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{{Short description|Red supergiant or hypergiant variable star in the constellation Perseus}}
{{Starbox begin
{{Starbox begin
| name = S Persei
| name = S Persei
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| ra={{RA|2|22|51.70928}}<ref name=hipparcos/>
| ra={{RA|2|22|51.70928}}<ref name=hipparcos/>
| dec={{DEC|58|31|11.4476}}<ref name=hipparcos/>
| dec={{DEC|58|31|11.4476}}<ref name=hipparcos/>
| appmag_v=9.23<ref name="levesque"/> (7.9 - 12.0<ref name=gcvs/>)
| appmag_v=+9.23<ref name="levesque"/> (7.9 - 12.0<ref name=gcvs/>)
| constell=[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
| constell=[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
}}
}}
{{Starbox character
{{Starbox character
| class=M4.5I<ref name=levesque/> (M3Iae - M7<ref name=gcvs/>)
| class=M3 Iae–M7<ref name=gcvs/>
| b-v=2.65<ref name="levesque"/>
| b-v=+2.65<ref name="levesque"/>
| u-b=
| u-b=
| variable=[[Semiregular variable|SRc]]<ref name=gcvs/>
| variable=[[Semiregular variable|SRc]]<ref name=gcvs/>
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{{Starbox astrometry
{{Starbox astrometry
| radial_v=-39.71<ref name=famaey/>
| radial_v=-39.71<ref name=famaey/>
| prop_mo_ra=&minus;0.49 ± 0.23<ref name=asaki/>
| prop_mo_ra=–0.49 ± 0.23<ref name=asaki/>
| prop_mo_dec={{nowrap|&minus;1.19 ± 0.20<ref name=asaki/>}}
| prop_mo_dec={{nowrap|&minus;1.19 ± 0.20<ref name=asaki/>}}
| parallax=0.413
| parallax=0.413
| p_error=0.017
| p_error=0.017
| parallax_footnote=<ref name=asaki/>
| parallax_footnote=<ref name=asaki/>
| absmag_v=&minus;6.36 (at m<sub>V</sub> 9.23)<ref name="levesque"/>
| absmag_v=–6.36 (at m<sub>V</sub> 9.23)<ref name="levesque"/>
}}
}}
{{Starbox detail
{{Starbox detail
| mass=20<ref name=yates/>
| mass=20<ref name=yates/>
| radius={{val|1,298|64|57|fmt=commas}}<ref name="Norris2023">{{Cite web |last=Norris |first=Ryan |date=2023 |title=Student Science at NMT: Learning Optical Interferometry Through Projects on Evolved Stars |url=https://www.chara.gsu.edu/files/2023Meeting/Norris_NMT_Students_2023.pdf |publisher=[[CHARA array|CHARA]]}}</ref>{{snd}}{{val|1364|6|fmt=commas}}<ref name="norris">{{Cite thesis |last=Norris |first=Ryan |title=Seeing Stars Like Never Before: A Long-term Interferometric Imaging Survey of Red Supergiants |date=2019 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Georgia State University]] |url=https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/phy_astr_diss/118/ |doi=10.57709/15009706}}</ref>
| radius=1,212 ± 124<ref name=thompson/>, {{nowrap|780 - 1,230<ref name="levesque"/>}}
| luminosity=123,000<ref name=Davies2020>{{Cite journal|last1=Davies|first1=Ben|last2=Beasor|first2=Emma R.|s2cid=210714093|date=March 2020|title=The 'red supergiant problem': the upper luminosity boundary of Type II supernova progenitors|bibcode=2020MNRAS.493..468D|journal=[[MNRAS]]|language=en|volume=493|issue=1|pages=468–476|doi=10.1093/mnras/staa174|doi-access=free |arxiv=2001.06020 }}</ref> – 186,000<ref name=fok/>
| luminosity=86,000 - 186,000<ref name=fok/><ref name=mauron/><ref name=verhoelst/>
| temperature=3,000<ref name=GarciaHernandez/>–3,600<ref name=fok/>
| temperature=3,000<ref name=GarciaHernandez/> – 3,600<ref name=fok/>
| metal=
| metal=
| rotation=
| rotation=
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{{Starbox end}}
{{Starbox end}}


'''S Persei''' is a [[red supergiant]] located near the [[Double Cluster]] in [[Perseus constellation|Perseus]], north of the cluster [[NGC 869]]. It is a member of the [[Perseus OB1]] [[stellar association|association]] and one of the [[List of largest stars|largest known stars]]. It is also a [[semiregular variable]], a star whose variations are less regular than those of [[Mira variable]]s.
'''S Persei''' is a [[red supergiant]] or [[hypergiant]] located near the [[Double Cluster]] in [[Perseus constellation|Perseus]], north of the cluster [[NGC 869]]. It is a member of the [[Perseus OB1]] [[stellar association|association]] and one of the [[List of largest stars|largest known stars]]. If placed in the [[Solar System]], its photosphere would engulf the [[orbit]] of [[Jupiter]]. It is also a [[semiregular variable]], a star whose variations are less regular than those of [[Mira variable]]s.


