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Plant intelligence#Cleve Backster

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+#REDIRECT [[Plant intelligence#Cleve Backster]]
-{{About|theories regarding paranormal emotion and perception in plants|the physiology of normal perception in multicellular plants|Plant perception (physiology)}}
-[[File:J.C.Bose.JPG|thumb|250px|Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] in his laboratory]]
-'''Plant perception''' or '''biocommunication''' is the proven idea that [[plant]]s are [[Sentience|sentient]], that they respond to humans in a manner that amounts to [[Extrasensory perception|ESP]], and that they experience [[suffering|pain]] and fear. It has been shown that plants do possess neural networks that allow them to communicate with each other, thus representing a degree of sentience. The idea is not universally accepted, however, as plants [[nervous systems]] are not entirely understood.<ref name="Galston 1981">Galston, Arthur W; Slayman, Clifford L. ''Plant Sensitivity and Sensation''. In [[George Ogden Abell]], Barry Singer. (1981). ''Science and the Paranormal: Probing the Existence of the Supernatural''. Junction Books. pp. 40-55. {{ISBN|0-86245-037-3}}</ref><ref name="Skepdic">{{cite web|url=http://skepdic.com/plants.html |title=Plant perception (a.k.a. the Backster effect) - The Skeptic's Dictionary |publisher=Skepdic.com |date= |accessdate=2012-03-21}}</ref><ref>Tittle, Peg. (2011). ''Critical Thinking: An Appeal to Reason''. Routledge. p. 317. {{ISBN|0-203-84161-1}}</ref><ref>Jong, Tom de; Klinkhamer, Peter. (2005). ''Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Reproductive Strategies''. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-521-82142-8}} "Plants do not have a nervous system and certainly do not make conscious decisions about what to do next."</ref> Paranormal claims in regard to plant perception are considered to be [[pseudoscience]] by many in the [[scientific community]].<ref name="Galston 1981"/><ref name="Skepdic"/><ref>[[Leslie Audus|Audus, Leslie]]. (1974). ''Roots of Absurdity''. ''[[New Scientist]]''. 17 October. p. 207</ref><ref name="Galston 1979">Galston, Arthur W; Slayman, Clifford L. (1979). ''The Not-So-Secret Life of Plants: In Which the Historical and Experimental Myths About Emotional Communication Between Animal and Vegetable Are Put to Rest''. ''[[American Scientist]]'' 67 (3): 337-344.</ref>
-The idea is distinct from measured [[Plant perception (physiology)|plant perception]] and chemical communication.
-==Early research==
-The notion that plants are capable of feeling emotions was first recorded in 1848, when [[Gustav Fechner]], a German [[experimental psychologist]], suggested that plants are capable of emotions and that one could promote healthy growth with talk, attention, attitude, and affection.<ref>Heidelberger, Michael. (2004). ''Nature From Within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview''. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 54. {{ISBN|0-8229-4210-0}}</ref>
-Indian scientist [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], began to conduct experiments on plants in the year 1900. Bose invented various devices and instruments to measure electrical responses in plants.<ref name="Galston 1979"/><ref>V. A Shepard cited in Alexander Volkov. (2012). ''Plant Electrophysiology: Methods and Cell Electrophysiology''. Springer. p. 12. {{ISBN|978-3-642-29119-7}} "Bose began by applying delicate instrumentation he had invented in his semiconductor research to deliver electrical stimuli and record electrical responses from various plant parts... He discovered that both living animal and plant tissues exhibited a diminution of sensitivity after continuous stimulation, recovery after rest, a 'staircase' or summation of electrical effects following mechanical stimulation, abolition of current flow after applying poisons and reduced sensitivity at low temperature."</ref> He stated from his experiments that an electrical spasm occurs during the end of life for a plant.<ref>Biswal, Basanti; Krupinska, Karin; Biswal, Udaya C. (2013). ''Plastid Development in Leaves During Growth and Senescence''. Springer. p. 303. {{ISBN|978-94-007-5723-3}}</ref>
-According to biologist [[Patrick Geddes]] "In his investigations on response in general Bose had found that even ordinary plants and their different organs were sensitive— exhibiting, under mechanical or other stimuli, an electric response, indicative of excitation."<ref>[[Patrick Geddes|Geddes, Patrick]]. (1920). [https://archive.org/stream/sirjagadisbose00geddrich#page/120/mode/2up ''The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose'']. Longmans, Green & Company. p. 120</ref> One visitor to his laboratory, the [[vegetarian]] playwright [[George Bernard Shaw]], was intensely disturbed upon witnessing a demonstration in which a [[cabbage]] had "convulsions" as it boiled to death.<ref>
