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{{short description|Lymphatic-like vessel in the eye}}
{{Infobox anatomy
{{Infobox anatomy
| Name = Schlemm's canal
| Name = Schlemm's canal
| Latin = sinus venosus sclerae
| Latin = sinus venosus sclerae
| Image = Blausen 0390 EyeAnatomy Sectional.png
| Image = Blausen 0390 EyeAnatomy Sectional.png
Line 6: Line 7:
| Image2 = Gray883.png
| Image2 = Gray883.png
| Caption2 = The upper half of a sagittal section through the front of the [[human eye|eyeball]]. (Canal of Schlemm labeled at center left.)
| Caption2 = The upper half of a sagittal section through the front of the [[human eye|eyeball]]. (Canal of Schlemm labeled at center left.)
| System =
| System =[[Eye]]
}}
}}


'''Schlemm's canal''', also known as the canal of Schlemm, and as the scleral venous sinus, is a circular [[Lymph|lymphatic]]-like vessel in the [[human eye|eye]]. It collects [[aqueous humor]] from the [[anterior chamber]] and delivers it into the episcleral blood vessels. Canaloplasty may be used to widen it.
'''Schlemm's canal''' is a circular lymphatic-like vessel in the [[human eye|eye]] that collects [[aqueous humor]] from the [[anterior chamber]] and delivers it into the episcleral blood vessels via aqueous veins.<ref>Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. ''Dictionary of Eye Terminology''. Gainesville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990.</ref><ref name="Aspelund2014">{{cite journal|authors=Aleksanteri Aspelund, Tuomas Tammela, Salli Antila, Harri Nurmi, Veli-Matti Leppänen, Georgia Zarkada, Lukas Stanczuk, Mathias Francois, Taija Mäkinen, Pipsa Saharinen, Ilkka Immonen, and Kari Alitalo.|title=The Schlemm's canal is a VEGF-C/VEGFR-3-responsive lymphatic-like vessel.|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|year=2014|pmid= 25061878|doi=10.1172/JCI75395|volume=124|pages=3975–86|pmc=4153703}}</ref><ref name="Park2014">{{cite journal|authors=Dae-Young Park, Junyeop Lee, Intae Park, Dongwon Choi, Sunju Lee, Sukhyun Song, Yoonha Hwang, Ki Yong Hong, Yoshikazu Nakaoka, Taija Makinen, Pilhan Kim, Kari Alitalo, Young-Kwon Hong, and Gou Young Koh|title=Lymphatic regulator PROX1 determines Schlemm's canal integrity and identity.|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|year=2014|pmid= 25061877|doi=10.1172/JCI75392|volume=124|pages=3960–74|pmc=4153702}}</ref><ref name="Kizhatil2014">{{cite journal|authors=Krishnakumar Kizhatil, Margaret Ryan, Jeffrey K. Marchant, Stephen Henrich, Simon W. M. John|title=Schlemm's canal is a unique vessel with a combination of blood vascular and lymphatic phenotypes that forms by a novel developmental process.|journal=PLoS Biology|year=2014|pmid= 25051267|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001912|volume=12|pages=e1001912|pmc=4106723}}</ref> It is named after [[Friedrich Schlemm]] (1795–1858), a German anatomist.