==Discovery==
==Discovery==
S Persei was named by German astronomer [[Adalbert Krueger]] in 1874 after observing that it varied in brightness.<ref name=an/> It was subsequently listed in major stellar catalogues of that era as [[Henry Draper Catalogue|HD]]&nbsp;14528 and [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+57&nbsp;552.
S Persei was named by German astronomer [[Adalbert Krueger]] in 1874 after observing that it varied in brightness.<ref name=an/> It was subsequently listed in major stellar catalogues of that era as [[Henry Draper Catalogue|HD]]&nbsp;14528 and [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+57°552.


==Variability==
==Variability==
[[File:SPerLightCurve.png|thumb|left|A [[Photometric_system#Photometric_letters|visual band]] [[light curve]] for S&nbsp;Persei, plotted from AAVSO data<ref name="aavso"/>]]
S Persei varies slowly by several [[apparent magnitude|magnitudes]], a factor of over 40 in brightness. It has a main period of somewhat over two years, but shows significant unpredictability. There is a strong variation in the amplitude from around one magnitude to about four magnitudes, and these have been interpreted as [[Beat (acoustics)|beats]] due to a second period of about 940 days.<ref name=smith/> Other analyses find only the primary period of 813 ± 60 days.<ref name=kiss/>
S Persei varies slowly by several [[apparent magnitude|magnitudes]], a factor of over 40 in brightness. It has a main period of somewhat over two years, but shows significant unpredictability. There is a strong variation in the amplitude from around one magnitude to about four magnitudes, and these have been interpreted as [[Beat (acoustics)|beats]] due to a second period of about 940 days.<ref name=smith/> Other analyses find only the primary period of 813 ± 60 days.<ref name=kiss/>


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==Properties==
==Properties==
Many of the visually bright variable stars belong to this class of semiregulars, as these stars are extremely large and luminous, and hence visible across long distances. S Persei has a radius of 780 times the sun's radius ({{solar radius|link=y}}), but could be larger with a radius of {{solar radius|1,230}}.<ref name="levesque"/> It has been described as a [[hypergiant]].<ref name=zhang/> Its angular diameter has been measured directly and found to be somewhat elliptical. Modelled as a uniform disk, the radius corresponds to {{solar radius|1,212 ± 124}}.<ref name=thompson/>
Many of the visually bright variable stars belong to this class of semiregulars, as these stars are extremely large and luminous, and hence visible across long distances. S Persei has been described as a [[hypergiant]]<ref name=zhang/> and has a radius over 700 times the sun's radius ({{solar radius|link=y}}).<ref name="levesque"/> Its angular diameter has been measured directly and found to be somewhat elliptical. Modelled as a uniform disk, the radius corresponds to {{solar radius|1,212 ± 124}}.<ref name=thompson/>


The temperature has been calculated from the spectrum using a DUSTY model,<ref name=ivezic/> giving an effective photospheric temperature of 3,600 K and a temperature of 900 K for the surrounding dust torus.<ref name=fok/> This is consistent with previous studies, but the derived luminosity from different authors varies from {{solar luminosity|86,000}} to {{solar luminosity|186,000}}.<ref name=fok/><ref name=mauron/> Older studies frequently calculated higher luminosities, lower temperatures, and consequently larger values for the radius.<ref name=dejager/>
The temperature has been calculated from the spectrum using a DUSTY model,<ref name=ivezic/> giving an effective photospheric temperature of 3,500 K and a temperature of 1,000 K for the surrounding dust torus.<ref name=michael>{{cite journal|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/aab961|title=Searching for Cool Dust. II. Infrared Imaging of the OH/IR Supergiants, NML Cyg, VX SGR, S Per, and the Normal Red Supergiants RS per and T per|year=2018|last1=Gordon|first1=Michael S.|last2=Humphreys|first2=Roberta M.|last3=Jones|first3=Terry J.|last4=Shenoy|first4=Dinesh|last5=Gehrz|first5=Robert D.|last6=Helton|first6=L. Andrew|last7=Marengo|first7=Massimo|last8=Hinz|first8=Philip M.|last9=Hoffmann|first9=William F.|s2cid=73650032|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=155|issue=5|page=212|arxiv=1708.00018|bibcode=2018AJ....155..212G |doi-access=free }}</ref> This is consistent with previous studies, but the derived luminosity from different authors varies from {{solar luminosity|86,000}} to {{solar luminosity|186,000}}.<ref name=fok/><ref name=mauron/><ref name=verhoelst/> Older studies frequently calculated higher luminosities, lower temperatures, and consequently larger values for the radius.<ref name=dejager/>