-[[Patrick Geddes|Geddes, Patrick]]. (1920). [https://archive.org/stream/sirjagadisbose00geddrich#page/146/mode/2up ''The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose'']. Longmans, Green & Company. p. 146</ref>
-==Cleve Backster==
-In the 1960s [[Cleve Backster]], an [[interrogation]] specialist with the CIA, conducted research that led him to believe that plants can communicate with other lifeforms. Backster's interest in the subject began in February 1966 when he tried to measure the rate at which water rises from a [[philodendron]]'s root into its leaves. Because a [[polygraph]] or 'lie detector' can measure electrical resistance, which would alter when the plant was watered, he attached a polygraph to one of the plant's leaves. Backster stated that, to his immense surprise, "the tracing began to show a pattern typical of the response you get when you subject a [[human]] to emotional stimulation of short duration".<ref>[[Cleve Backster|Backster, Cleve]]. (2003). ''Primary Perception: Biocommunication with Plants, Living Foods, and Human Cells''. White Rose Millennium Press. {{ISBN|978-0966435436}}</ref>
-In 1975, K. A. Horowitz, D. C. Lewis and E. L. Gasteiger published an article in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' giving their results when repeating one of Backster's effects - plant response to the killing of [[brine shrimp]] in boiling water. The researchers grounded the plants to reduce electrical interference and rinsed them to remove dust particles. As a control three of five pipettes contained brine shrimp while the remaining two only had water: the pipettes were delivered to the boiling water at random. This investigation used a total of 60 brine shrimp deliveries to boiling water while Backster's had used 13. Positive correlations did not occur at a rate great enough to be considered statistically significant.<ref>Horowitz, K. A., Lewis, D. C, and Gasteiger, E. L. (1975). ''Plant Primary Perception: Electrophysiological Unresponsiveness to Brine Shrimp Killing''. ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' 189: 478-480.</ref> Other controlled experiments that attempted to replicate Backster's findings have also produced negative results.<ref name="Galston 1981"/><ref>Schwebs, Ursula. (1973). ''Do Plants Have Feelings?'' ''[[Harper's Magazine|Harpers]]''. pp. 75-76</ref><ref>Chedd, Graham. (1975). ''AAAS takes on Emotional Plants''. ''[[New Scientist]]''. 13 February. pp. 400-401</ref><ref>Neher, Andrew. (2011). ''Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination''. Dover Publications. pp. 155-156. {{ISBN|978-0486261676}}</ref>
-Botanist [[Arthur Galston]] and [[Physiology|physiologist]] Clifford L. Slayman who investigated Backster's claims wrote:
-<blockquote>There is no objective scientific evidence for the existence of such complex behaviour in plants. The recent spate of popular literature on "plant consciousness" appears to have been triggered by "experiments" with a lie detector, subsequently reported and embellished in a book called ''[[The Secret Life of Plants]]''. Unfortunately, when scientists in the discipline of plant physiology attempted to repeat the experiments, using either identical or improved equipment, the results were uniformly negative. Further investigation has shown that the original observations probably arose from defective measuring procedures.<ref name="Galston 1981"/></blockquote>
-John M. Kmetz noted that Backster had not used proper controls in his experiments. When controls were used, no plant reactions to thoughts or threats were observed.<ref>Kmetz, John M. (1978). ''Plant Primary Perception: The Other Side of the Leaf''. ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'' 2 (2): 57-61.</ref>
-==''MythBusters''==
-The television show ''[[MythBusters]]'' performed [[MythBusters (2006 season)#Primary Perception|experiments]] (Season 4, Episode 18, 2006) to verify or disprove the concept. The tests involved connecting plants to a polygraph [[galvanometer]] and employing actual and imagined harm upon the plants or upon others in the plants' vicinity. The galvanometer showed some kind of reaction about one third of the time. The experimenters, who were in the room with the plant, posited that the vibrations of their actions or the room itself could have affected the polygraph. After isolating the plant, the polygraph showed a response slightly less than one third of the time. Later experiments with an [[EEG]] failed to detect anything. The show concluded that the results were not repeatable, and that the theory was not true.<ref>
-{{cite web
-|url= http://kwc.org/mythbusters/2006/09/episode_61_deadly_straw_primar.html
-|work= Annotated Mythbusters
-|title= Episode 61: Deadly Straw, Primary Perception
-|date= September 6, 2006
-}}
-</ref>
-==Cultural references==
-*The story "The Man Whom the Trees Loved" by [[Algernon Blackwood]] greatly concerns the consciousness of plants (specifically trees). In the story, trees can form a connection with people who appreciate them and long for them.