== Structure ==
The canal is essentially an endothelium-lined tube, resembling that of a lymphatic vessel. On the inside of the canal, nearest to the aqueous humor, it is covered by the [[trabecular meshwork]]; this region makes the greatest contribution to outflow resistance of the aqueous humor.
Schlemm's canal is an endothelium-lined tube, resembling that of a lymphatic vessel.<ref name="Aspelund2014">{{cite journal|last1=Aspelund|first1=Aleksanteri|last2=Tammela|first2=Tuomas|last3=Antila|first3=Salli|last4=Nurmi|first4=Harri|last5=Leppänen|first5=Veli-Matti|last6=Zarkada|first6=Georgia|last7=Stanczuk|first7=Lukas|last8=Francois|first8=Mathias|last9=Mäkinen|first9=Taija|last10=Saharinen|first10=Pipsa|last11=Immonen|first11=Ilkka|year=2014|title=The Schlemm's canal is a VEGF-C/VEGFR-3-responsive lymphatic-like vessel|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=124|issue=9|pages=3975–86|doi=10.1172/JCI75395|pmc=4153703|pmid=25061878|last12=Alitalo|first12=Kari|author-link12=Kari Alitalo}}</ref><ref name="Park2014">{{cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Dae-Young|last2=Lee|first2=Junyeop|last3=Park|first3=Intae|last4=Choi|first4=Dongwon|last5=Lee|first5=Sunju|last6=Song|first6=Sukhyun|last7=Hwang|first7=Yoonha|last8=Hong|first8=Ki Yong|last9=Nakaoka|first9=Yoshikazu|last10=Makinen|first10=Taija|last11=Kim|first11=Pilhan|year=2014|title=Lymphatic regulator PROX1 determines Schlemm's canal integrity and identity|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=124|issue=9|pages=3960–74|doi=10.1172/JCI75392|pmc=4153702|pmid=25061877|first14=Gou Young|last14=Koh|first13=Young-Kwon|last13=Hong|author-link12=Kari Alitalo|first12=Kari|last12=Alitalo|author-link14=Koh Gou Young}}</ref><ref name="Kizhatil2014">{{cite journal|last1=Kizhatil|first1=Krishnakumar|last2=Ryan|first2=Margaret|last3=Marchant|first3=Jeffrey K.|last4=Henrich|first4=Stephen|last5=John|first5=Simon W. M.|year=2014|title=Schlemm's canal is a unique vessel with a combination of blood vascular and lymphatic phenotypes that forms by a novel developmental process|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001912|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001912|pmc=4106723|pmid=25051267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> On the inside of the canal, nearest to the aqueous humor, it is covered and held open by the [[trabecular meshwork]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=M. C.|last2=Kamm|first2=R. D.|date=1983-03-01|title=The role of Schlemm's canal in aqueous outflow from the human eye.|url=https://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2176784|journal=Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=320–325|issn=1552-5783}}</ref> This creates outflow resistance against the [[Aqueous humour|aqueous humor]].<ref name="Aspelund2014" />


===Development===
Conventionally, the canal has been considered a blood vessel, but recent studies have revealed that the molecular identity of Schlemm's canal is strikingly reminiscent to the one of lymphatic vasculature.<ref name="Aspelund2014"/><ref name="Park2014"/><ref name="Kizhatil2014"/>
While Schlemm's canal has generally been considered as a vein or a scleral venous sinus, the canal is similar to the [[lymphatic system|lymphatic vasculature]]. It is never filled with blood in physiological settings as it does not receive arterial blood circulation.<ref name="Ramos2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramos RF, Hoying JB, Witte MH, Daniel Stamer W |title= Schlemm's canal endothelia, lymphatic, or blood vasculature? |journal= J Glaucoma |year= 2007 |pmid= 17571003|doi= 10.1097/IJG.0b013e3180654ac6 |volume=16 |issue= 4 |pages= 391–405|s2cid= 30363152 }}</ref> Schlemm's canal displays several features of [[lymphatic endothelium]], including the expression of [[PROX1]], [[VEGFR3]], [[CCL21]], [[FOXC2]], but lacked the expression of [[LYVE1]] and [[PDPN]].<ref name="Aspelund2014" /><ref name="Park2014" /><ref name="Kizhatil2014" /> It develops via a unique mechanism involving the transdifferentiation of venous endothelial cells in the eye into lymphatic-like endothelial cells.<ref name="Aspelund2014" /><ref name="Park2014" /><ref name="Kizhatil2014" />


⚫
This developmental morphogenesis of the canal is sensitive to the inhibition of lymphangiogenic growth factors.<ref name="Aspelund2014" /> In adults, the administration of the lymphangiogenic growth factor [[VEGFC]] enlarged the Schlemm's canal, which was associated with a reduction in [[intraocular pressure]].<ref name="Aspelund2014" />
==Lymphatic-like identity==
While conventional wisdom has considered Schlemm's canal (also known as the scleral venous sinus) as a vein, the canal shares several structural and functional features reminiscent of the [[lymphatic system|lymphatic vasculature]]. Notably, it is never filled with blood in physiological settings as it does not receive arterial blood circulation.<ref name="Ramos2007">{{cite journal|authors=Ramos RF, Hoying JB, Witte MH, Daniel Stamer W.|title=Schlemm's canal endothelia, lymphatic, or blood vasculature?|journal=J Glaucoma|year=2007|pmid= 17571003|doi=10.1097/IJG.0b013e3180654ac6|volume=16|pages=391–405}}</ref>