The mass of S Persei is also uncertain, but expected to be around {{solar mass|20}}.<ref name=yates/> Mass is being lost at {{solar mass|{{val|6.8|e=-6}}}} per year,<ref name=mauron/> leading to an extensive and complex circumstellar environment of gas and dust.<ref name=fok/>
The mass of S Persei is also uncertain, but expected to be around {{solar mass|20}}.<ref name=yates/> Mass is being lost at 2.4 to {{solar mass|{{val|2.6|e=-5}}}} per year,<ref name=michael>{{cite journal|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/aab961|title=Searching for Cool Dust. II. Infrared Imaging of the OH/IR Supergiants, NML Cyg, VX SGR, S Per, and the Normal Red Supergiants RS per and T per|year=2018|last1=Gordon|first1=Michael S.|last2=Humphreys|first2=Roberta M.|last3=Jones|first3=Terry J.|last4=Shenoy|first4=Dinesh|last5=Gehrz|first5=Robert D.|last6=Helton|first6=L. Andrew|last7=Marengo|first7=Massimo|last8=Hinz|first8=Philip M.|last9=Hoffmann|first9=William F.|s2cid=73650032|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=155|issue=5|page=212|arxiv=1708.00018|bibcode=2018AJ....155..212G |doi-access=free }}</ref> leading to an extensive and complex circumstellar environment of gas and dust.<ref name=fok/>


==Location==
==Location==
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{{reflist|refs=
{{reflist|refs=


<ref name=dejager>{{cite journal|bibcode=1988A&AS...72..259D|title=Mass loss rates in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series (ISSN 0365-0138)|volume=72|pages=259|author1=De Jager|first1=C.|last2=Nieuwenhuijzen|first2=H.|last3=Van Der Hucht|first3=K. A.|year=1988}}</ref>
<ref name=dejager>{{cite journal|bibcode=1988A&AS...72..259D|title=Mass loss rates in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series|volume=72|pages=259|last1=De Jager|first1=C.|last2=Nieuwenhuijzen|first2=H.|last3=Van Der Hucht|first3=K. A.|year=1988}}</ref>


<ref name=ivezic>{{cite arxiv|eprint=astro-ph/9910475|title=User Manual for DUSTY|author1=Ivezic|first1=Zeljko|last2=Nenkova|first2=Maia|last3=Elitzur|first3=Moshe|year=1999}}</ref>
<ref name=ivezic>{{cite arXiv|eprint=astro-ph/9910475|title=User Manual for DUSTY|last1=Ivezic|first1=Zeljko|last2=Nenkova|first2=Maia|last3=Elitzur|first3=Moshe|year=1999}}</ref>


<ref name=thompson>{{cite journal|bibcode=2003AAS...203.4907T|title=Interferometric observations of the supergiant S Persei: Evidence for axial symmetry and the warm molecular layer|journal=American Astronomical Society Meeting 203|volume=203|pages=49.07|author1=Thompson|first1=R. R.|last2=Creech-Eakman|first2=M. J.|year=2003}}</ref>
<ref name=thompson>{{cite journal|bibcode=2003AAS...203.4907T|title=Interferometric observations of the supergiant S Persei: Evidence for axial symmetry and the warm molecular layer|journal=American Astronomical Society Meeting 203|volume=203|pages=49.07|last1=Thompson|first1=R. R.|last2=Creech-Eakman|first2=M. J.|year=2003}}</ref>


<ref name=wing>{{cite journal|bibcode=2009ASPC..412..113W|title=The Biggest Stars of All|journal=The Biggest|volume=412|pages=113|author1=Wing|first1=R. F.|year=2009}}</ref>
<ref name=wing>{{cite journal|bibcode=2009ASPC..412..113W|title=The Biggest Stars of All|journal=The Biggest|volume=412|pages=113|last1=Wing|first1=R. F.|year=2009}}</ref>


<ref name=smith>{{cite journal|bibcode=1974JAVSO...3...20S|title=S Persei a Semi-Regular Variable with Two Periods|journal=Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers|volume=3|pages=20|author1=Smith|first1=Horace A.|year=1974}}</ref>
<ref name=smith>{{cite journal|bibcode=1974JAVSO...3...20S|title=S Persei a Semi-Regular Variable with Two Periods|journal=Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers|volume=3|issue=1|pages=20|last1=Smith|first1=Horace A.|year=1974}}</ref>


<ref name=kiss>{{cite journal|bibcode=2006MNRAS.372.1721K|arxiv=astro-ph/0608438|title=Variability in red supergiant stars: Pulsations, long secondary periods and convection noise|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=372|issue=4|pages=1721|author1=Kiss|first1=L. L.|last2=Szabó|first2=Gy. M.|last3=Bedding|first3=T. R.|year=2006|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10973.x}}</ref>
<ref name=kiss>{{cite journal|bibcode=2006MNRAS.372.1721K|arxiv=astro-ph/0608438|title=Variability in red supergiant stars: Pulsations, long secondary periods and convection noise|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=372|issue=4|pages=1721–1734|last1=Kiss|first1=L. L.|last2=Szabó|first2=Gy. M.|last3=Bedding|first3=T. R.|s2cid=5203133|year=2006|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10973.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>


