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SVLR
<small>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Aitken's Scots Vowel #
| 1★
| 8a
| 10
| 2★
| 11★
| 3
| 4★
| 8★
| 5
| 12
| 18★
| 6★
| 14
| 7★
| 9
| 13★
| 15
| 16★
| 19
| 17★
|-
! Historical </br>Vowel
| bite
| bay
| boil
| beet
| bree[sc]
| beat
| ba(t)e
| bait
| boat</br>(bow)
| bought
| bot
| aboot
| beaut(y)
| bøøt[sc]
| boy
| bow/bout
| bit
| bet
| butt
| bat
|-
! Scots phoneme
|{{IPA|/ai/}}
| colspan=2| {{IPA|/əi/}}
| {{IPA|/i/}}
| {{IPA|/iː/}} </br>(Scots only){{efn|Stem-final {{IPA|/iː/}} is [[diphthong]]ised to {{IPA|[əi]}} or {{IPA|[ei]}} in [[Southern Scots]].<ref name="dsl.ac.uk">{{cite book|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21 |work=Scottish National Dictionary |title=Introduction |page=xxx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819014514/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21|archive-date=2014-08-19}}</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/ei/}}</br>(Scots only){{efn|Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/ei/}} only in some [[North Northern Scots]] varieties,<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181927/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii</ref> generally [[phonological change|merging]] with {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} in other [[Modern Scots]] varieties.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}
| {{IPA|/e/}}{{efn|The final vowel in {{sc2|HAPPY}} is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FACE}} for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: {{IPA|/ˈhape/}}. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FLEECE}}: {{IPA|/ˈhapiː/}}.<ref>{{citation |author=Wells, John C. |title=Accents of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1982 |isbn=0-521-22919-7 |id=(vol. 1)|author-link=John C. Wells}}</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/eː/}}{{efn|In most Central and Southern Scots varieties {{IPA|/eː/}} merges with {{IPA|/e/}}. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.</ref> In [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] the realisation may be {{IPA|[ɛː]}}.<ref>Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.</ref> In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; {{sc2|FACE}} is {{IPA|[eː]}}, {{IPA|[ɪə]}} or {{IPA|[eɪ]}}, whereas {{sc2|SQUARE}} is {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, distinguished from {{sc2|DRESS}} by length.<ref name="wattallen"/> The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.}}
| {{IPA|/o(ː)/}}
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔː/}} is typically not distinguished from {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in Scottish English, which features the [[cot-caught merger]]. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as {{IPA|/ɔː/}} for {{sc2|THOUGHT}} and {{sc2|NORTH}} and {{IPA|/ɒ/}} for {{sc2|LOT}} and {{sc2|CLOTH}}.<ref name="wattallen"/> They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where {{sc2|CLOTH}} has a long vowel {{IPA|/ɔː/}}.}}
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔ/}} may merge with {{IPA|/o/}} in Central and Southern Scots varieties.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/ʉ/}}{{efn|Stem-final {{IPA|/ʉ/}}, is diphthongised to {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} in Southern Scots.<ref name="dsl.ac.uk"/> In Geordie there is a contrastive {{IPA|/ʊ/}} vowel which also encompasses the {{sc2|STRUT}} class, in other varieties there is a [[foot-goose merger]] with a contrastive {{sc2|STRUT}}.<ref name="wattallen"/>}}
| {{IPA|/jʉ/}}{{efn|Regardless of the following {{IPA|/r/}}. English {{sc2|CURE}} stems from historical {{IPA|/uːr/}} (in Scotland, the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has evolved into {{IPA|/ʌr/}} instead, see [[nurse mergers]]) regardless of the preceding {{IPA|/j/}}. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong {{IPA|/uə/}}, whereas the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has mostly evolved into the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel {{IPA|/øː/}}, as it has in most other accents of English.}}{{efn|{{IPA|/j/}} merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of [[yod-coalescence]]. ''Tune'' is best analysed as {{IPA|/tʃʉn/}} for many speakers of Scottish English.}}
| {{IPA|/ø/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly}}{{efn|Most [[Central Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/e/}} in long environments and with {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in short environments, but most [[Northern Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/i/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.</ref> {{IPA|/ø/}} generally remains {{IPAblink|ø}}, sometimes {{IPAblink|y}} in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of [[Perthshire]] and [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Roxburghshire]], East [[Dumfrieshire]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.</ref> Before {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} {{IPA|/ø/}} is often realised {{IPA|[(j)ʉ]}} or {{IPA|[(j)ʌ]}} depending on dialect.<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=10 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix]</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/oi/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} may be merge with {{IPA|/o/}} before {{IPA|/k/}} in many Modern Scots varieties.}}
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}{{efn|Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.</ref>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur|Scottish English lacks the [[nurse mergers]], which means that it distinguishes {{sc2|KIT}} {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{sc2|STRUT}} {{IPA|/ʌ/}} before syllable-final {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''fir'' {{IPA|/fər/}} (with the same {{IPA|/ər/}} as in ''letter'' {{IPA|/ˈlɛtər/}}), ''fern'' {{IPA|/fɛrn/}} and ''fur'' {{IPA|/fʌr/}}. In other varieties of English (including Geordie, which is non-rhotic), the three vowels fall together as {{IPA|/ɜː/}} (transcribed with {{angbr IPA|øː}} in Geordie), though not always when the {{IPA|/r/}} occurs between vowels (see e.g. [[hurry-furry merger]], which Geordie lacks). In broadest Geordie {{sc2|NURSE}} partially falls together with {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, but the latter is {{IPAblink|aː}} instead in some words.}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}}
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}{{efn|Not distinguished from {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in Geordie, see [[foot-strut split]].<ref name="wattallen"/>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}{{efn|In some Modern Scots varieties {{IPA|/a/}} may merge with {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in long environments.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1981 p. 150">Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.</ref> (see below)}}
|-
! Scottish English phoneme
| {{IPA|/ai/}} or {{IPA|/əi/}} <small>(SVLR)</small>
| {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/ɔi/}}
| {{IPA|/i/}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{IPA|/i/}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/o/}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʉ/}}
| {{IPA|/jʉ/}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{IPA|/ɔi/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
! Wells sets
| colspan=3 | {{sc2|PRICE}} & others
| {{sc2|FLEECE}}, {{sc2|NEAR}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{sc2|FLEECE}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FACE}}, {{sc2|SQUARE}}, {{sc2|HAPPY}}
| {{sc2|GOAT}}, {{sc2|FORCE}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|THOUGHT}}, {{sc2|LOT}}, {{sc2|CLOTH}}, {{sc2|NORTH}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FOOT}}, {{sc2|GOOSE}}, {{sc2|CURE}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{sc2|CHOICE}}
| {{sc2|MOUTH}}
| {{sc2|KIT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}, {{sc2|lettER}}
| {{sc2|DRESS}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}
| {{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}
| {{sc2|TRAP}}, {{sc2|PALM}}, {{sc2|BATH}}, {{sc2|START}}
|-
! EEx
| colspan=3 | size, fire vs. site, fine
| leaf, beet
| leave, beer
| {{N/A}}
| race, bake
| raise, bare
| coat, low
| caught, law
| cot, lock
| put, food
| duty, feud
| {{N/A}}
| boy, loin
| house, now
| bid, wrist
| bed, rest
| bud, rust
| bad, Rasta
|-
! HEx
| size, fire
| May, pay
| join, oil
| beet, see
| (dee, lee)
| (beat, sea)
| race, bate
| raise, bait
| coat, low
| caught, law
| cot, lock
| (aboot, mooth)
| true, feud
| (fruit, use)
| boy, joy
| about, mouth
| bid, wrist
| bed, rest
| bud, rust
| bad, Rasta
|}
</small>


XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXSVLR
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ mid-1700s American vowels)
! [[Lexical set]] and [[Help:IPA for English|phoneme]]
! Phone
|-
|-
!Aitken's Scots Vowel #
| colspan=2| 1★
| 8a
| 10
| 2★
| 11★
| 3
| 4★
| 8★
| 5
| 12
| 18★
| 6★
| 14
| 7★
| 9
| 13★
| 15
| 16★
| 19
| 17★
|-
|-
! Historical Vowel
| {{sc|thought}} {{IPAc-en|ɔː}}
| BY
| {{red|ɔː~ɒː}}
| BITE
| BAY
| BOIL
| BEET
| BREE[Scots]
| BEAT
| BA(T)E
| BAIT
| BOAT(BOW)
| BOUGHT
| BOT
| ABOOT
| BEAUT(Y)
| BØØT[Scots]
| BOY
| BOW/BOUT
| BIT
| BET
| BUTT
| BAT
|-
|-
! Scots phonemes
| rowspan="2" |{{sc|LOT}} {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} {{small|incl. ''of, from''}}</br> {{small|{{angbr|a}} in ''want'', ''wasp'', ''what'', etc.}}
|{{red|ɔ~ɒ}}
|{{IPA|/ai/}}
| colspan=3| {{IPA|/əi/}}
| {{IPA|/i/}}
| {{IPA|/iː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/iː/}}, which occurs [[Word stem|stem]] final, is [[diphthong]]ised to {{IPA|[əi]}} or {{IPA|[ei]}} in [[Southern Scots]].<ref name="dsl.ac.uk">{{cite book|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21 |work=Scottish National Dictionary |title=Introduction |page=xxx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819014514/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21|archive-date=2014-08-19}}</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/ei/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly|Occurs only in Scots.}}{{efn|Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/ei/}} only in some [[North Northern Scots]] varieties,<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181927/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii</ref> generally [[phonological change|merging]] with {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} in other [[Modern Scots]] varieties.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}
| {{IPA|/e/}}{{efn|The final vowel in {{sc2|HAPPY}} is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FACE}} for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: {{IPA|/ˈhape/}}. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FLEECE}}: {{IPA|/ˈhapiː/}}.<ref>{{citation |author=Wells, John C. |title=Accents of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1982 |isbn=0-521-22919-7 |id=(vol. 1)|author-link=John C. Wells}}</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/eː/}}{{efn|In most Central and Southern Scots varieties {{IPA|/eː/}} merges with {{IPA|/e/}}. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.</ref> In [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] the realisation may be {{IPA|[ɛː]}}.<ref>Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.</ref> In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; {{sc2|FACE}} is {{IPA|[eː]}}, {{IPA|[ɪə]}} or {{IPA|[eɪ]}}, whereas {{sc2|SQUARE}} is {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, distinguished from {{sc2|DRESS}} by length.<ref name="wattallen"/> The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.}}
| {{IPA|/o(ː)/}}
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔː/}} is typically not distinguished from {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in Scottish English, which features the [[cot-caught merger]]. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as {{IPA|/ɔː/}} for {{sc2|THOUGHT}} and {{sc2|NORTH}} and {{IPA|/ɒ/}} for {{sc2|LOT}} and {{sc2|CLOTH}}.<ref name="wattallen"/> They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where {{sc2|CLOTH}} has a long vowel {{IPA|/ɔː/}}.}}
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔ/}} may merge with {{IPA|/o/}} in Central and Southern Scots varieties.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/ʉ/}}{{efn|Stem final {{IPA|/ʉ/}}, is diphthongised to {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} in Southern Scots.<ref name="dsl.ac.uk"/> In Geordie there is a contrastive {{IPA|/ʊ/}} vowel which also encompasses the {{sc2|STRUT}} class, in other varieties there is a [[foot-goose merger]] with a contrastive {{sc2|STRUT}}.<ref name="wattallen"/>}}
| {{IPA|/jʉ/}}{{efn|Regardless of the following {{IPA|/r/}}. English {{sc2|CURE}} stems from historical {{IPA|/uːr/}} (in Scotland, the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has evolved into {{IPA|/ʌr/}} instead, see [[nurse mergers]]) regardless of the preceding {{IPA|/j/}}. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong {{IPA|/uə/}}, whereas the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has mostly evolved into the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel {{IPA|/øː/}}, as it has in most other accents of English.}}{{efn|{{IPA|/j/}} merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of [[yod-coalescence]]. ''Tune'' is best analysed as {{IPA|/tʃʉn/}} for many speakers of Scottish English.}}
| {{IPA|/ø/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly}}{{efn|Most [[Central Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/e/}} in long environments and with {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in short environments, but most [[Northern Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/i/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.</ref> {{IPA|/ø/}} generally remains {{IPAblink|ø}}, sometimes {{IPAblink|y}} in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of [[Perthshire]] and [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Roxburghshire]], East [[Dumfrieshire]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.</ref> Before {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} {{IPA|/ø/}} is often realised {{IPA|[(j)ʉ]}} or {{IPA|[(j)ʌ]}} depending on dialect.<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=10 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix]</ref>}}
| {{IPA|/oi/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} may be merge with {{IPA|/o/}} before {{IPA|/k/}} in many Modern Scots varieties.}}
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}{{efn|Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.</ref>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur|Scottish English lacks the [[nurse mergers]], which means that it distinguishes {{sc2|KIT}} {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{sc2|STRUT}} {{IPA|/ʌ/}} before syllable-final {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''fir'' {{IPA|/fər/}} (with the same {{IPA|/ər/}} as in ''letter'' {{IPA|/ˈlɛtər/}}), ''fern'' {{IPA|/fɛrn/}} and ''fur'' {{IPA|/fʌr/}}. In other varieties of English (including Geordie, which is non-rhotic), the three vowels fall together as {{IPA|/ɜː/}} (transcribed with {{angbr IPA|øː}} in Geordie), though not always when the {{IPA|/r/}} occurs between vowels (see e.g. [[hurry-furry merger]], which Geordie lacks). In broadest Geordie {{sc2|NURSE}} partially falls together with {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, but the latter is {{IPAblink|aː}} instead in some words.}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}}
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}{{efn|Not distinguished from {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in Geordie, see [[foot-strut split]].<ref name="wattallen"/>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}{{efn|In some Modern Scots varieties {{IPA|/a/}} may merge with {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in long environments.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1981 p. 150">Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.</ref> (see below)}}
|-
|-
! English phonemes
| rowspan="2" |{{red|æ}}
|{{IPA|/ai/}}
| colspan=3| {{IPA|/əi/}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/i/}}
| {{N/A}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/o/}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ʉ/}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{IPA|/ɔi/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
|-
! Wells sets
|{{sc|trap}} {{IPAc-en|æ}} </br>{{sc|palm}} {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}
| colspan=4 | {{sc2|PRICE}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FLEECE}}, {{sc2|NEAR}}
| {{N/A}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FACE}}, {{sc2|SQUARE}}, {{sc2|HAPPY}}
| {{sc2|GOAT}}, {{sc2|FORCE}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|THOUGHT}}, {{sc2|LOT}}, {{sc2|CLOTH}}, {{sc2|NORTH}}
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FOOT}}, {{sc2|GOOSE}}, {{sc2|CURE}} {{IPA|/kjʉr/}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{sc2|CHOICE}}
| {{sc2|MOUTH}}
| {{sc2|KIT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}, {{sc2|lettER}}
| {{sc2|DRESS}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}
| {{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}
| {{sc2|TRAP}}, {{sc2|PALM}}, {{sc2|BATH}}, {{sc2|START}}
|-
|-
! EEx
| {{sc|face}} {{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
| colspan=4 | size, fire vs. site, fine
| {{red|ɛː→eː}}
| leaf, beet
| leave, beer
| {{N/A}}
| race, bake
| raise, bare
| coat, low
| caught, law
| cot, lock
| put, food
| duty, feud
| {{N/A}}
| boy, loin
| house, now
| bid, wrist
| bed, rest
| bud, rust
| bad, Rasta
|-
|-
! HEx
| {{sc|dress}} {{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
| size, fire
|ɛ
|site, fine
| May, pay
| join, oil
| beet, see
| (dee, lee)
| (beat, sea)
| race, bate
| raise, bait
| coat, low
| caught, law
| cot, lock
| (aboot, mooth)
| true, feud
| (fruit, use)
| boy, joy
| about, mouth
| bid, wrist
| bed, rest
| bud, rust
| bad, Rasta
|}


XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+ {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}[[:/æ/ raising|{{IPA|/æ/}} raising]] in [[North American English]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}}
|-
|-
! Following <br />consonant
| {{sc|fleece}} {{IPAc-en|iː}}
! Example <br />words{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
| {{red|iː}}
! [[New York accent|New York <br />City]], [[New Orleans English|New <br />Orleans]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
! [[Mid-Atlantic American English|Baltimore, <br />Philadel-<br />phia]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
! [[General American|General <br />American]], <br />[[New England English|New England]], <br />[[Western American English|Western US]]
! [[Midland American English|Midland US]], <br />[[Western Pennsylvania English|Pittsburgh]]
! [[Southern American English|Southern <br />US]]
! [[Canadian English|Canada]], <br />Northern <br />Mountain <br />US
! [[North-Central American English|Minnesota, <br />Wisconsin]]
! [[Inland Northern American English|Great <br />Lakes <br />US]]
|-
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}}
| {{sc|kit}} {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
| ''fan, lamb, stand''
| rowspan="2" |{{red|ɪ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a|Most function words (''am, can, had'', etc.) and some learned or less common words (''Afghan, alas, asterisk'', etc.) have {{IPA|[æ]}}.}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs ''began, ran, swam'', and ''wan'' (variant of ''won'') have {{IPA|[æ]}}.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=238}}}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə~ɛjə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}}
| rowspan="8" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=175–7}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|happ<u>y</u>}} {{IPAc-en|i}}
| Prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}}
| ''animal, planet, <br />Spanish''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|price}} {{IPAc-en|aɪ}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=183}}
| ''frank, language''
| {{red|əi~ʌi}}
| {{IPA|[eɪ]}}{{sfnp|Baker|Mielke|Archangeli|2008}}
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ]}}
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ~æɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[ɛː~ɛj]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[eː~ej]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181–2}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|choice}} {{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}}
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| ''bag, drag''
|{{red|ɒi~ɔi}}
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, ''bad, mad'', and ''glad'' alone have {{IPA|[eə]}}.}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=181}} and Florida{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} and in scatterings through the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=175}} the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} </br>the quality of {{IPA|/æ/}} is more close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, more mid before {{IPA|/d/}} (and possibly other [[voiced stop]]s like {{IPA|/b, ɡ, dʒ/}}), and more open elsewhere.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=174}} However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere</br> in the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} it is more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}}
|-
|-
| Prevocalic {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| {{sc|goat}} {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} {{small|incl. ''to''}}
| ''dragon, magazine''
| {{red|oː→oʊ}}
| {{IPA|[æ]}}
|-
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/b, d, ʃ/}}
|{{sc|mouth}} {{IPAc-en|aʊ}}
| ''grab, flash, sad''
| {{red|ʌu~ɔu}}
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}}
|-
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/f, θ, s/}}
|{{sc|goose}} {{IPAc-en|uː}} {{small|incl. ''too, into''}}
| ''ask, bath, half, <br />glass''
| rowspan="2" |{{red|uː~u}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
|-
|-
| Otherwise
| {{sc|foot}} {{IPAc-en|ʊ}}
| ''as, back, happy, <br />locality''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New York City, exceptional {{IPA|[eə]}} is found notably in ''avenue'' and variably before {{IPA|/dʒ/}} as in ''imagine'' and ''magic''.{{sfnp|Labov|2007|p=359}}}}
|-
|-
| colspan="10" class="wrap" style="width: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 85%;" | {{notelist}}
|{{sc|strut}} {{IPAc-en|ʌ}}
|}<noinclude>{{reflist}}{{documentation|content=
|{{red|ɤ̞~ʌ}}
==Required references==
This template requires the following works be cited elsewhere in the article using {{cite xxx}} or {{tlx|citation}}.
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Baker
|first1=Adam
|last2=Mielke
|first2=Jeff
|last3=Archangeli
|first3=Diana
|year=2008
|chapter=More velar than /g/: Consonant Coarticulation as a Cause of Diphthongization
|editor1-last=Chang
|editor1-first=Charles B.
|editor2-last=Haynie
|editor2-first=Hannah J.
|title=Proceedings of the 26th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics
|pages=60–68
|location=Somerville, Massachusetts
|publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project
|isbn=978-1-57473-423-2
|chapter-url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wccfl/26/paper1656.pdf
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Boberg
|first=Charles
|year=2008
|title=Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English
|journal=Journal of English Linguistics
|volume=36
|issue=2
|page=129–154
|doi=10.1177/0075424208316648
|url=https://www.academia.edu/7683591
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Labov
|first=William
|year=2007
|title=Transmission and Diffusion
|journal=Language
|volume=83
|issue=2
|pages=344–387
|doi=10.1353/lan.2007.0082
|jstor=40070845
|url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/TD.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Labov
|first1=William
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|year=2006
|title=[[The Atlas of North American English]]
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3-11-016746-7
}}
{{refend}}
}}
</noinclude>


