyes or, as is done typically for someone seeking to become a monk, by a request from a monastery.

Most visitors arrive at the small port of [[Dafni (Athos)|Dafni]] from where they can take the only paved road in the mountain to the capital Karyes or continue via another smaller boat to other monasteries down the coast. There is a public bus between Dafni and Karyes. Expensive taxis operated by monks are available for hire at Dafni and Karyes. They are all-wheel drive vehicles since most roads in the mountain are unpaved. Visitors to monasteries on the mountain's western side prefer to stay on the ferry and disembark at the monastery they wish to visit.

===Prohibition on entry for women===
[[File:Athos grenze frangokastro 01.jpg|thumb|300px|Sign at entrance to Mount Athos]]

There is a prohibition on entry for women, called ''avaton'' (Άβατον) in Greek, to make living in celibacy easier for men who have chosen to do so.<ref name="ifpa">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMUDjICyD5U ''Mount Athos''], an IFPA (Independent Film Production Associates Limited)&nbsp;– Cinevideo co-production in association with Channel 4 Television, London. 1985.</ref> Monks feel that the presence of women alters the social dynamics of the community and therefore slows their path towards spiritual enlightenment. The ban was officially proclaimed by several emperors, including [[Constantine Monomachos]], in a [[chrysobull]] of 1046.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://holy-mount-athos.org/en/speeches/110-human-rights-aspects-of-current-problems-of-mount-athos |first=Walter |last=Schwimmer |title=Human Rights Aspects of Current Problems of Mount Athos |publisher=Report to international conference: "The Holy Mount Athos&nbsp;– the unique spiritual and cultural heritage of modern world" (Weimar, Germany) 23–26 June 2012 |accessdate=7 September 2014}}</ref>

In the 14th century, Serbian Emperor [[Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia|Dušan the Mighty]] brought his wife, [[Helena of Bulgaria]], to Mount Athos to protect her from the plague, but she did not touch the ground during her entire visit, as she was carried in a [[Carriage|hand carriage]] all the time.<ref>{{cite web|author=(C) 2006, ABC Design &amp; Communication |url=http://www.vagabond-bg.com/?page=live&sub=21&open_news=842 |title=VAGABOND&nbsp;– the first and only monthly magazine in English |publisher=Vagabond-bg.com |date=12 November 1935 |accessdate=2009-05-05}}</ref>

French writer [[Maryse Choisy]] entered Mount Athos in the 1920s disguised as a sailor, and later wrote about her escapade in ''Un mois chez les hommes'' ("A Month With Men").<ref>{{cite book|author=Sack, John |authorlink=John Sack |year=1959 |title=[[Report from Practically Nowhere]] |pages=148–149 |publisher=Curtis Publishing Company |location=New York }}</ref>

There was an incident in the 1930s regarding [[Aliki Diplarakou]], the first [[Greeks|Greek]] beauty pageant contestant to win the [[Miss Europe]] title, who shocked the world when she dressed up as a man and sneaked into Mount Athos. Her escapade was discussed in the 13 July 1953, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine article entitled "The Climax of Sin".<ref name="Time1953">[http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,806694,00.html The Climax of Sin], ''Time Magazine'', 1953</ref>

In 1953, Cora Miller, an American [[Fulbright Program]] teacher from [[Athens, Ohio]], landed briefly along with two other women, stirring up a controversy among the local monks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Women Invade Athos Despite 1,000-Year Ban |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20616F93D5A117A93C4AB178FD85F478585F9 |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=26 April 1953 |accessdate=15 July 2011}}</ref>

A 2003 resolution of the [[European Parliament]] requested the lifting of the ban for violating "the universally recognised principle of gender equality".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P5-TA-2003-0012+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN|title=European Parliament resolution on the situation concerning basic rights in the European Union |date=15 January 2003|publisher=European Parliament |accessdate=2008-09-06 |pages=Equality between men and women §98 }}</ref>

On 26 May 2008, five [[Moldovan people|Moldovans]] illegally entered Greece by way of Turkey, ending up on Athos; four of the migrants were women. The monks forgave them for trespassing and informed them that the area was forbidden to females.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7421157.stm Women breach all-male Greek site]</ref>

Female animals, [[chicken]]s, [[cow]]s, [[Sheep|ewes]], [[Goat|nanny-goats]], [[mare]]s, and [[Pig|sows]] are also barred except for female [[cat]]s, female [[insect]]s and female [[songbird]]s.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-36378690 Why are women banned from Mount Athos?] [[BBC]]</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2012/sep/18/mount-athos-male-greek-state One small step for womankind in an all-male Greek state] [[The Guardian]]</ref>