<ref name="aavso">{{cite web |title=Download Data |url=https://www.aavso.org/data-download |website=aavso.org |publisher=AAVSO |access-date=1 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=an>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/asna.18740831005|title=Anzeige eines neuen veränderlichen Sternes (S Persei)|journal=Astronomische Nachrichten|volume=83|issue=10|pages=157|year=1874|last1=Krüger|first1=A.|bibcode=1874AN.....83..157K}}</ref>


<ref name=hipparcos>{{cite journal|bibcode=2007A&A...474..653V|title=Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=474|issue=2|pages=653|author1=Van Leeuwen|first1=F.|year=2007|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20078357|arxiv = 0708.1752 }}</ref>
<ref name=an>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/asna.18740831005|title=Anzeige eines neuen veränderlichen Sternes (S Persei)|journal=Astronomische Nachrichten|volume=83|issue=10|pages=157–158|year=1874|last1=Krüger|first1=A.|bibcode=1874AN.....83..157K|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1424685}}</ref>


<ref name=gcvs>{{cite journal|bibcode=2003AstL...29..468S|title=An Electronic Version of the Second Volume of the General Catalogue of Variable Stars with Improved Coordinates|journal=Astronomy Letters|volume=29|issue=7|pages=468|author1=Samus'|first1=N. N.|last2=Goranskii|first2=V. P.|last3=Durlevich|first3=O. V.|last4=Zharova|first4=A. V.|last5=Kazarovets|first5=E. V.|last6=Kireeva|first6=N. N.|last7=Pastukhova|first7=E. N.|last8=Williams|first8=D. B.|last9=Hazen|first9=M. L.|year=2003|doi=10.1134/1.1589864}}</ref>
<ref name=hipparcos>{{cite journal|bibcode=2007A&A...474..653V|title=Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=474|issue=2|pages=653–664|last1=Van Leeuwen|first1=F.|s2cid=18759600|year=2007|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20078357|arxiv = 0708.1752 }}</ref>


<ref name=gcvs>{{cite journal|bibcode=2003AstL...29..468S|title=An Electronic Version of the Second Volume of the General Catalogue of Variable Stars with Improved Coordinates|journal=Astronomy Letters|volume=29|issue=7|pages=468|last1=Samus'|first1=N. N.|last2=Goranskii|first2=V. P.|last3=Durlevich|first3=O. V.|last4=Zharova|first4=A. V.|last5=Kazarovets|first5=E. V.|last6=Kireeva|first6=N. N.|last7=Pastukhova|first7=E. N.|last8=Williams|first8=D. B.|last9=Hazen|first9=M. L.|s2cid=16299532|year=2003|doi=10.1134/1.1589864}}</ref>
<ref name=levesque>{{cite journal |title=The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought |display-authors=4 |author1-link=Emily Levesque|author1=Emily M. Levesque |author2=Philip Massey |author3=K. A. G. Olsen|author4=Bertrand Plez |author5=Eric Josselin|author6=Andre Maeder |author7=Georges Meynet |last-author-amp=yes |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=628 |issue=2 |date=August 2005 |pages=973–985 |doi=10.1086/430901 |bibcode=2005ApJ...628..973L|arxiv = astro-ph/0504337 }}</ref>


<ref name=famaey>{{cite journal|last1=Famaey|first1=B.|last2=Jorissen|first2=A.|last3=Luri|first3=X.|last4=Mayor|first4=M.|last5=Udry|first5=S.|last6=Dejonghe|first6=H.|last7=Turon|first7=C.|title=Local kinematics of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=430|issue=1|year=2005|pages=165–186|issn=0004-6361|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041272|bibcode=2005A&A...430..165F|arxiv = astro-ph/0409579 }}</ref>
<ref name=levesque>{{cite journal |title=The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought |display-authors=4 |author1-link=Emily Levesque|author1=Emily M. Levesque |author2=Philip Massey |author3=K. A. G. Olsen|author4=Bertrand Plez |author5=Eric Josselin|author6=Andre Maeder |author7=Georges Meynet |s2cid=15109583 |name-list-style=amp |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=628 |issue=2 |date=August 2005 |pages=973–985 |doi=10.1086/430901 |bibcode=2005ApJ...628..973L|arxiv = astro-ph/0504337 }}</ref>


<ref name=verhoelst>{{cite journal|bibcode=2009A&A...498..127V|title=The dust condensation sequence in red supergiant stars|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=498|pages=127|author1=Verhoelst|first1=T.|last2=Van Der Zypen|first2=N.|last3=Hony|first3=S.|last4=Decin|first4=L.|last5=Cami|first5=J.|last6=Eriksson|first6=K.|year=2009|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/20079063|arxiv = 0901.1262 }}</ref>
<ref name=famaey>{{cite journal|last1=Famaey|first1=B.|last2=Jorissen|first2=A.|last3=Luri|first3=X.|last4=Mayor|first4=M.|last5=Udry|first5=S.|last6=Dejonghe|first6=H.|last7=Turon|first7=C.|s2cid=17804304|title=Local kinematics of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=430|issue=1|year=2005|pages=165–186|issn=0004-6361|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041272|bibcode=2005A&A...430..165F|arxiv = astro-ph/0409579 }}</ref>