⚫
In the combined absence of [[angiopoietin 1]] and [[angiopoietin 2]], Schlemm's canal and episcleral lymphatic vasculature completely failed to develop.<ref name="Thomson2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Thomson BR, Heinen S, Jeansson M, Ghosh AK, Fatima A, Sung HK, Onay T, Chen H, Yamaguchi S, Economides AN, Flenniken A, Gale NW, Hong YK, Fawzi A, Liu X, Kume T, Quaggin SE |title= A lymphatic defect causes ocular hypertension and glaucoma in mice |journal= The Journal of Clinical Investigation |year= 2014|pmid= 25202984 |doi= 10.1172/JCI77162 |volume= 124 |issue= 10 |pages= 4320–24 |pmc=4191022}}</ref>
Three recent independent pioneering studies by Aleksanteri Aspelund and [[Kari Alitalo]] from the [[University of Helsinki]], Dae-Young Park and [[Koh Gou Young]] from the [[Institute for Basic Science]] and [[KAIST]] and Krishnakumar Kizhatil and Simon W. M. John from the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], discovered that Schlemm's canal displays several features of [[lymphatic endothelium]], including the expression of [[PROX1]], [[VEGFR3]], [[CCL21]], [[FOXC2]], but lacked the expression of [[LYVE1]] and [[PDPN]], indicating that Schlemm's canal is a lymphatic-like vessel.<ref name="Aspelund2014"/><ref name="Park2014"/><ref name="Kizhatil2014"/>


== Function ==
Developmental studies revealed that Schlemm's canal develops via a unique mechanism involving the transdifferentiation of venous endothelial cells in the eye into lymphatic-like endothelial cells.<ref name="Aspelund2014"/><ref name="Park2014"/><ref name="Kizhatil2014"/>
Schlemm's canal collects [[aqueous humor]] from the [[anterior chamber]]. It delivers it into the episcleral blood vessels via aqueous veins.<ref>Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. ''Dictionary of Eye Terminology''. Gainesville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990.</ref><ref name="Aspelund2014" /><ref name="Park2014" /><ref name="Kizhatil2014" />


== Clinical significance ==
⚫
The developmental morphogenesis of the canal was sensitive to the inhibition of lymphangiogenic growth factors, and in adults, the administration of the lymphangiogenic growth factor [[VEGFC]] enlarged the Schlemm's canal, which was associated with a reduction in [[intraocular pressure]].<ref name="Aspelund2014"/>


⚫
===Canaloplasty===
⚫
In the combined absence of [[angiopoietin 1]] and [[angiopoietin 2]], Schlemm's canal and episcleral lymphatic vasculature completely failed to develop, resulting in [[buphthalmos]] and [[glaucoma]].<ref name="Thomson2014">{{cite journal|authors=Thomson BR, Heinen S, Jeansson M, Ghosh AK, Fatima A, Sung HK, Onay T, Chen H, Yamaguchi S, Economides AN, Flenniken A, Gale NW, Hong YK, Fawzi A, Liu X, Kume T, Quaggin SE.|title=A lymphatic defect causes ocular hypertension and glaucoma in mice.|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|year=2014|pmid= 25202984|doi=10.1172/JCI77162|volume=124|pages=4320–24|pmc=4191022}}</ref>
⚫
Canaloplasty is a procedure to restore the eye’s natural drainage system to provide sustained reduction of [[intraocular pressure]]. Micro[[catheter]]s are used in a simple and minimally invasive procedure. A surgeon will create a tiny incision to gain access to Schlemm's canal. A microcatheter circumnavigates Schlemm's canal around the iris, enlarging the main drainage channel and its smaller collector channels through the injection of a sterile, gel-like material called [[viscoelastic]]. The catheter is then removed and a suture is placed within the canal and tightened. By opening Schlemm's canal, the pressure inside the eye is relieved''.''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mediamillinc.com/vjo.php?display=video&id=013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714064527/https://mediamillinc.com/vjo.php?display=video&id=013 |archive-date=2011-07-14 |title=Video Journal of Ophthalmology - Streaming Video}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(08)00004-7/abstract,|title=Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(07)00697-9/abstract|title = Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(09)00139-4/abstract|title = Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery}}</ref>