===Status in the European Union===
As part of an EU member state, Mount Athos is part of the European Union and, for the most part, subject to EU law. While outside the EU's Value Added Tax area, Mount Athos is part of the Schengen Area.<ref>The Greek [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:42000A0922(06):EN:''not'' accession treaty] does not specifically exclude Mount Athos from the Convention's territorial scope.</ref> A declaration attached to Greece's accession treaty to the [[Schengen Agreement]] states that Mount Athos's "special status" should be taken into account in the application of the Schengen rules.<ref>Joint Declaration No. 5 attached to the Final Act of the [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:42000A0922(06):EN:''not'' accession treaty].</ref> The monks strongly objected to Greece joining the Schengen Area based on fears that the EU would be able to end the centuries-old prohibition on the admittance of women.<ref name=BBC1998>{{cite news|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/113765.stm|title=Monks see Schengen as Satan's work|date=16 June 1998}}</ref> The prohibition is unchanged and a special permit is required to enter the peninsula. The monks are also worried that the agreement could affect their traditional right to offer sanctuary to people from Orthodox countries such as Russia.<ref name=BBC1998/> Such monks do nowadays need a Greek visa and permission to stay, even if that is given generously by the Greek ministry, based on requests from Athos.<ref>[http://cvsrf.ru/vizy/foreign_vizas/id_70_lang_en_print_yes.html Greece] (Center for International Economic Cooperation)</ref>

==Culture and life in the Agion Oros==

===Art and literary treasures===
[[File:Jesus in Golgotha by Theophanes the Cretan.jpg|thumb|200px|''Jesus in Golgotha'' by [[Theophanes the Cretan]], [[Stavronikita monastery]].]]
[[File:Vatopedion.jpg|thumb|200px|A decorated wall of the Catholicon, [[Vatopedi monastery]].]]
[[File:Saint Mercurius and Artemius of Antioch.JPG|thumb|200px|A fresco with Saint Mercurius and Artemius of Antioch.]]
[[File:Pantokrator 13cent.jpg|thumb|200px|An icon of Jesus, [[Hilandar|Hilandar monastery]].]]

The Athonite monasteries possess huge deposits of invaluable [[Middle Ages|medieval]] art treasures, including [[icon]]s, liturgical [[vestment]]s and objects (crosses, [[Chalice (cup)|chalice]]s), [[codex|codices]] and other Christian texts, imperial [[chrysobull]]s, holy [[relic]]s etc. However the monks consider them for their religious function only, not as "treasures" and most are in regular use for their original purpose. Until recently no organized study and archiving had been carried out, but an EU-funded effort to catalogue, protect and restore them is underway since the late 1980s. Their sheer number is such, it is estimated that several decades will pass before the work is completed.

Among the most ancient and priceless codices at Mount Athos are the [[Codex Athous Lavrensis]] and the [[Codex Athous Dionysiou]].

===Languages===
[[Greek language|Greek]] is commonly used in all the Greek monasteries, but in some monasteries there are other languages in use: in [[St. Pantaleon Monastery|Agiou Panteleimonos]], [[Russian language|Russian]] (67 monks in 2011); in [[Hilandar|Helandariou Monastery]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (58); in [[Zographou Monastery]] and [[Skiti Bogoroditsa]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (32); and in the sketes of [[Prodromos (Mount Athos)|Timiou Prodromou]] and [[Lakkoskiti]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] (64). Today, many of the Greek monks also speak foreign languages. Since there are monks from many nations in Athos, they naturally also speak their own native languages.

===Date and time reckoning===
The [[Julian calendar]], which currently has a difference of 13 days from the [[Gregorian calendar]], is still used on Mount Athos. In 1923, as a means to eliminate the divergence existing between the religious and civil dates, after a [[synod]] in [[Constantinople]], part of the Eastern Orthodox Churches dropped 13 days and adopted the [[Revised Julian calendar]], which is synchronised with the Gregorian calendar, at least until 2800.<ref group=note>However, the [[Easter date]], based on the lunar cycle, is still calculated following the original Julian calendar, making the Eastern Orthodox world celebrate Easter on the same day.</ref> Although under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]], the spiritual head of the monastic state, nearly all the monasteries of Athos refused to follow the revised calendar and finally, for the sake of uniformity, the patriarch asked the single monastery that used the revised calendar to revert to the Julian.

Also in use is [[Byzantine time]], in which the day commences at sunset as does the liturgical day<ref group=note>In accordance with Old Testament practice, the day is considered to begin in the evening (Genesis 1:5).</ref> and not at midnight as in the reckoning of civil time, and the difference between the two varies according to the season of the year. Because the time interval from sundown to sundown is not constant, clocks showing the Byzantine time require continual manual readjusting which in current practice is done weekly, on Saturday, if the sky is clear; where the summit of Athos is visible, 12:00 is set when the last rays of sunlight cease to shine on the tip. Some monasteries also have a clock showing civil time since boat schedules run thereon (and on the civil calendar) as well as for pilgrims who may be disoriented by Byzantine time reckoning.