<ref name=asaki>{{cite journal|last1=Asaki|first1=Y.|last2=Deguchi|first2=S.|last3=Imai|first3=H.|last4=Hachisuka|first4=K.|last5=Miyoshi|first5=M.|last6=Honma|first6=M.|title=DISTANCE AND PROPER MOTION MEASUREMENT OF THE RED SUPERGIANT, S PERSEI, WITH VLBI H2O MASER ASTROMETRY|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=721|issue=1|year=2010|pages=267–277|issn=0004-637X|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/721/1/267|bibcode=2010ApJ...721..267A|arxiv = 1007.4874 }}</ref>
<ref name=verhoelst>{{cite journal|bibcode=2009A&A...498..127V|title=The dust condensation sequence in red supergiant stars|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=498|issue=1|pages=127–138|last1=Verhoelst|first1=T.|last2=Van Der Zypen|first2=N.|last3=Hony|first3=S.|last4=Decin|first4=L.|last5=Cami|first5=J.|last6=Eriksson|first6=K.|s2cid=18383796|year=2009|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/20079063|arxiv = 0901.1262 }}</ref>


⚫
<ref name=asaki>{{cite journal|last1=Asaki|first1=Y.|last2=Deguchi|first2=S.|last3=Imai|first3=H.|last4=Hachisuka|first4=K.|last5=Miyoshi|first5=M.|last6=Honma|first6=M.|s2cid=119183897|title=Distance and Proper Motion Measurement of the Red Supergiant, S Persei, with Vlbi H2O Maser Astrometry|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=721|issue=1|year=2010|pages=267–277|issn=0004-637X|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/721/1/267|bibcode=2010ApJ...721..267A|arxiv = 1007.4874 }}</ref>
<ref name=yates>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994MNRAS.270..958Y|title=Circumstellar Envelope Structure of Late Type Stars as Revealed by MERLIN Observations of 22-GHZ Water Masers|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=270|issue=4|pages=958|author1=Yates|first1=J. A.|last2=Cohen|first2=R. J.|year=1994|doi=10.1093/mnras/270.4.958}}</ref>


<ref name=mauron>{{cite journal|bibcode=2011A&A...526A.156M|arxiv=1010.5369|title=The mass-loss rates of red supergiants and the de Jager prescription|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=526|pages=A156|author1=Mauron|first1=N.|last2=Josselin|first2=E.|year=2011|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201013993}}</ref>
<ref name=yates>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994MNRAS.270..958Y|title=Circumstellar Envelope Structure of Late Type Stars as Revealed by MERLIN Observations of 22-GHZ Water Masers|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=270|issue=4|pages=958|last1=Yates|first1=J. A.|last2=Cohen|first2=R. J.|year=1994|doi=10.1093/mnras/270.4.958|doi-access=free}}</ref>


<ref name=fok>{{cite journal|bibcode=2012ApJ...760...65F|arxiv=1209.6427|title=Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=760|pages=65|author1=Fok|first1=Thomas K. T.|last2=Nakashima|first2=Jun-Ichi|last3=Yung|first3=Bosco H. K.|last4=Hsia|first4=Chih-Hao|last5=Deguchi|first5=Shuji|year=2012|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65}}</ref>
<ref name=mauron>{{cite journal|bibcode=2011A&A...526A.156M|arxiv=1010.5369|title=The mass-loss rates of red supergiants and the de Jager prescription|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=526|pages=A156|last1=Mauron|first1=N.|last2=Josselin|first2=E.|s2cid=119276502|year=2011|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201013993}}</ref>


<ref name=GarciaHernandez>{{cite journal|bibcode = 2007A&A...462..711G|title = Lithium and zirconium abundances in massive Galactic O-rich AGB stars|journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume = 462|issue = 2|pages = 711|author1 = García-Hernández|first1 = D. A.|last2 = García-Lario|first2 = P.|last3 = Plez|first3 = B.|last4 = Manchado|first4 = A.|last5 = d'Antona|first5 = F.|last6 = Lub|first6 = J.|last7 = Habing|first7 = H.|year = 2007|doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20065785|arxiv = astro-ph/0609106 }}</ref>
<ref name=fok>{{cite journal|bibcode=2012ApJ...760...65F|arxiv=1209.6427|title=Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=760|issue=1|pages=65|last1=Fok|first1=Thomas K. T.|last2=Nakashima|first2=Jun-Ichi|last3=Yung|first3=Bosco H. K.|last4=Hsia|first4=Chih-Hao|last5=Deguchi|first5=Shuji|s2cid=53393926|year=2012|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65}}</ref>