===Laser trabeculoplasty===
⚫
==Canaloplasty==
A [[trabeculoplasty]] is a modification of the [[trabecular meshwork]]. [[Laser trabeculoplasty]] (LTP) is the application of a laser beam to burn areas of the trabecular meshwork, located near the base of the iris, to increase fluid outflow. LTP is used in the treatment of various open-angle glaucomas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/aha_gfollow_oph.htm |title=University of Michigan Health System - Surgery for Glaucoma |access-date=2006-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904070642/http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/aha_gfollow_oph.htm |archive-date=2006-09-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
⚫
Canaloplasty is a procedure designed to enhance and restore the eye’s natural drainage system to provide sustained reduction of [[intraocular pressure]]. Canaloplasty utilizes micro[[catheter]]s in a simple and minimally invasive procedure. To perform a canaloplasty, a surgeon will create a tiny incision to gain access to Schlemm's canal. A microcatheter circumnavigates Schlemm's canal around the iris, enlarging the main drainage channel and its smaller collector channels through the injection of a sterile, gel-like material called [[viscoelastic]]. The catheter is then removed and a suture is placed within the canal and tightened. By opening Schlemm's canal, the pressure inside the eye is relieved. Long-term results are available, published in May 2009 in the ''Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery.''<ref>https://mediamillinc.com/vjo.php?display=video&id=013</ref><ref>http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(08)00004-7/abstract,</ref><ref>http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(07)00697-9/abstract</ref><ref>http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350(09)00139-4/abstract</ref>

The two types of laser trabeculoplasty are ''Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty'' (ALT) and ''Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty'' (SLT).

As its name suggests, Argon laser trabeculoplasty uses an [[Argon laser]] to create tiny burns on the trabecular meshwork.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eyemdlink.com/EyeProcedure.asp?EyeProcedureID=47 |title=EyeMDLink.com - Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT) |access-date=2006-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061111074253/http://www.eyemdlink.com/EyeProcedure.asp?EyeProcedureID=47 |archive-date=2006-11-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Selective laser trabeculoplasty is newer technology that uses a [[laser]] to target specific cells within the trabecular meshwork and create less thermal damage than ALT.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.revoptom.com/index.asp?ArticleType=SiteSpec&page=osc%2F105058%2Flesson.htm |title=Review of Optometry - SLT: The Laser Picks Up Where Medications Leave Off |access-date=2019-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017043924/http://www.revoptom.com/index.asp?ArticleType=SiteSpec&page=osc%2F105058%2Flesson.htm |archive-date=2006-10-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.glaucoma.org/treating/a_new_type_of_g.html Glaucoma Research Foundation - SLT: A New Type of Glaucoma Surgery]</ref> SLT shows promise as a long-term treatment.<ref>[http://www.revophth.com/index.asp?page=1_361.htm "Review of Ophthalmology: SLT for Glaucoma Threapy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017095343/http://www.revophth.com/index.asp?page=1_361.htm |date=2006-10-17 }} Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty</ref>

In SLT, a laser is used to selectively target the [[Melanocyte|melanocytes]] in the trabecular meshwork. Though the mechanism by which SLT functions is not well understood, it has been shown in trials to be as effective as the older Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty. However, because SLT is performed using a much lower power laser, it does not appear to affect the structure of the trabecular meshwork (based on electron microscopy) to the same extent, so retreatment may be possible if the effects from the original treatment should begin wear off, although this has not been proven in clinical studies. ALT is repeatable to some extent with measurable results possible.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

If SLT is successful, it will stimulate metabolic change in pigmented cells in the trabecular meshwork. This causes an immune response which, in turn, clears the meshwork channel/drain of cellular build up. This allows more aqueous humour to flow into Schlemm's canal from the anterior cavity, reducing the intraocular pressure and therefore lowering the risk of glaucoma, or further damage to the optic nerve, due to overpressure in the eye.

=== Angiopoietin deficiency ===
Schlemm's canal and episcleral lymphatic vasculature completely failed to develop in the combined absence of [[angiopoietin 1]] and [[angiopoietin 2]].<ref name="Thomson2014" /> This causes [[buphthalmos]] and [[glaucoma]].<ref name="Thomson2014" />

=== Glaucoma ===
Glaucoma may be related to drainage of aqueous humor from the eye.<ref name=":0" /> This is mostly related to resistance on the internal surface of Schlemm's canal.<ref name=":0" />

== History ==
Schlemm's canal is named after [[Friedrich Schlemm]] (1795–1858), a [[Germans|German]] [[anatomist]].