{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="{{{style|width: 75%; text-align: center;}}}"
|+ class="nowrap" | {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}{{IPAc-en|æ}} raising in [[North American English]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Labov|first1=William|authorlink1=William Labov|last2=Ash|first2=Sharon|last3=Boberg|first3=Charles|authorlink3=Charles Boberg|title=The Atlas of North American English|location=Berlin|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=2006|page=182|isbn=3-11-016746-8}}</ref>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Environment
| {{sc|force}} {{IPAc-en|oʊ|r}}
! colspan="2" | Phonemic systems
| {{red|o(ː)ɹ}}
! colspan="5" | Non-phonemic (continuous) systems
|-
|-
| {{sc|north}} {{IPAc-en|ɔr}}
! Consonant after {{IPA|/æ/}}
! Example words
| {{red|ɒɹ~ɔɹ}}
! [[New York City English|New York City]] & [[New Orleans English|New Orleans]]
! [[Mid-Atlantic American English|Baltimore & Philadelphia]]
! [[General American|General US]], [[Florida]], [[Midland American English|Midland US]], [[New England English|New England]], & [[Western American English|Western US]]
! [[Canadian English|Canadian]], [[Pacific Northwest English|Northwest US]], & [[North-Central American English|Upper Midwest US]]
! [[Southern American English|Southern US]] & [[African American Vernacular English|Black Vernacular]]
! [[Inland North|Great Lakes US]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/m, n/}}
| {{sc|n<u>ur</u>se}} {{IPAc-en|ɜr}} </br>{{sc|letter}} {{IPAc-en|ər}}
| '''[[Checked and free vowels|Checked]]:''' ''aunt, fan, ham, pants, plan, lamb, understand,''<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref> etc.{{efn|In Philadelphia, ''began, ran,'' and ''swam'' alone remain lax.<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 238.</ref>}}
||{{red|ɤ̞ɹ~ʌɹ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 173.</ref>
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[iə]}}{{efn|Exact allophones vary by region's or even individual's participation in a nasal or continuous system.}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛə~æ]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛə~eə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}
|-
|-
| '''Free:''' ''animal, ceramic, manatee, Montana, planet, Spanish,''<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref> etc.{{refn|group=note|name=Family|The tenseness of the word ''family'' varies by speaker.<ref>Trager, George L. (1940) ''One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A''' in ''American Speech'': 3rd ed. Vol. 15: Duke UP. 256. Print.</ref>}}
| {{sc|marry}} {{IPAc-en|æ|r}}</br> {{sc|st<u>ar</u>t}} {{IPAc-en|ar}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 173.</ref>
| {{red|æɹ}}
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| {{sc|squ<u>are</u>}} {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} {{Small|incl. ''are''?}}
| '''Checked:''' ''bag, drag, tag,''<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 174.</ref> etc.
|{{red|ɛːɹ}}
| {{IPA|[eə]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref>
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref>
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 181.</ref> and Florida<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 182.</ref> and in scatterings through the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 175.</ref> the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> {{IPA|/æ/}} is [[close vowel|more close]] before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, [[mid vowel|more mid]] before {{IPA|/b, g, d, dʒ/}}, and [[open vowel|more open]] elsewhere.<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 174.</ref> However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> [[allophone|possible pronunciation]]s of {{IPA|/æ/}} are more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eːɪ̯]}}<ref>Boberg, 2008, p. 145</ref>{{efn|In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, {{IPA|/æ/}} raising before {{IPA|/g/}} is often strong enough to produce a merger of {{IPA|/æg/}} and {{IPA|/eɪg/}}, for example causing ''haggle'' and ''Hegel'' to be [[homophones]].{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181-2}}}}
| rowspan="2" | continuous {{IPA|[eʲ]}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[ɛ(j)ə~æ]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛə~æ]}}
|-
|-
| '''Free:''' ''agate, dragon, magazine,'' etc.
| {{sc|n<u>ear</u>}} {{IPAc-en|ɪər}}
| {{IPA|[æ]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref>
|{{red|ɛːɹ~ɪɹ}}
|-
|-
| {{IPA|/b, d, dʒ, ʃ/}}
|
| '''Checked:''' ''bad, flash, glad, grab, mad, sad'',<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref> etc.{{efn|In Philadelphia, ''bad, mad,'' and ''glad'' alone in this set become tense.}}
| {{IPA|[eə]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref>
| rowspan="3" | continuous {{IPA|[æ]}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[eə~ɛə]}}
|-
|-
| {{IPA|/f, s, θ/}}
|}
| '''Checked:''' ''ask, bath, calf, half, glass,''<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref> etc.
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173.</ref>
|-
| Others
| ''as, back, frank, happy, locality'';<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref> etc.
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.</ref>
|-
| colspan="14" | For the phoneme /æ/, [eə] represents a tense pronunciation and [æ] a non-tense (or lax) pronunciation. The term "continuous" refers to a system without a decisive phonemic split of /æ/, followed by whichever [[allophone]] predominates in the given context.
|-
| colspan="14" |
'''Notes'''
{{notelist}}
{{hidden|Footnotes|expanded=y|
*Nearly all American English speakers pronounce {{IPA|/æŋ/}} somewhere between {{IPA|[æŋ]}} and {{IPA|[eɪŋ]}}, though [[Western American English|Western speakers]] specifically favor {{IPA-all|eɪŋ|}}.
*The Great Lakes dialect traditionally tenses {{IPA|/æ/}} in all cases to at least some degree, but reversals of that tensing before non-nasal consonants (while often maintaining some of the other vowel shifts of the region) has been observed recently where it has been studied (in [[Lansing, Michigan|Lansing]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]]).
*In American phonology, {{IPA|/æ/}} before {{IPA|/r/}} is often transcribed as {{IPA|/ɛ/}} due to the prevalence of the [[Mary-marry merger|''Mary–marry'' merger]]. However, a distinct {{IPA|/æ/}} before {{IPA|/r/}} remains in much of the Northeastern U.S. (strongest in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Baltimore) and some of the Southern U.S.
|headerstyle=text-align: left;}}
|}<noinclude>