===Monastic life: monasteries, sketae, and cells===
As described above, today the 20 monasteries of Mount Athos are the dominant holy institutions for both spiritual and administrative purposes, consolidated by the Constitutional Chart of the Holy Mountain. Although, since the beginning of Mount Athos' history, monks were living in lodgings of different size and construction quality. All these monastic lodging types exist until today, named as seats (καθίσματα), cells (κελλιά), huts (καλύβες), retreats (ησυχαστήρια), hermitages (ερημιτήρια), caves (σπήλαια), sketai (σκήτες) and all of them are known under the general term "dependencies" (εξαρτήματα) of the Holy Monasteries. The term "cells" can be used under a more generalised meaning, comprising all the above but sketae, and following this term we can talk about three different kind of institutions in Mount Athos: monasteries, sketae and cells.

====Monasteries====
Some information is already given above, in the section "Administration and organization". A pilgrim/visitor to a monastery, who is accommodated in the guest-house (αρχονταρίκι) can have a taste of the monastic life in it by following its daily schedule: praying (services in church or in private), common dining, working (according to the duties of each monk) and rest. During religious celebrations usually long vigils are held and the entire daily program is radically reshaped. The gate of the monastery closes by sunset and opens again by sunrise.

====Cells====
A cell is a house with a small church, where 1–3 monks live under the spiritual and administrative supervision of a monastery. Monastic life in the cells is totally different from that in a monastery. Some of the cells resemble tidy farmhouses, others are poor huts, others have the gentility of [[Byzantine]] tradition or of Russian architecture of the past century. Usually, each cell possesses a piece of land for agricultural or other use. Each cell has to organize some activities for income.

Besides the traditional occupations (agriculture, fishing, woodcarving, spirit distillation, iconography, tailoring, book binding etc.) new occupations have been taken up, for example taxi driving, couriers, car repairing and computer services.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} The monk(s) living in a cell, having to take care of all daily chores, make up their own schedules. For the pilgrim/visitor it is worth experiencing this side of monastic life as well, but most of the cells have very limited or no capacity for hospitality.

====Sketes====
{{See also|Skete}}
[[File:Mount Athos- Nea Skiti.jpg|240px|right|thumb|A view of ''Nea Skiti''.]]

Small communities of neighbouring cells were developed since the beginning of monastic life on Mount Athos and some of them were using the word "skete" (σκήτη) meaning "monastic settlement" or "lavra" (λαύρα) meaning "monastic congregation". The word "skete" is of Coptic origin and in its original form is a placename of a location in the Egyptian desert.<ref>Variant names: Skiathis&nbsp;– Sketis&nbsp;– Skithis&nbsp;– Skitis&nbsp;– Skete&nbsp;– Oros Nitrias (Nitria)&nbsp;– Wadi el-Natrun&nbsp;– sites including Deir el-Surian (Deir el-Syriani), the monastery of Maria Deipara, Kellia, the monastery Deir Abu Maqar, Qaret el-Dahr, Quçur el-Rubaiyat according to the on-line dictionary "Trismegistos" <http://www.trismegistos.org/geo/detail.php?tm=3375></ref> It is in the Egyptian desert where monasticism made its first steps.

The unknown author of the "History of the Egyptian Monks" (Historia Monachorum in Aegypto), perhaps [[Rufinus (consul)|Flavius Rufinus]] visited the area at the end of the fourth century. He tells us: "Then we came to [[Nitria (monastic site)|Nitria]], the best-known of all monasteries of Egypt, about forty miles [60&nbsp;km] from Alexandria; it takes its name from a nearby town where Nitre is collected... In this place there are about fifty dwellings, or not many less, set near together and under one father. In some of them, there are many living together, in others a few and in some there are brothers who live alone. Though they are divided by their dwellings they remain bound together and inseparable in faith and love". This is exactly the main idea of a "skete", the communal way, just between the eremitic way and the coenobitic way of monasticism, with all 3 coexisting until today.

In 1680 the ex-patriarch [[Dionysios III Vardalis]] built in the Saint Anne skete of the Holy Mountain a big central church to accommodate all the monks of the area and in 1689 an internal regulatory text was constituted by the monks and ratified first by the Monastery of Megisti Lavra and finally by the patriarch [[Dionysios V Haritonidis]]; and later again by patriarch [[Kyrilos V]], who contributed in its evolution. Since then, more sketes followed on the same way, and gradually the term "skete" (within the Holy Mountain) came to be used only for the monastic settlements having an internal rule ratified by the Patriarchate.