<ref name=gonzalez>{{cite journal|bibcode=2000AJ....119.1839G|title=Elemental Abundances in Evolved Supergiants. II. The Young Clusters H and χ Persei|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=119|issue=4|pages=1839|author1=Gonzalez|first1=Guillermo|last2=Wallerstein|first2=George|year=2000|doi=10.1086/301319}}</ref>
<ref name=GarciaHernandez>{{cite journal|bibcode = 2007A&A...462..711G|title = Lithium and zirconium abundances in massive Galactic O-rich AGB stars|journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume = 462|issue = 2|pages = 711|last1 = García-Hernández|first1 = D. A.|last2 = García-Lario|first2 = P.|last3 = Plez|first3 = B.|last4 = Manchado|first4 = A.|last5 = d'Antona|first5 = F.|last6 = Lub|first6 = J.|last7 = Habing|first7 = H.|s2cid = 16016698|year = 2007|doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20065785|arxiv = astro-ph/0609106 }}</ref>


<ref name=gonzalez>{{cite journal|bibcode=2000AJ....119.1839G|title=Elemental Abundances in Evolved Supergiants. II. The Young Clusters H and χ Persei|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=119|issue=4|pages=1839|last1=Gonzalez|first1=Guillermo|last2=Wallerstein|first2=George|year=2000|doi=10.1086/301319|doi-access=free}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name=zhang>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=B.|last2=Reid|first2=M. J.|last3=Menten|first3=K. M.|last4=Zheng|first4=X. W.|last5=Brunthaler|first5=A.|title=The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|volume=544|year=2012|pages=A42|issn=0004-6361|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201219587|bibcode=2012A&A...544A..42Z|arxiv = 1207.1850 }}</ref>


<ref name=zhang>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=B.|last2=Reid|first2=M. J.|last3=Menten|first3=K. M.|last4=Zheng|first4=X. W.|last5=Brunthaler|first5=A.|s2cid=55509287|title=The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|volume=544|year=2012|pages=A42|issn=0004-6361|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201219587|bibcode=2012A&A...544A..42Z|arxiv = 1207.1850 }}</ref>
<ref name=ccdm>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994CoORB.115....1D|title=Catalogue des composantes d'etoiles doubles et multiples (CCDM) premiere edition - Catalogue of the components of double and multiple stars (CCDM) first edition|journal=Com. de l'Observ. Royal de Belgique|volume=115|pages=1|author1=Dommanget|first1=J.|last2=Nys|first2=O.|year=1994}}</ref>


<ref name=skiff>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994IBVS.4054....1S|title=Photometry of Stars in the Field of S Persei|journal=Information Bulletin on Variable Stars|volume=4054|pages=1|author1=Skiff|first1=B. A.|year=1994}}</ref>
<ref name=ccdm>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994CoORB.115....1D|title=Catalogue des composantes d'etoiles doubles et multiples (CCDM) premiere edition - Catalogue of the components of double and multiple stars (CCDM) first edition|journal=Communications de l'Observatoire Royal de Belgique|volume=115|pages=1|last1=Dommanget|first1=J.|last2=Nys|first2=O.|year=1994}}</ref>

<ref name=skiff>{{cite journal|bibcode=1994IBVS.4054....1S|title=Photometry of Stars in the Field of S Persei|journal=Information Bulletin on Variable Stars|volume=4054|pages=1|last1=Skiff|first1=B. A.|year=1994}}</ref>


<ref name=dr2>{{cite DR2}}</ref>
<ref name=dr2>{{cite DR2}}</ref>
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{{Stars of Perseus}}
{{Stars of Perseus}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:S Persei}}
[[Category:M-type supergiants]]
[[Category:M-type supergiants]]
[[Category:Perseus (constellation)]]
[[Category:Perseus (constellation)]]

Latest revision as of 13:23, 29 August 2024

S Persei
Location of S Persei (circled) near the Double Cluster (north is left)
Observation data
Epoch J2000      Equinox J2000
Constellation Perseus
Right ascension 2h 22m 51.70928s[1]
Declination 58° 31′ 11.4476″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V) +9.23[2] (7.9 - 12.0[3])
Characteristics
Spectral type M3 Iae–M7[3]
B−V color index +2.65[2]
Variable type SRc[3]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)-39.71[4] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: –0.49 ± 0.23[5] mas/yr
Dec.: −1.19 ± 0.20[5] mas/yr
Parallax (π)0.413 ± 0.017 mas[5]
Distance7,900 ± 300 ly
(2,420 ± 100 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)–6.36 (at mV 9.23)[2]
Details
Mass20[6] M☉
Radius1,298+64
−57[7] – 1,364±6[8] R☉
Luminosity123,000[9] – 186,000[10] L☉
Surface gravity (log g)0.0[11] cgs
Temperature3,000[12] – 3,600[10] K
Other designations
S Per, HD 14528, HIP 11093, BD+57°552, SAO 23261, WDS J02229+5835, AAVSO 0215+58
Database references
SIMBADdata

S Persei is a red supergiant or hypergiant located near the Double Cluster in Perseus, north of the cluster NGC 869. It is a member of the Perseus OB1 association and one of the largest known stars. If placed in the Solar System, its photosphere would engulf the orbit of Jupiter. It is also a semiregular variable, a star whose variations are less regular than those of Mira variables.