==Additional images==
==Additional images==
Line 47: Line 70:


{{Eye}}
{{Eye}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Human eye anatomy]]
[[Category:Human eye anatomy]]
[[Category:Anatomy named for one who described it]]

Latest revision as of 00:55, 13 July 2024

Schlemm's canal
Anterior part of the human eye, with Canal of Schlemm at lower right.
The upper half of a sagittal section through the front of the eyeball. (Canal of Schlemm labeled at center left.)
Details
SystemEye
Identifiers
Latinsinus venosus sclerae
MeSHD000092662
TA98A12.3.06.109
FMA51873
Anatomical terminology

Schlemm's canal, also known as the canal of Schlemm, and as the scleral venous sinus, is a circular lymphatic-like vessel in the eye. It collects aqueous humor from the anterior chamber and delivers it into the episcleral blood vessels. Canaloplasty may be used to widen it.

Structure

[edit]

Schlemm's canal is an endothelium-lined tube, resembling that of a lymphatic vessel.[1][2][3] On the inside of the canal, nearest to the aqueous humor, it is covered and held open by the trabecular meshwork.[4] This creates outflow resistance against the aqueous humor.[1]

Development

[edit]

While Schlemm's canal has generally been considered as a vein or a scleral venous sinus, the canal is similar to the lymphatic vasculature. It is never filled with blood in physiological settings as it does not receive arterial blood circulation.[5] Schlemm's canal displays several features of lymphatic endothelium, including the expression of PROX1, VEGFR3, CCL21, FOXC2, but lacked the expression of LYVE1 and PDPN.[1][2][3] It develops via a unique mechanism involving the transdifferentiation of venous endothelial cells in the eye into lymphatic-like endothelial cells.[1][2][3]

This developmental morphogenesis of the canal is sensitive to the inhibition of lymphangiogenic growth factors.[1] In adults, the administration of the lymphangiogenic growth factor VEGFC enlarged the Schlemm's canal, which was associated with a reduction in intraocular pressure.[1]

In the combined absence of angiopoietin 1 and angiopoietin 2, Schlemm's canal and episcleral lymphatic vasculature completely failed to develop.[6]

Function

[edit]

Schlemm's canal collects aqueous humor from the anterior chamber. It delivers it into the episcleral blood vessels via aqueous veins.[7][1][2][3]

Clinical significance

[edit]

Canaloplasty

[edit]

Canaloplasty is a procedure to restore the eye’s natural drainage system to provide sustained reduction of intraocular pressure. Microcatheters are used in a simple and minimally invasive procedure. A surgeon will create a tiny incision to gain access to Schlemm's canal. A microcatheter circumnavigates Schlemm's canal around the iris, enlarging the main drainage channel and its smaller collector channels through the injection of a sterile, gel-like material called viscoelastic. The catheter is then removed and a suture is placed within the canal and tightened. By opening Schlemm's canal, the pressure inside the eye is relieved.[8][9][10][11]

Laser trabeculoplasty

[edit]

A trabeculoplasty is a modification of the trabecular meshwork. Laser trabeculoplasty (LTP) is the application of a laser beam to burn areas of the trabecular meshwork, located near the base of the iris, to increase fluid outflow. LTP is used in the treatment of various open-angle glaucomas.[12]

The two types of laser trabeculoplasty are Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT) and Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT).

As its name suggests, Argon laser trabeculoplasty uses an Argon laser to create tiny burns on the trabecular meshwork.[13]

Selective laser trabeculoplasty is newer technology that uses a laser to target specific cells within the trabecular meshwork and create less thermal damage than ALT.[14][15] SLT shows promise as a long-term treatment.[16]

In SLT, a laser is used to selectively target the melanocytes in the trabecular meshwork. Though the mechanism by which SLT functions is not well understood, it has been shown in trials to be as effective as the older Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty. However, because SLT is performed using a much lower power laser, it does not appear to affect the structure of the trabecular meshwork (based on electron microscopy) to the same extent, so retreatment may be possible if the effects from the original treatment should begin wear off, although this has not been proven in clinical studies. ALT is repeatable to some extent with measurable results possible.[citation needed]

If SLT is successful, it will stimulate metabolic change in pigmented cells in the trabecular meshwork. This causes an immune response which, in turn, clears the meshwork channel/drain of cellular build up. This allows more aqueous humour to flow into Schlemm's canal from the anterior cavity, reducing the intraocular pressure and therefore lowering the risk of glaucoma, or further damage to the optic nerve, due to overpressure in the eye.