Later on, some cells came to attract many monks, expanded their buildings and started functioning in the coenobitic way of the monasteries. Since the number of the Monasteries in Mount Athos was restricted to 20, a new term was introduced: the ''coenobitic skete'' (κοινόβιος σκήτη), while a skete of the traditional form was named ''idiorhythmic skete'' (ιδιόρρυθμος σκήτη) in order to underline the difference.

The first ones, both in architecture and lifestyle, follow the typical model of a monastery, that of a community living together, sharing and distributing work, and praying together daily. In contrast, the idiorrhythmic community (intermediary between the coenobitic community and the seclusion of a [[hermit]]) resembles a hamlet, and the daily life there is much like that of a cell. But there are also some duties for the community. Near the centre of the settlement is the central church called ''Kyriakon'' (Κυριακόν, that could be translated "for Sunday"), where the whole brotherhood meets for the [[Divine Liturgy]] service, on Sundays and on greater feasts. Usually there are also an administration house, a refectory for common celebrations, a cemetery, a library, storehouses and a guesthouse.

===List of religious institutions===

====Twenty monasteries====
The sovereign monasteries, in the order of their place in the Athonite hierarchy:
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
![[Great Lavra (Athos)|Great Lavra monastery]]
![[Vatopedi monastery]]
![[Iviron monastery]]
![[Hilandar|Helandariou monastery]]
![[Dionysiou monastery]]
|-
|Μεγίστη Λαύρα
|Βατοπέδι
|Ιβήρων<br />ივერთა მონასტერი
|Χιλανδαρίου<br />Хиландар
|Διονυσίου
|-
|[[File:Megistis Lavras 3.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Vatopedi 3.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Iviron monastery.JPG|170px]]
|[[File:Hilan2.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:07Athos St Dionysius01.jpg|170px]]
|-
![[Koutloumousiou monastery]]
![[Pantokratoros monastery]]
![[Xeropotamou monastery]]
![[Zograf Monastery|Zografou monastery]]
![[Docheiariou monastery]]
|-
|Κουτλουμούσι
|Παντοκράτορος
|Ξηροποτάμου
|Ζωγράφου<br />Зограф
|Δοχειαρίου
|-
|[[File:Koutloumousiou 2.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Pantokratoros 1.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Xeropotamou 6.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Zograf Monastery.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Athos 1.jpg|170px]]
|-
![[Karakalou monastery]]
![[Filotheou monastery]]
![[Simonopetra monastery|Simonos Petras monastery]]
![[Agiou Pavlou monastery]]
![[Stavronikita monastery]]
|-
|Καρακάλλου
|Φιλοθέου
|Σίμωνος Πέτρα
|Αγίου Παύλου
|Σταυρονικήτα
|-
|[[File:Karakallou.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Mount Athos- Monastery Filotheou and sea.tif|170px]]
|[[File:Simonopetra Aug2006.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Athos Agiou-Pavlou 1998 1.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Stavronikita Aug2006.jpg|170px]]
|-
![[Xenophontos monastery]]
![[Osiou Grigoriou monastery]]
![[Esphigmenou monastery]]
![[Agiou Panteleimonos monastery]]
![[Konstamonitou monastery]]
|-
|Ξενοφώντος
|Οσίου Γρηγορίου
|Εσφιγμένου
|Αγίου Παντελεήμονος<br />Пантелеймонов
|Κωνσταμονίτου
|-
|[[File:Athos-xenophontos.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Athos-hagiou-gregoriou.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Katholikon in the Esphigmenou monastery.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Athos 7.jpg|170px]]
|[[File:Konstamonitou monastery.jpg|170px]]
|}
</center>