-* [[Will Eisner]] wrote a graphic novel entitled ''[[Life on Another Planet]]'' that uses Backster's ideas as one of the main plot devices.  A long description of Backster's life and thoughts appear in the comic as a letter read by one of the characters.  The letter is included in the comic as a full page of text.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=  Eisner|first1= Will|author-link1=Will Eisner |url=|title=[[Life on Another Planet]]|date = 2009}}</ref>
-*English author [[Roald Dahl]] wrote a short story entitled The Sound Machine <ref>Dahl, Roald, "The Sound Machine" in "Alfred Hitchcock Presents More Stories For Late At Night" (1961)</ref> dealing with the theory, in which the [[protagonist]] develops a machine that enables him to hear the sound of plants, especially when they are under pain. With the machine he hears the scream of roses being cut, and the moan of a tree when he strikes it with an axe.
-*The show ''[[Beyond Belief: Fact or Fiction]]'' (season 4, episode 8) featured a story about homicide detectives catching the man who murdered a florist by hooking a red Amaryllis, which was present during the murder, to a lie detector and performing a criminal line up looking for responses in the flower to each suspect. The show purports the story is true and happened in New York City in the late 1970s. They cite research by author/novelist [[Robert Tralins]].
-* [[Stevie Wonder]] sang of Bose's findings in the song "Same Old Story" on the [[Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants"|soundtrack album]] for the documentary ''The Secret Life of Plants''. The lyrics are as follows: "for most felt it was mad to conceive/that plants thought, felt, and moved quite like we/but with instruments Bose would devise/would take science itself by surprise." The song also includes references to [[George Washington Carver]] and his advocacy of [[crop rotation]].
-* [[Daniel Chamovitz]]'s 2012 book, ''[[What a Plant Knows]]'', reevaluates plant senses from a scientific perspective.<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-plants-think-daniel-chamovitz/ "Do Plants Think?"] Scientific American.</ref>
-== See also ==
-* [[Plant rights]]
-* ''[[The Secret Life of Plants]]''
-* [[Harold Saxton Burr]]
-* [[List of parapsychology topics]]
-==References==
-{{Reflist|30em}}
-==Further reading==
-*Cusack, Anne E; Cusack, Michael J. (1978). ''Plant Mysteries: A Scientific Inquiry''. Messner.
-*[[Arthur Galston|Galston, Arthur W]]. (1974). [https://archive.org/stream/naturalhistory83newy#page/n253/mode/2up ''The Unscientific Method'']. ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'' 83: 18-24.
-*[[Arthur Galston|Galston, Arthur W]]. (1975). [https://archive.org/stream/naturalhistory84newy#page/n309/mode/2up ''The Limits of Plant Power'']. ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'' 84: 22-24.
-*[[Arthur Galston|Galston, Arthur W]]; Slayman, Clifford L. (1979). ''The Not-So-Secret Life of Plants: In Which the Historical and Experimental Myths About Emotional Communication Between Animal and Vegetable Are Put to Rest''. ''[[American Scientist]]'' 67 (3): 337-344.
-*Horowitz, K. A., Lewis, D. C, and Gasteiger, E. L. (1975). ''Plant 'Primary Perception': Electrophysiological Unresponsiveness to Brine Shrimp Killing''. ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' 189: 478-480.
-*Kmetz, John M. (1977). ''A Study of Primary Perception in Plants and Animal Life''. Journal of the [[American Society for Psychical Research]] 71 (2): 157-170.
-*Kmetz, John M. (1978). ''Plant Primary Perception: The Other Side of the Leaf''. ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'' 2 (2): 57-61.
-*[[Robert Todd Carroll|Carroll, Robert Todd]]. (2003). [http://skepdic.com/plants.html ''Plant Perception (a.k.a. The Backster Effect)'']. Accessed 30 Nov 2006.
-*Mescher, Mark C; Moraes, Consuelo M. De. (2015). [http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/2/425.full ''The Role of Plant Sensory Perception in Plant–Animal Interactions'']. ''[[Journal of Experimental Botany]]'' 66: 425-433.
-*Stone, Robert. (1994). ''The Secret Life of Your Cells''. Whitford Press.
-== External links ==
-* [http://skepdic.com/plants.html Plant Perception] - [[Skeptic's Dictionary]].
-* [http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/plants-cannot-think-and-remember-but-theres-nothing-stupid-about-them-theyre-shockingly-sophisticated/ Plants cannot "think and remember," but there's nothing stupid about them: They're shockingly sophisticated] - [[Scientific American]].
-*[http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/23/the-intelligent-plant The Intelligent Plant] - [[The New Yorker]].
-*[http://theweek.com/articles/442356/no-plants-dont-have-feelings No, plants don't have feelings] - [[The Week]].
-{{Parapsychology}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Plant Perception (Paranormal)}}
-[[Category:Paranormal terminology]]
-[[Category:Plants]]
-[[Category:Pseudoscience]]