</noinclude>
==Continued merger discussion after 24 December 2016==

Studies suggest (some flat-out confirm) that "Ozark English" and "Appalachian English" are the same dialect; both dialects may be declining, based on a lack of Ozark-focused dialect research since the middle of the 1900s, as well as the recent classification of both Ozark and (especially) Appalachian English under the [[Southern American English|Southern dialect]] by the 2006 ''[[Atlas of North American English]]''. The sources that don't directly equate the two do consistently highlight their similarities, yet never their differences. The idea of merging the two articles has never happened. In a previous merger discussion, one user opposed without further discussion (even when asked to elucidate), one user brought up a single argument I feel I countered, and one user supported without further discussion. No full discussion was ever had over the course of maybe 9 months, though I found and included later evidence to bolster my points. Here's the evidence:
TENSE": magic, imagine,
*The 1948 article "Southern Mountain Dialect", for example, refers to an Appalachian-Ozark variety as a single dialect with as much slight internal variation as any dialect: "Though fairly consistent in the isolated districts (with which we are mainly concerned), the dialect may vary slightly with the locality, and even from family to family." It lists "four main divisions" geographically, which include "the Blue Ridge of Virginia and West Virginia, the Great Smokies of Tennessee and North Carolina, the Cumberlands of Kentucky and Tennessee [all three constituting the Appalachian region], and the Ozarks of Arkansas and southern Missouri" [p. 46]). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English.

*Here is what the more recent research that I could find has to say on Ozark English:
checked /b, d, dʒ/ or any old /b, d, ʃ, v, z/?
**[[Atlas of North American English|ANAE]] (2006) mentions the term "Ozark(s)" only twice:

***Referring to the [[card-cord merger]], "while the general merger has disappeared in most of the Appalachian–Ozarkian region, the function words ''or'' and ''for'' often remain lower and fronter (closer to /ahr/) than the rest of the /ohr/ class, which has merged with /ohr/" (277). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
***"The area of the South in which the Southern Shift is most developed is defined as the Inland South... an Appalachian region extending across eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina and Northern Alabama.... This region was populated by a settlement stream... most often identified by cultural geographers as the Upland South.... Secondary concentrations of Upland South settlement are the product of further migration to the Ozarks and to east Texas. Map 18.9 indicated that the strongest development of Southern States phonology is found somewhat to the west of this area" (261-2). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English.

***Although the ANAE never again mentions the Ozarks, it shows that region to be located on the borderline between the Southern and Midland dialects, with the biggest city in the area, Springfield, Missouri, ''firmly'' documented as Southern. Knoxville, Asheville, and Chattanooga in Appalachia are all ''firmly'' documented as Southern. This unifies Appalachian and Ozark English. Also, no findings of the ANAE show the Ozarks to be a glaring sub-regional exception to the Southern (or, possibly, Midland) dialect region. If Springfield = Claim B.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
**[[John C. Wells]]' (1982) ''Accents of English'' lists "Ozarks" in the index with a "see also 'southern mountain'". Wells clearly centers "southern mountain" speech on Appalachian and "upland states", which "form a transition zone between the south and midland dialect areas; their southern mountain speech is classified as south midland by Kurath, but popularly regarded as a variety of southern accent" (527). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English.
|+ class="nowrap" | A chart of the pronunciation of stressed {{IPAc-en|ɒr}} and {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} before a vowel
**"Variation and Change in Geographically Isolated Communities: Appalachian English and Ozark English" (1984), a 200-page comparative study, does initially speak of Appalachian and Ozark English as two different dialects or "varieties", yes, but the entire goal of the study is to unearth more about the relationships between the two. The conclusion states that the study considered "the descriptive detail of the [grammatical] structures we have examined, [and] the frequency with which the various structures are used" (p. 235). The findings of the study: "that there are no descriptive differences in the representative structures we have examined here" (p. 235) and then: "the frequency relationships between the varieties also shows fairly close parallels, with some non-significant differences" (p. 235). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English.
! colspan=2| ''represented by the [[diaphoneme]] {{IPA|/ɒr/}}''
** ''World Englishes'' (2013) plainly says "The Ozark Mountains can be seen as an extension of the Appalachian English dialect" (48). This passage unifies Appalachian and Ozark English. [[User:Wolfdog|Wolfdog]] ([[User talk:Wolfdog|talk]]) 05:54, 26 December 2016 (UTC)
! colspan=2| ''represented by the [[diaphoneme]] {{IPA|/ɔr/}}''
|-
! colspan=2| pronounced {{IPA-all|ɒɹ|}} in [[Received Pronunciation|mainstream England]]
! pronounced {{IPA-all|ɔːɹ|}} in mainstream England
|-
! colspan=2 | pronounced {{IPA-all|ɒɹ|}} in [[Boston English|Boston]]
! pronounced {{IPA-all|ɔɹ|}} in Boston
|-
! colspan=3 | pronounced {{IPA-all|ɔɹ|}} in [[Canadian English|Canada]]
|-
! colspan=2 | pronounced {{IPA-all|ɒɹ~ɑɹ|}} in New York City
! pronounced {{IPA-all|ɔɹ|}} in New York City
|-
! pronounced {{IPA-all|ɑɹ|}} in the [[General American English|mainstream United States]]
! colspan=2 | pronounced {{IPA-all|ɔɹ|}} in the mainstream United States
|-
| these five words only: <br/>''borrow, morrow,<br />sorry, sorrow,<br />tomorrow''
| ''corridor, euphoric,<br/>foreign, forest,<br/>Florida, historic,<br/>horrible, majority,<br/>minority, moral,<br/>orange, Oregon,<br />origin, porridge,<br />priority, quarantine,<br>quarrel, sorority,<br/>warranty, warren,<br />warrior'' (etc.)
| ''aura, boring,<br/>choral, deplorable, <br/>flooring, flora,<br/>glory, hoary, <br/>memorial, menorah, <br/> orientation, Moorish,<br/>oral, pouring,<br/>scorer, storage,<br/> story, Tory,<br/>warring'' (etc.)
|}