====Twelve sketes====
A [[skete]] is a community of Christian hermits following a monastic rule, allowing them to worship in comparative solitude, while also affording them a level of mutual practical support and security. There are two kinds of sketes in Mount Athos. A koenobitic skete follows the style of monasteries. An idiorrhythmic skete follows the style of a small village: it has a common area of worship (a church), with individual hermitages or small houses around it, each one for a small number of occupants. There are twelve official sketes on Mount Athos.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Skiti / Σκήτη
! Type
! Monastery
! Alternative names / notes
|-
| [[Skiti Agias Annas|Agias Annas]]
Αγίας Άννας
| Idiorrhythmic
| Megistis Lavras
| (=Saint Anne)
Agiánna
|-
| Agias Triados or [[Skiti Kafsokalyvíon|Kafsokalyvíon]]
Αγίας Τριάδος ή Καυσοκαλυβίων
| Idiorrhythmic
| Megistis Lavras
| (=Holy Trinity)
Kafsokalývia (="burned huts")
|-
| [[Prodromos (Mount Athos)|Timiou Prodromou]]
Τιμίου Προδρόμου
| Coenobitic
| Megistis Lavras
| (=Holy Fore-runner, i.e. St John the Baptist)
''Prodromu, Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul''&nbsp;– Romanian
|-
| [[Skiti Agiou Andrea|Agiou Andrea]]
Αγίου Ανδρέα
| Coenobitic
| Vatopediou
| (=Saint Andrew)
Also known as Saray (Σαράι)
|-
| [[Skiti Agiou Dimitriou|Agiou Dimitriou]]
Αγίου Δημητρίου
| Idiorrhythmic
| Vatopediou
| (=Saint Demetre)
Vatopediní
|-
| [[Skiti Timiou Prodromou Iviron|Timiou Prodromou Iviron]]
Τιμίου Προδρόμου Ιβήρων
| Idiorrhythmic
| Iviron
| (=Holy Forerunner, i.e. St John the Baptist)
Ivirítiki
|-
| [[Skiti Agiou Panteleimonos|Agiou Panteleimonos]]
Αγίου Παντελεήμονος
| Idiorrhythmic
| Koutloumousiou
| (=Saint Panteleimon/Pantaleon)
Koutloumousianí
|-
| [[Skiti Profiti Ilia|Profiti Ilia]]
Προφήτη Ηλία
| Coenobitic
| Pantokratoros
| (=Prophet Elijah)
|-
| Theotokou or [[New Skete (Mount Athos)|Nea Skiti]]
Θεοτόκου ή Νέα Σκήτη
| Idiorrhythmic
| Agiou Pavlou
| (=Of God-Bearer or New Skete)
|-
| Agiou Dimitriou tou Lakkou or [[Lakkoskiti]]
Αγίου Δημητρίου του Λάκκου ή Λακκοσκήτη
| Idiorrhythmic
| Agiou Pavlou
| (=Saint Demetre of the Ravine or Ravine-Skete)
Lacu, Sfântul Dumitru&nbsp;– Romanian
|-
| [[Skiti Evangelismou tis Theotokou|Evangelismou tis Theotokou]]
Ευαγγελισμού της Θεοτόκου
| Idiorrhythmic
| Xenophontos
| (=Annunciation of Theotokos)
Xenofontiní
|-
| [[Skiti Bogoroditsa|Bogoroditsa]]
Βογορόδιτσα
| Coenobitic
| Agiou Panteleimonos
| (=Theotokos, God-Bearer)
Богородица&nbsp;– Bulgarian
|}

====Main settlements====
*[[Karyes (Athos)|Karyes]]
*[[Dafni (Athos)|Dafni]]

==Friends organisation==
The Friends of Mount Athos (FoMA) is a society formed in 1990 by people who shared a common interest for the monasteries of Mount Athos. [[Timothy Ware]], [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] Kallistos of Diokleia, is the President and Chairman of the society. Among its members are [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]] and [[Charles, Prince of Wales]], [[Heir Apparent]] to the [[British monarchy|British throne]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3707317.stm BBC, Prince visits 'monastic republic']</ref>

The object of the society, as stated on its official web page, is officially described as: "the advancement of education of the public in the study and knowledge of the history, culture, arts, architecture, natural history, and literature of the Orthodox monasteries of Mount Athos and the promotion of the religious and other charitable work of the Holy Community and monasteries of Mount Athos." In keeping with those objects, the society is empowered "to make grants, donations and other payments for the restoration or conservation of buildings or of works of art and books of educational or religious significance on Mount Athos within the above objects." To that end the society produces publications, arranges lectures, and organizes conferences and exhibitions devoted to Athonite themes.

Among the society's publications are its annual bulletin (''Friends of Mount Athos Annual Report'') offering articles, book reviews and other features related to Mount Athos. It also publishes ''A Pilgrim's Guide to Mount Athos'' as well as a yearly directory of members.