Discovery

[edit]

S Persei was named by German astronomer Adalbert Krueger in 1874 after observing that it varied in brightness.[13] It was subsequently listed in major stellar catalogues of that era as HD 14528 and BD+57°552.

Variability

[edit]
A visual band light curve for S Persei, plotted from AAVSO data[14]

S Persei varies slowly by several magnitudes, a factor of over 40 in brightness. It has a main period of somewhat over two years, but shows significant unpredictability. There is a strong variation in the amplitude from around one magnitude to about four magnitudes, and these have been interpreted as beats due to a second period of about 940 days.[15] Other analyses find only the primary period of 813 ± 60 days.[16]

S Persei is classified as a semiregular variable star of type SRc, indicating that it is a supergiant, and it has one of the largest visual amplitudes of any variable of this type.[3] While the General Catalogue of Variable Stars lists it as varying between magnitudes 7.9 and 12.0, it has since been seen fainter.[16]

The spectral type of S Persei also varies. Typically it is a red supergiant of spectral class M3 or M4, but particularly at deep visual minima it may show a much cooler spectral type of M7 or M8, highly unusual for a supergiant.[17]

Properties

[edit]

Many of the visually bright variable stars belong to this class of semiregulars, as these stars are extremely large and luminous, and hence visible across long distances. S Persei has been described as a hypergiant[18] and has a radius over 700 times the sun's radius (R☉).[2] Its angular diameter has been measured directly and found to be somewhat elliptical. Modelled as a uniform disk, the radius corresponds to 1,212 ± 124 R☉.[19]

The temperature has been calculated from the spectrum using a DUSTY model,[20] giving an effective photospheric temperature of 3,500 K and a temperature of 1,000 K for the surrounding dust torus.[21] This is consistent with previous studies, but the derived luminosity from different authors varies from 86,000 L☉ to 186,000 L☉.[10][22][23] Older studies frequently calculated higher luminosities, lower temperatures, and consequently larger values for the radius.[24]

The mass of S Persei is also uncertain, but expected to be around 20 M☉.[6] Mass is being lost at 2.4 to 2.6×10−5 M☉ per year,[21] leading to an extensive and complex circumstellar environment of gas and dust.[10]

Location

[edit]

S Persei is surrounded by clouds containing water molecules which produce maser emission. This allows the distance to be measured very accurately using very long baseline interferometry, giving an annual parallax of 0.413 ± 0.017 milliarcseconds. For comparison the Gaia Data Release 2 parallax is 0.2217±0.1214 mas.[25] It lies somewhat further away than the centres of the Double Cluster open clusters, but definitely within the Per OB1 association and the Perseus Arm of the galaxy.[5]