Latest revision as of 16:17, 14 March 2021

SVLR

Aitken's Scots Vowel # 1★ 8a 10 2★ 11★ 3 4★ 8★ 5 12 18★ 6★ 14 7★ 9 13★ 15 16★ 19 17★
Historical
Vowel 		bite bay boil beet bree[sc] beat ba(t)e bait boat
(bow) 		bought bot aboot beaut(y) bøøt[sc] boy bow/bout bit bet butt bat
Scots phoneme /ai/ /əi/ /i/ /iː/
(Scots only)[a] 		/ei/
(Scots only)[b] 		/e/[c] /eː/[d] /o(ː)/ /ɔː/[e] /ɔ/[f] /ʉ/[g] /jʉ/[h][i] /ø/[j][k] /oi/ /ʌʉ/[l] /ɪ/[m][n] /ɛ/[n] /ʌ/[o][n] /a/[p]
Scottish English phoneme /ai/ or /əi/ (SVLR) /e/ /ɔi/ /i/ — /i/ /e/ /o/ /ɔ/ /ʉ/ /jʉ/ — /ɔi/ /ʌʉ/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /ʌ/ /a/
Wells sets PRICE & others FLEECE, NEAR — FLEECE FACE, SQUARE, HAPPY GOAT, FORCE THOUGHT, LOT, CLOTH, NORTH FOOT, GOOSE, CURE — CHOICE MOUTH KIT, commA, NURSE, lettER DRESS, NURSE STRUT, commA, NURSE TRAP, PALM, BATH, START
EEx size, fire vs. site, fine leaf, beet leave, beer — race, bake raise, bare coat, low caught, law cot, lock put, food duty, feud — boy, loin house, now bid, wrist bed, rest bud, rust bad, Rasta
HEx size, fire May, pay join, oil beet, see (dee, lee) (beat, sea) race, bate raise, bait coat, low caught, law cot, lock (aboot, mooth) true, feud (fruit, use) boy, joy about, mouth bid, wrist bed, rest bud, rust bad, Rasta

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXSVLR

Aitken's Scots Vowel # 1★ 8a 10 2★ 11★ 3 4★ 8★ 5 12 18★ 6★ 14 7★ 9 13★ 15 16★ 19 17★
Historical Vowel BY BITE BAY BOIL BEET BREE[Scots] BEAT BA(T)E BAIT BOAT(BOW) BOUGHT BOT ABOOT BEAUT(Y) BØØT[Scots] BOY BOW/BOUT BIT BET BUTT BAT
Scots phonemes /ai/ /əi/ /i/ /iː/[q] /ei/[j][r] /e/[s] /eː/[t] /o(ː)/ /ɔː/[u] /ɔ/[v] /ʉ/[w] /jʉ/[x][y] /ø/[j][z] /oi/ /ʌʉ/[aa] /ɪ/[ab][n] /ɛ/[n] /ʌ/[ac][n] /a/[ad]
English phonemes /ai/ /əi/ /i/ — /e/ /o/ /ɔ/ /ʉ/ — /ɔi/ /ʌʉ/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /ʌ/ /a/
Wells sets PRICE FLEECE, NEAR — FACE, SQUARE, HAPPY GOAT, FORCE THOUGHT, LOT, CLOTH, NORTH FOOT, GOOSE, CURE /kjʉr/ — CHOICE MOUTH KIT, commA, NURSE, lettER DRESS, NURSE STRUT, commA, NURSE TRAP, PALM, BATH, START
EEx size, fire vs. site, fine leaf, beet leave, beer — race, bake raise, bare coat, low caught, law cot, lock put, food duty, feud — boy, loin house, now bid, wrist bed, rest bud, rust bad, Rasta
HEx size, fire site, fine May, pay join, oil beet, see (dee, lee) (beat, sea) race, bate raise, bait coat, low caught, law cot, lock (aboot, mooth) true, feud (fruit, use) boy, joy about, mouth bid, wrist bed, rest bud, rust bad, Rasta


XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

/æ/ raising in North American English[23]
Following
consonant 		Example
words[24] 		New York
City, New
Orleans[24] 		Baltimore,
Philadel-
phia[24] 		General
American,
New England,
Western US 		Midland US,
Pittsburgh 		Southern
US 		Canada,
Northern
Mountain
US 		Minnesota,
Wisconsin 		Great
Lakes
US
Non-prevocalic
/m, n/ 		fan, lamb, stand [eə][ae][af] [eə] [eə] [eə~ɛjə][26] [eə][27] [eə][28]
Prevocalic
/m, n/ 		animal, planet,
Spanish 		[æ]
/ŋ/[29] frank, language [eɪ][30] [æ] [æ~æɛə][26] [ɛː~ɛj][27] [eː~ej][31]
Non-prevocalic
/ɡ/ 		bag, drag [eə][ae] [æ][ag] [æ][ah]
Prevocalic /ɡ/ dragon, magazine [æ]
Non-prevocalic
/b, d, ʃ/ 		grab, flash, sad [eə][ae] [æ][35] [ɛə][35]
Non-prevocalic
/f, θ, s/ 		ask, bath, half,
glass 		[eə][ae]
Otherwise as, back, happy,
locality 		[æ][ai]
  1. ^ Stem-final /iː/ is diphthongised to [əi] or [ei] in Southern Scots.[1]
  2. ^ Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme /ei/ only in some North Northern Scots varieties,[2][3] generally merging with /i/ or /e/ in other Modern Scots varieties.[3]
  3. ^ The final vowel in HAPPY is best identified as an unstressed allophone of FACE for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: /ˈhape/. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of FLEECE: /ˈhapiː/.[4]
  4. ^ In most Central and Southern Scots varieties /eː/ merges with /e/. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.[5] In Ulster Scots the realisation may be [ɛː].[6] In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; FACE is [eː], [ɪə] or [eɪ], whereas SQUARE is [ɛː], distinguished from DRESS by length.[7] The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.
  5. ^ /ɔː/ is typically not distinguished from /ɔ/ in Scottish English, which features the cot-caught merger. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as /ɔː/ for THOUGHT and NORTH and /ɒ/ for LOT and CLOTH.[7] They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where CLOTH has a long vowel /ɔː/.
  6. ^ /ɔ/ may merge with /o/ in Central and Southern Scots varieties.[8]
  7. ^ Stem-final /ʉ/, is diphthongised to /ʌʉ/ in Southern Scots.[1] In Geordie there is a contrastive /ʊ/ vowel which also encompasses the STRUT class, in other varieties there is a foot-goose merger with a contrastive STRUT.[7]
  8. ^ Regardless of the following /r/. English CURE stems from historical /uːr/ (in Scotland, the historical /ʊr/ has evolved into /ʌr/ instead, see nurse mergers) regardless of the preceding /j/. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong /uə/, whereas the historical /ʊr/ has mostly evolved into the NURSE vowel /øː/, as it has in most other accents of English.
  9. ^ /j/ merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of yod-coalescence. Tune is best analysed as /tʃʉn/ for many speakers of Scottish English.
  10. ^ a b c Occurs only in Scots.
  11. ^ Most Central Scots varieties merge /ø/ with /e/ in long environments and with /ɪ/ in short environments, but most Northern Scots varieties merge /ø/ with /i/.[9] /ø/ generally remains [ø], sometimes [y] in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of Perthshire and Angus, Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, East Dumfrieshire, Orkney and Shetland.[10] Before /k/ and /x/ /ø/ is often realised [(j)ʉ] or [(j)ʌ] depending on dialect.[11]
  12. ^ /ʌʉ/ may be merge with /o/ before /k/ in many Modern Scots varieties.
  13. ^ Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less /ɛ/.[12]
  14. ^ a b c d e f Scottish English lacks the nurse mergers, which means that it distinguishes KIT /ə/, DRESS /ɛ/ and STRUT /ʌ/ before syllable-final /r/, as in fir /fər/ (with the same /ər/ as in letter /ˈlɛtər/), fern /fɛrn/ and fur /fʌr/. In other varieties of English (including Geordie, which is non-rhotic), the three vowels fall together as /ɜː/ (transcribed with ⟨øː⟩ in Geordie), though not always when the /r/ occurs between vowels (see e.g. hurry-furry merger, which Geordie lacks). In broadest Geordie NURSE partially falls together with /ɔː/, but the latter is [aː] instead in some words.
  15. ^ Not distinguished from /ʊ/ in Geordie, see foot-strut split.[7]
  16. ^ In some Modern Scots varieties /a/ may merge with /ɔː/ in long environments.[13] (see below)
  17. ^ /iː/, which occurs stem final, is diphthongised to [əi] or [ei] in Southern Scots.[1]
  18. ^ Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme /ei/ only in some North Northern Scots varieties,[14][3] generally merging with /i/ or /e/ in other Modern Scots varieties.[3]
  19. ^ The final vowel in HAPPY is best identified as an unstressed allophone of FACE for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: /ˈhape/. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of FLEECE: /ˈhapiː/.[15]
  20. ^ In most Central and Southern Scots varieties /eː/ merges with /e/. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.[16] In Ulster Scots the realisation may be [ɛː].[17] In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; FACE is [eː], [ɪə] or [eɪ], whereas SQUARE is [ɛː], distinguished from DRESS by length.[7] The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.
  21. ^ /ɔː/ is typically not distinguished from /ɔ/ in Scottish English, which features the cot-caught merger. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as /ɔː/ for THOUGHT and NORTH and /ɒ/ for LOT and CLOTH.[7] They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where CLOTH has a long vowel /ɔː/.
  22. ^ /ɔ/ may merge with /o/ in Central and Southern Scots varieties.[18]
  23. ^ Stem final /ʉ/, is diphthongised to /ʌʉ/ in Southern Scots.[1] In Geordie there is a contrastive /ʊ/ vowel which also encompasses the STRUT class, in other varieties there is a foot-goose merger with a contrastive STRUT.[7]
  24. ^ Regardless of the following /r/. English CURE stems from historical /uːr/ (in Scotland, the historical /ʊr/ has evolved into /ʌr/ instead, see nurse mergers) regardless of the preceding /j/. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong /uə/, whereas the historical /ʊr/ has mostly evolved into the NURSE vowel /øː/, as it has in most other accents of English.
  25. ^ /j/ merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of yod-coalescence. Tune is best analysed as /tʃʉn/ for many speakers of Scottish English.
  26. ^ Most Central Scots varieties merge /ø/ with /e/ in long environments and with /ɪ/ in short environments, but most Northern Scots varieties merge /ø/ with /i/.[19] /ø/ generally remains [ø], sometimes [y] in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of Perthshire and Angus, Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, East Dumfrieshire, Orkney and Shetland.[20] Before /k/ and /x/ /ø/ is often realised [(j)ʉ] or [(j)ʌ] depending on dialect.[21]
  27. ^ /ʌʉ/ may be merge with /o/ before /k/ in many Modern Scots varieties.
  28. ^ Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less /ɛ/.[22]
  29. ^ Not distinguished from /ʊ/ in Geordie, see foot-strut split.[7]
  30. ^ In some Modern Scots varieties /a/ may merge with /ɔː/ in long environments.[13] (see below)
  31. ^ a b c d Most function words (am, can, had, etc.) and some learned or less common words (Afghan, alas, asterisk, etc.) have [æ].
  32. ^ In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs began, ran, swam, and wan (variant of won) have [æ].[25]
  33. ^ In Philadelphia, bad, mad, and glad alone have [eə].
  34. ^ In New England, Pittsburgh,[32] and Florida[23] and in scatterings through the Midland US,[33] the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,[23]
    the quality of /æ/ is more close before /m, n/, more mid before /d/ (and possibly other voiced stops like /b, ɡ, dʒ/), and more open elsewhere.[34] However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere
    in the Midland US,[23] it is more continuous, though still the most close before /m, n/.
  35. ^ In New York City, exceptional [eə] is found notably in avenue and variably before /dʒ/ as in imagine and magic.[36]
  1. ^ a b c d Introduction. p. xxx. Archived from the original on 2014-08-19. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi Archived 17 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ a b c d A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii
  4. ^ Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22919-7, (vol. 1)
  5. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.
  6. ^ Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Cite error: The named reference wattallen was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.
  9. ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.
  10. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.
  11. ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix
  12. ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.
  13. ^ a b Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.
  14. ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi Archived 17 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22919-7, (vol. 1)
  16. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.
  17. ^ Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.
  18. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.
  19. ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.
  20. ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.
  21. ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix
  22. ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.
  23. ^ a b c d Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 182. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  24. ^ a b c Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173–4. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  25. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 238. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  26. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 178, 180. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  27. ^ a b Boberg (2008), p. 145.
  28. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 175–7. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  29. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 183. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  30. ^ Baker, Mielke & Archangeli (2008).
  31. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  32. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 181. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  33. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 175. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  34. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 174. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  35. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 82, 123, 177, 179. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  36. ^ Labov (2007), p. 359.