==Image gallery==
{{Cleanup gallery|date=September 2016}}
<gallery class="center">
File:Mount Athos111.jpg|Aerial photo from the north
File:Mount Athos (7698222302).jpg|Mount Athos seen from the sea
File:Mount Athos.jpg|View of Athos from Sartri
File:Karyes.jpg|Walking on the street of Karyes; Mount Athos is notable for its lack of motorized traffic
File:IMG 1552-20070425-great-lavra-a.JPG|[[Cypress]] of [[Athanasius the Athonite]], Megistis Lavras Monastery
File:Prodromos-2.jpg|The church of the Romanian skete "Prodromos"
File:Prodromos-9.jpg|Relics in the Romanian skete "Prodromos". Written on the skull: "What I am, you will be too. What you are, I've already been."
File:Saint Demetrius of Protat.JPG|A fresco of [[Saint Demetrius]]
File:Megistis Lavras.jpg|Courtyard of Megistis Lavras Monastery and the Phiale
File:Stavronikita 2.jpg|Interior and Roman aqueduct of Stavronikita Monastery
File:Vatopedi 4.jpg|Phiale of Vatopedi
File:Iviron.jpg|Refectory of Iviron Monastery
File:Philotheou.jpg|Courtyard of Philotheou Monastery
File:IMG 1281-20070424-koutloumousiou-monastery-a.JPG|Courtyard detail of Koutloumousiou monastery
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Byzantine Empire]]
* [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[History of the Byzantine Empire]]
* [[List of historic Greek countries and regions]]
* [[New Athos]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Mount Athos]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="lower-alpha"}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
*''The 6,000 Beards of Mount Athos'' {{ISBN|0-85955-251-9}} by [[Ralph H. Brewster]]. A guide to the peninsula, first published in 1935, detailing the landscape, monasteries, skites, and the life of the inhabitants, including customs and more not usually discussed.
*''Mount Athos'' {{ISBN|960-213-075-X}} by Sotiris Kadas. An illustrated guide to the monasteries and their history (Athens 1998). With many illustrations of the Byzantine art treasures on Mount Athos.
*''Athos The Holy Mountain'' by Sydney Loch. Published 1957 & 1971 (Librairie Molho, Thessaloniki). Loch spent most of his life in the Byzantine tower at Ouranopolis, close to Athos, and describes his numerous visits to the Holy Mountain. A fascinating travelogue. The famous Molho Bookstore in Thessaloniki may have a few copies left.
*''Dare to be Free'' {{ISBN|0-330-10629-5}} by Walter Babington Thomas. Offers insights into the lives of the monks of Mt Athos during World War II, from the point of view of an escaped POW who spent a year on the peninsula evading capture.
*''Blue Guide: Greece'' {{ISBN|0-393-30372-1}}, pp.&nbsp;600–03. Offers history and tourist information.
*''Mount Athos: Renewal in Paradise'' {{ISBN|0-300-10323-9}}, by Graham Speake. Published by Yale University Press in 2002. An extensive book about Athos in the past, the present and the future. Includes valuable tourist information. Features numerous full-colour photographs of the peninsula and daily life in the monasteries. 2nd edition published by Denise Harvey in 2014
*''From The Holy Mountain'' by William Dalrymple. {{ISBN|0-8050-6177-0}} Published 1997. A fascinating journey that begins from and constantly refers back to Mount Athos.
*''Mount Athos: Renewal in Paradise'' by Graham Speake (Denise Harvey: Limni 2014), First Published by Yale University. {{ISBN|978-960-7120-34-2}}.
In this second edition of his acclaimed study of Mount Athos (for which he was awarded the 2002 Criticos Prize) the author takes the opportunity to revise and update his text and also to add a completely new chapter documenting the changes that have occurred in the twelve years since its first publication.
* Ivanov, Emil: ''Das Bildprogramm des Narthex im Rila-Kloster in Bulgarien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wasserweihezyklen auf dem Athos'', Diss., Erlangen, 2002.
* Ivanov, Emil: Apokallypsedarstellungen in der nachbyzantinischen Kunst, in: Das Münster, 3, 2002, 208–217.
*{{cite magazine|title=Mount Athos|magazine=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|pp=738–766|volume=164|issue=6|date=December 1983|issn=0027-9358|oclc=643483454}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mount Athos}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [http://www.inathos.gr A website about Athos]
* [http://www.elpenor.org/athos/ Treasures of Mount Athos]
* [http://www.athosfriends.org/ Friends of Mount Athos (FoMA) website]
* [http://athos.bg360.net/ 360° virtual panoramas from Athos]
* [http://www.visitmountathos.eu Information and services for visitors]
* [http://www.en.iconskarakallou.gr/mt-athos-documentary/ Mt Athos: A visit to the Holy Mountain]&nbsp;– TV documentary
* [http://www.hilandar.info Hilandar Monastery] (in Serbian) language
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lO-G-NlLJNU Mt Athos, HD video]

{{Monasteries of Mount Athos}}
{{Dioceses of Greece}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}
{{Greek Macedonia}}
{{Greek Macedonia}}
{{Byzantine Greece}}
{{Byzantine Greece}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 12:12, 15 December 2024

Mount Athos
Highest point
Elevation2,033[1] m (6,670 ft)
Prominence2,012 m (6,601 ft)
ListingUltra
Coordinates40°09′30″N 24°19′38″E / 40.15833°N 24.32722°E / 40.15833; 24.32722
Geography
Mount Athos is located in Greece
Mount Athos
Mount Athos
Location of Mount Athos in Greece.
LocationEurope
CountryGreece
RegionAgio Oros
TypeMixed
Criteriai, ii, iv, v, vi, vii
Designated1988 (12th session)
Reference no.454
RegionEurope