S Persei is a double star. The red supergiant has an A0 11th magnitude companion at 69".[26] There are also several other 8th to 10th magnitude stars within half a degree of S Persei.[27]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (2): 653–664. arXiv:0708.1752. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. S2CID 18759600.
  2. ^ a b c d Emily M. Levesque; Philip Massey; K. A. G. Olsen; Bertrand Plez; et al. (August 2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973–985. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901. S2CID 15109583.
  3. ^ a b c d Samus', N. N.; Goranskii, V. P.; Durlevich, O. V.; Zharova, A. V.; Kazarovets, E. V.; Kireeva, N. N.; Pastukhova, E. N.; Williams, D. B.; Hazen, M. L. (2003). "An Electronic Version of the Second Volume of the General Catalogue of Variable Stars with Improved Coordinates". Astronomy Letters. 29 (7): 468. Bibcode:2003AstL...29..468S. doi:10.1134/1.1589864. S2CID 16299532.
  4. ^ Famaey, B.; Jorissen, A.; Luri, X.; Mayor, M.; Udry, S.; Dejonghe, H.; Turon, C. (2005). "Local kinematics of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 430 (1): 165–186. arXiv:astro-ph/0409579. Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041272. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 17804304.
  5. ^ a b c d Asaki, Y.; Deguchi, S.; Imai, H.; Hachisuka, K.; Miyoshi, M.; Honma, M. (2010). "Distance and Proper Motion Measurement of the Red Supergiant, S Persei, with Vlbi H2O Maser Astrometry". The Astrophysical Journal. 721 (1): 267–277. arXiv:1007.4874. Bibcode:2010ApJ...721..267A. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/721/1/267. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 119183897.
  6. ^ a b Yates, J. A.; Cohen, R. J. (1994). "Circumstellar Envelope Structure of Late Type Stars as Revealed by MERLIN Observations of 22-GHZ Water Masers". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 270 (4): 958. Bibcode:1994MNRAS.270..958Y. doi:10.1093/mnras/270.4.958.
  7. ^ Norris, Ryan (2023). "Student Science at NMT: Learning Optical Interferometry Through Projects on Evolved Stars" (PDF). CHARA.
  8. ^ Norris, Ryan (2019). Seeing Stars Like Never Before: A Long-term Interferometric Imaging Survey of Red Supergiants (PhD thesis). Georgia State University. doi:10.57709/15009706.
  9. ^ Davies, Ben; Beasor, Emma R. (March 2020). "The 'red supergiant problem': the upper luminosity boundary of Type II supernova progenitors". MNRAS. 493 (1): 468–476. arXiv:2001.06020. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.493..468D. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa174. S2CID 210714093.
  10. ^ a b c d Fok, Thomas K. T.; Nakashima, Jun-Ichi; Yung, Bosco H. K.; Hsia, Chih-Hao; Deguchi, Shuji (2012). "Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 760 (1): 65. arXiv:1209.6427. Bibcode:2012ApJ...760...65F. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65. S2CID 53393926.
  11. ^ Gonzalez, Guillermo; Wallerstein, George (2000). "Elemental Abundances in Evolved Supergiants. II. The Young Clusters H and χ Persei". The Astronomical Journal. 119 (4): 1839. Bibcode:2000AJ....119.1839G. doi:10.1086/301319.
  12. ^ García-Hernández, D. A.; García-Lario, P.; Plez, B.; Manchado, A.; d'Antona, F.; Lub, J.; Habing, H. (2007). "Lithium and zirconium abundances in massive Galactic O-rich AGB stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 462 (2): 711. arXiv:astro-ph/0609106. Bibcode:2007A&A...462..711G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065785. S2CID 16016698.
  13. ^ Krüger, A. (1874). "Anzeige eines neuen veränderlichen Sternes (S Persei)". Astronomische Nachrichten. 83 (10): 157–158. Bibcode:1874AN.....83..157K. doi:10.1002/asna.18740831005.
  14. ^ "Download Data". aavso.org. AAVSO. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
  15. ^ Smith, Horace A. (1974). "S Persei a Semi-Regular Variable with Two Periods". Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. 3 (1): 20. Bibcode:1974JAVSO...3...20S.
  16. ^ a b Kiss, L. L.; Szabó, Gy. M.; Bedding, T. R. (2006). "Variability in red supergiant stars: Pulsations, long secondary periods and convection noise". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 372 (4): 1721–1734. arXiv:astro-ph/0608438. Bibcode:2006MNRAS.372.1721K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10973.x. S2CID 5203133.
  17. ^ Wing, R. F. (2009). "The Biggest Stars of All". The Biggest. 412: 113. Bibcode:2009ASPC..412..113W.
  18. ^ Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W.; Brunthaler, A. (2012). "The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 544: A42. arXiv:1207.1850. Bibcode:2012A&A...544A..42Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219587. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 55509287.
  19. ^ Thompson, R. R.; Creech-Eakman, M. J. (2003). "Interferometric observations of the supergiant S Persei: Evidence for axial symmetry and the warm molecular layer". American Astronomical Society Meeting 203. 203: 49.07. Bibcode:2003AAS...203.4907T.
  20. ^ Ivezic, Zeljko; Nenkova, Maia; Elitzur, Moshe (1999). "User Manual for DUSTY". arXiv:astro-ph/9910475.
  21. ^ a b Gordon, Michael S.; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Jones, Terry J.; Shenoy, Dinesh; Gehrz, Robert D.; Helton, L. Andrew; Marengo, Massimo; Hinz, Philip M.; Hoffmann, William F. (2018). "Searching for Cool Dust. II. Infrared Imaging of the OH/IR Supergiants, NML Cyg, VX SGR, S Per, and the Normal Red Supergiants RS per and T per". The Astronomical Journal. 155 (5): 212. arXiv:1708.00018. Bibcode:2018AJ....155..212G. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aab961. S2CID 73650032.
  22. ^ Mauron, N.; Josselin, E. (2011). "The mass-loss rates of red supergiants and the de Jager prescription". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 526: A156. arXiv:1010.5369. Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.156M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201013993. S2CID 119276502.
  23. ^ Verhoelst, T.; Van Der Zypen, N.; Hony, S.; Decin, L.; Cami, J.; Eriksson, K. (2009). "The dust condensation sequence in red supergiant stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 498 (1): 127–138. arXiv:0901.1262. Bibcode:2009A&A...498..127V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/20079063. S2CID 18383796.
  24. ^ De Jager, C.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; Van Der Hucht, K. A. (1988). "Mass loss rates in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 72: 259. Bibcode:1988A&AS...72..259D.
  25. ^ Brown, A. G. A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (August 2018). "Gaia Data Release 2: Summary of the contents and survey properties". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616. A1. arXiv:1804.09365. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833051.
  26. ^ Dommanget, J.; Nys, O. (1994). "Catalogue des composantes d'etoiles doubles et multiples (CCDM) premiere edition - Catalogue of the components of double and multiple stars (CCDM) first edition". Communications de l'Observatoire Royal de Belgique. 115: 1. Bibcode:1994CoORB.115....1D.
  27. ^ Skiff, B. A. (1994). "Photometry of Stars in the Field of S Persei". Information Bulletin on Variable Stars. 4054: 1. Bibcode:1994IBVS.4054....1S.
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