Angiopoietin deficiency

[edit]

Schlemm's canal and episcleral lymphatic vasculature completely failed to develop in the combined absence of angiopoietin 1 and angiopoietin 2.[6] This causes buphthalmos and glaucoma.[6]

Glaucoma

[edit]

Glaucoma may be related to drainage of aqueous humor from the eye.[4] This is mostly related to resistance on the internal surface of Schlemm's canal.[4]

History

[edit]

Schlemm's canal is named after Friedrich Schlemm (1795–1858), a German anatomist.

Additional images

[edit]
  • Enlarged general view of the iridial angle. (Labeled with older label of 'sinus venosus scleræ' at center top.)
    Enlarged general view of the iridial angle. (Labeled with older label of 'sinus venosus scleræ' at center top.)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g Aspelund, Aleksanteri; Tammela, Tuomas; Antila, Salli; Nurmi, Harri; Leppänen, Veli-Matti; Zarkada, Georgia; Stanczuk, Lukas; Francois, Mathias; Mäkinen, Taija; Saharinen, Pipsa; Immonen, Ilkka; Alitalo, Kari (2014). "The Schlemm's canal is a VEGF-C/VEGFR-3-responsive lymphatic-like vessel". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 124 (9): 3975–86. doi:10.1172/JCI75395. PMC 4153703. PMID 25061878.
  2. ^ a b c d Park, Dae-Young; Lee, Junyeop; Park, Intae; Choi, Dongwon; Lee, Sunju; Song, Sukhyun; Hwang, Yoonha; Hong, Ki Yong; Nakaoka, Yoshikazu; Makinen, Taija; Kim, Pilhan; Alitalo, Kari; Hong, Young-Kwon; Koh, Gou Young (2014). "Lymphatic regulator PROX1 determines Schlemm's canal integrity and identity". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 124 (9): 3960–74. doi:10.1172/JCI75392. PMC 4153702. PMID 25061877.
  3. ^ a b c d Kizhatil, Krishnakumar; Ryan, Margaret; Marchant, Jeffrey K.; Henrich, Stephen; John, Simon W. M. (2014). "Schlemm's canal is a unique vessel with a combination of blood vascular and lymphatic phenotypes that forms by a novel developmental process". PLOS Biology. 12 (7): e1001912. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001912. PMC 4106723. PMID 25051267.
  4. ^ a b c Johnson, M. C.; Kamm, R. D. (1983-03-01). "The role of Schlemm's canal in aqueous outflow from the human eye". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 24 (3): 320–325. ISSN 1552-5783.
  5. ^ Ramos RF, Hoying JB, Witte MH, Daniel Stamer W (2007). "Schlemm's canal endothelia, lymphatic, or blood vasculature?". J Glaucoma. 16 (4): 391–405. doi:10.1097/IJG.0b013e3180654ac6. PMID 17571003. S2CID 30363152.
  6. ^ a b c Thomson BR, Heinen S, Jeansson M, Ghosh AK, Fatima A, Sung HK, Onay T, Chen H, Yamaguchi S, Economides AN, Flenniken A, Gale NW, Hong YK, Fawzi A, Liu X, Kume T, Quaggin SE (2014). "A lymphatic defect causes ocular hypertension and glaucoma in mice". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 124 (10): 4320–24. doi:10.1172/JCI77162. PMC 4191022. PMID 25202984.
  7. ^ Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. Dictionary of Eye Terminology. Gainesville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990.
  8. ^ "Video Journal of Ophthalmology - Streaming Video". Archived from the original on 2011-07-14.
  9. ^ "Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery".
  10. ^ "Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery".
  11. ^ "Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery".
  12. ^ "University of Michigan Health System - Surgery for Glaucoma". Archived from the original on 2006-09-04. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
  13. ^ "EyeMDLink.com - Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT)". Archived from the original on 2006-11-11. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
  14. ^ "Review of Optometry - SLT: The Laser Picks Up Where Medications Leave Off". Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2019-11-24.
  15. ^ Glaucoma Research Foundation - SLT: A New Type of Glaucoma Surgery
  16. ^ "Review of Ophthalmology: SLT for Glaucoma Threapy" Archived 2006-10-17 at the Wayback Machine Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty
[edit]
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