Mount Athos (/ˈæθɒs/; Greek: Ἄθως [ˈa.θos]) is a mountain on the Athos peninsula in northeastern Greece directly on the Aegean Sea. It is an important center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism. The mountain and most of the Athos peninsula are governed as an autonomous region in Greece by the monastic community of Mount Athos, which is ecclesiastically under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The remainder of the peninsula forms part of the Aristotelis municipality. Women are prohibited from entering the area governed by the monastic community by Greek law and by religious tradition.[2]

Mount Athos has been inhabited since ancient times and is known for its long Christian presence and historical monastic traditions, which date back to at least 800 AD during the Byzantine era. Because of its long history of religious importance, the well-preserved agrarian architecture within the monasteries, and the preservation of the flora and fauna around the mountain, the monastic community of Mount Athos was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988.[3]

Names

[edit]

In the classical era, Mount Athos was called Athos and the peninsula Acté or Akté (Koinē Greek: Ἀκτή). In modern Greek, the mountain is Oros Athos (Greek: Όρος Άθως) and the peninsula Hersonisos tou Atho (Greek: Χερσόνησος του Άθω), while the designation Agio Oros (Greek: Άγιο Όρος) translating to 'Holy Mountain' is used to denote the monastic community.[4]

Some languages of Orthodox tradition use names that translate to 'Holy Mountain', including Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian (Света Гора, Sveta Gora), and Georgian (მთაწმინდა, mtats’minda). However, not all languages spoken in the Eastern Orthodox world use this name: in the East Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian) it is simply called Афон (Afon, meaning "Athos"), while in Romanian it is called "Mount Athos" (Muntele Athos or Muntele Atos).[citation needed]

Geography

[edit]
Mount Athos seen from the northwest

The peninsula, the easternmost "leg" of the larger Chalkidiki peninsula in central Macedonia, protrudes 50 km (31 mi)[5] into the Aegean Sea at a width of between 7 and 12 km (4.3 and 7.5 mi) and covers an area of 335.6 km2 (130 sq mi). The actual Mount Athos has steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to 2,033 m (6,670 ft). The Athos peninsula, unlike Sithonia and Kassandra, is a geological continuation of the Rhodope Mountains of northern Greece and Bulgaria.[6]

The surrounding seas, especially at the end of the peninsula, can be dangerous. In ancient Greek history, two fleet disasters in the area are recorded: Herodotus claimed that in 492 BC, Darius, the king of Persia, lost 300 ships under general Mardonius.[7] In 411 BC the Spartans lost a fleet of 50 ships under the admiral Epicleas.[8]

Mount Athos has an extensive network of footpaths, many of which date back to the Byzantine period. Many are typically not accessible to motor vehicle traffic.[9]

Flora

[edit]

Much of Mount Athos is covered with mixed broadleaf deciduous and evergreen forests. Black pine (Pinus nigra) forests are found at higher elevations. Sclerophyllous scrub vegetation is also found throughout Mount Athos. Typical forest trees are sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), holm oak (Quercus ilex), kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto), oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), black pine (Pinus nigra), and cedar (Calocedrus decurrens). Other common plant species include the strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo and Arbutus andrachne), cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), laurel (Laurus nobilis), lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus), phillyrea (Phillyrea latifolia), wild olive (Olea europea), and heather (Erica spp.).[10] Deciduous trees that are primarily found alongside streams include white willow, laurel, Oriental plane, and alder trees.[11]

Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) is more commonly found in the northern part of the peninsula. Broadleaf maquis is found further south. Deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by sweet chestnut lies above the broadleaf maquis zone. There are also mixed forests consisting of deciduous oak trees, as well as limes, aspen, hop hornbeam, and maple. Black pine and stinking juniper can be found at higher elevations. Some herbaceous plants with tubers and bulbs include crocus, anemone, cyclamen, and fritillary species.[12]

At least 35 plant species are endemic to Mount Athos, most of which are found in the area of the main summit in the south.[13] Isatis tinctoria ssp. athoa, a woad subspecies, and Viola athois are named after Mount Athos.[12]

Mount Athos is also home to 350 species of mushrooms.[14][15][16][17][18]

Fauna

[edit]

Mammals include the grey wolf (Canis lupus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), jackal (Canis aureus), European badger (Meles meles), beech marten (Martes foina), stoat (Mustela erminea), weasel (Mustela nivalis vulgaris), European hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor), shrews (Crocidura spp.), and Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus).[10] Other mammal species include roe deer, hares, and red squirrels.[19]

Birds include the black stork (Ciconia nigra), short-toed snake-eagle (Circaetus gallicus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), eagle owl (Bubo bubo), yelkouan shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan), and Audouin's gull (Larus audouinii).[20][21] Other bird species include swifts, swallows, martins, nightingales, and hoopoes.[19]