/æ/ raising in North American English[1]
Environment Phonemic systems Non-phonemic (continuous) systems
Consonant after /æ/ Example words New York City & New Orleans Baltimore & Philadelphia General US, Florida, Midland US, New England, & Western US Canadian, Northwest US, & Upper Midwest US Southern US & Black Vernacular Great Lakes US
/m, n/ Checked: aunt, fan, ham, pants, plan, lamb, understand,[2] etc.[a] [eə][4] [iə][b] [ɛə~æ] [ɛə~eə] [eə]
Free: animal, ceramic, manatee, Montana, planet, Spanish,[5] etc.[note 1] [æ][7]
/ɡ/ Checked: bag, drag, tag,[8] etc. [eə][9] [æ][10] [æ][c] [eːɪ̯][17][d] continuous [eʲ] [ɛ(j)ə~æ] [ɛə~æ]
Free: agate, dragon, magazine, etc. [æ][19]
/b, d, dʒ, ʃ/ Checked: bad, flash, glad, grab, mad, sad,[20] etc.[e] [eə][21] continuous [æ] [eə~ɛə]
/f, s, θ/ Checked: ask, bath, calf, half, glass,[22] etc. [eə][23]
Others as, back, frank, happy, locality;[24] etc. [æ][25]
For the phoneme /æ/, [eə] represents a tense pronunciation and [æ] a non-tense (or lax) pronunciation. The term "continuous" refers to a system without a decisive phonemic split of /æ/, followed by whichever allophone predominates in the given context.

Notes

  1. ^ In Philadelphia, began, ran, and swam alone remain lax.[3]
  2. ^ Exact allophones vary by region's or even individual's participation in a nasal or continuous system.
  3. ^ In New England, Pittsburgh,[11] and Florida[12] and in scatterings through the Midland US,[13] the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,[14] /æ/ is more close before /m, n/, more mid before /b, g, d, dʒ/, and more open elsewhere.[15] However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,[16] possible pronunciations of /æ/ are more continuous, though still the most close before /m, n/.
  4. ^ In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, /æ/ raising before /g/ is often strong enough to produce a merger of /æg/ and /eɪg/, for example causing haggle and Hegel to be homophones.[18]
  5. ^ In Philadelphia, bad, mad, and glad alone in this set become tense.
Footnotes
  • Nearly all American English speakers pronounce /æŋ/ somewhere between [æŋ] and [eɪŋ], though Western speakers specifically favor [eɪŋ].
  • The Great Lakes dialect traditionally tenses /æ/ in all cases to at least some degree, but reversals of that tensing before non-nasal consonants (while often maintaining some of the other vowel shifts of the region) has been observed recently where it has been studied (in Lansing and Syracuse).
  • In American phonology, /æ/ before /r/ is often transcribed as /ɛ/ due to the prevalence of the Mary–marry merger. However, a distinct /æ/ before /r/ remains in much of the Northeastern U.S. (strongest in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Baltimore) and some of the Southern U.S.


TENSE": magic, imagine,

checked /b, d, dʒ/ or any old /b, d, ʃ, v, z/?

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

A chart of the pronunciation of stressed /ɒr/ and /ɔːr/ before a vowel
represented by the diaphoneme /ɒr/ represented by the diaphoneme /ɔr/
pronounced [ɒɹ] in mainstream England pronounced [ɔːɹ] in mainstream England
pronounced [ɒɹ] in Boston pronounced [ɔɹ] in Boston
pronounced [ɔɹ] in Canada
pronounced [ɒɹ~ɑɹ] in New York City pronounced [ɔɹ] in New York City
pronounced [ɑɹ] in the mainstream United States pronounced [ɔɹ] in the mainstream United States
these five words only:
borrow, morrow,
sorry, sorrow,
tomorrow 		corridor, euphoric,
foreign, forest,
Florida, historic,
horrible, majority,
minority, moral,
orange, Oregon,
origin, porridge,
priority, quarantine,
quarrel, sorority,
warranty, warren,
warrior (etc.) 		aura, boring,
choral, deplorable,
flooring, flora,
glory, hoary,
memorial, menorah,
orientation, Moorish,
oral, pouring,
scorer, storage,
story, Tory,
warring (etc.)
  1. ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 182. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.
  2. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  3. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 238.
  4. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
  5. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  6. ^ Trager, George L. (1940) One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A' in American Speech: 3rd ed. Vol. 15: Duke UP. 256. Print.
  7. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
  8. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
  9. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  10. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  11. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 181.
  12. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 182.
  13. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 175.
  14. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  15. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
  16. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  17. ^ Boberg, 2008, p. 145
  18. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  19. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  20. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  21. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  22. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  23. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173.
  24. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  25. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.


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