History

[edit]
A 3D model of Athos

Antiquity

[edit]
Imaginary view of the Alexander monument, proposed by Dinocrates; engraving by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1725

In Greek mythology, Athos is the name of one of the Gigantes that challenged the Greek gods during the Gigantomachia. Athos threw a massive rock at Poseidon which fell in the Aegean Sea and became Mount Athos.[22] According to another version of the story, Poseidon used the mountain to bury the defeated giant.[citation needed]

Homer mentions the mountain Athos in the Iliad.[23] Herodotus writes that during the Persian invasion of Thrace in 492 BC, the fleet of the Persian commander Mardonius was wrecked with losses of 300 ships and 20,000 men, by a strong North wind while attempting to round the coast near Mount Athos.[24] Herodotus also states that Pelasgians from the island of Lemnos populated the peninsula, then called Akte, and names five cities thereon, Sane, Kleonai (Cleonae), Thyssos (Thyssus), Olophyxos (Olophyxus), and Akrothoon (Acrothoum).[25] Strabo also mentions the cities of Dion (Dium) and Akrothoon.[26] Eretria also established colonies on Akte. At least one other city was established in the Classical period: Akanthos (Acanthus). Some of these cities minted their own coins.[citation needed]

The peninsula was on the invasion route of Xerxes I, who spent three years[27] excavating the Xerxes Canal across the isthmus to allow the passage of his invasion fleet in 483 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, the architect Dinocrates (Deinokrates) proposed carving the entire mountain into a statue of Alexander.

Pliny the Elder stated in 77 AD that the inhabitants of Mount Athos could "live to their four hundredth year" due to the fact that they eat the skin of vipers.[28]

The lack of historical accounts shrouds the history of the peninsula during the later ages. Archaeologists have not been able to determine the exact location of the cities reported by Strabo. It is believed that they must have been deserted when Athos's new inhabitants, the monks, started arriving sometime before the ninth century AD.[29]

Early Christianity

[edit]
The peninsula as seen from the summit of Mount Athos

According to the Athonite tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was sailing accompanied by St John the Evangelist from Joppa to Cyprus to visit Lazarus. When the ship was blown off course to then-pagan Athos, it was forced to anchor near the port of Klement, close to the present monastery of Iviron. The Virgin walked ashore and, overwhelmed by the mountain's wonderful and wild natural beauty, she blessed it and asked her Son for it to be her garden. A voice was heard saying, "Ἔστω ὁ τόπος οὗτος κλῆρος σὸς καὶ περιβόλαιον σὸν καὶ παράδεισος, ἔτι δὲ καὶ λιμὴν σωτήριος τῶν θελόντων σωθῆναι" (Translation: "Let this place be your inheritance and your garden, a paradise and a haven of salvation for those seeking to be saved"). From that moment the mountain was consecrated as the garden of the Mother of God and was out of bounds to all other women.[note 1]

Historical documents on ancient Mount Athos history are very few. Monks have certainly been there since the fourth century, and possibly since the third. During Constantine I's reign (324–337) both Christians and followers of traditional Greek religion were living there. During the reign of Julian (361–363), the churches of Mount Athos were destroyed, and Christians hid in the woods and inaccessible places.[30]

Later, during Theodosius I's reign (379–395), the temples of the traditional Greek religion were destroyed. The lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria states that in the fifth century, there was still a temple and a statue of "Zeus Athonite". After the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the seventh century, many Orthodox monks from the Egyptian desert tried to find another calm place; some of them came to the Athos peninsula. An ancient document states that monks "built huts of wood with roofs of straw ... and by collecting fruit from the wild trees were providing themselves improvised meals."[31]

Byzantine era and onwards

[edit]
Icon in the Monastery of Great Lavra, Mount Athos, 15th century.png
Refectory in a Greek Monastery, Mount Athos by Theodore Jacques Ralli, 1885

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ St Gregory Palamas included this tradition in his book Life of Petros the Athonite, p. 150, 1005 AD.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Mount Athos Home". Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
  2. ^ Why, Who, What (27 May 2016). "Why are women banned from Mount Athos?". BBC. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  19. ^ a b Speake, Graham (2014). Mount Athos: renewal in paradise (2nd ed.). Limni, Evia, Greece. p. 37. ISBN 978-960-7120-34-2. OCLC 903320491.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  24. ^ Herodotus, Histories 6,44.
  25. ^ Herodotus, Histories 7,22.
  26. ^ Strabo, Geography 7,33,1.
  27. ^ Warry, J. (1998), Warfare in the Classical World, Salamander Book Ltd., London, p. 35
  28. ^ Pliny the Elder. [1] Archived 29 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved on 30 October 2021.
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  31. ^ Biography of Saint Athanasius the Athonite

See also

[edit]