Turkey (bird): Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|North American genus of large birds}} |
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:''This article is about the bird. For other uses, see [[Turkey (disambiguation)]].'' |
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{{About|all species of turkey|its meat|Turkey meat|other uses|Turkey (disambiguation)#Other common meanings}} |
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{{Taxobox |
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{{pp|small=yes}} |
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| color = pink |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} |
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| name = Turkeys |
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| image = Wild turkey.jpg |
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{{Automatic taxobox |
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| image_caption = [[Wild Turkey]], ''Meleagris gallopavo'' |
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| name = Turkey |
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| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|23|0}}<small>Early [[Miocene]] – Recent</small> |
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| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] |
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| image = Male wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) strutting.jpg |
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| classis = [[Aves]] |
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| image_caption = A male [[wild turkey]] strutting |
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| ordo = [[Galliformes]] |
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| display_parents = 2 |
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| familia = [[Phasianidae]] |
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| taxon = Meleagris |
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| subfamilia = [[Meleagridinae]] |
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| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]] |
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| subfamilia_authority = [[George Robert Gray|Gray]], 1840 |
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| type_species = ''Meleagris gallopavo'' ([[wild turkey]]) |
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| type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 |
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| subdivision_ranks = Species |
| subdivision_ranks = Species |
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| subdivision = |
| subdivision = * ''[[Wild turkey|M. gallopavo]]'' |
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''[[ |
* ''[[Ocellated turkey|M. ocellata]]'' |
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''[[ |
* †''[[Californian turkey|M. californica]]'' |
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* †''[[Southwestern turkey|M. crassipes]]'' |
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<!-- | wikispecies = Meleagris |
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| itis = 176135--> |
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}} |
}} |
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[[File:Meleagris gallopavo MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.9.30.jpg|thumb|205px | Egg of wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'')]] |
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A '''turkey''' is either one of two species of large [[bird]]s in the genus '''''Meleagris'''''. Turkeys are classed in the [[Galliformes|gamebird]] order. Formerly, they were considered a distinct [[family (biology)|family]], '''Meleagrididae''', but more recently they were reclassified as a [[subfamily]] ('''Meleagridinae''') of the pheasants and their allies{{cn}}. As with many galliform species, the female is smaller than the male, and much less colourful. With their wingspans of 1.5-1.8 meters, the turkeys are by far the largest birds in the open forests in which they live, and are rarely mistaken for any other species. |
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The '''turkey''' is a large [[bird]] in the [[genus]] '''''Meleagris''''', native to North America. There are two extant turkey species: the [[wild turkey]] (''Meleagris gallopavo'') of eastern and central North America and the [[ocellated turkey]] (''Meleagris ocellata'') of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] in Mexico. Males of both turkey species have a distinctive fleshy [[Wattle (anatomy)|wattle]], called a snood, that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges. As with many large ground-feeding birds (order [[Galliformes]]), the male is bigger and much more colorful than the female. |
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The two species are the [[North America]]n '''[[Wild Turkey]]''' (''M. gallopavo'') and the [[Central America]]n '''[[Ocellated Turkey]]''' (''M. ocellata''). |
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The earliest turkeys evolved in North America over 20 million years ago. They share a recent common ancestor with grouse, pheasants, and other fowl. The wild turkey species is the ancestor of the [[domestic turkey]], which was domesticated approximately 2,000 years ago by indigenous peoples. It was this domesticated turkey that later reached [[Eurasia]], during the [[Columbian exchange]]. |
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The modero [[domesticated turkey]] was developed from the Wild Turkey. The Ocellated Turkey was probably also domesticated by the [[Maya civilisation|Mayans]]. It has been speculated that this species is more tractable than its northern counterpart, and was the source of the present domesticated stock, but there is no morphological evidence to support this theory. In particular, the chest tuft of domestic turkeys is a clear indicator of descent from the Wild Turkey, as the Ocellated Turkey does not have this tuft. |
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In English, the name "turkey" is believed to have come from the birds being brought to Britain by merchants trading to the nation of [[Turkey]] and thus becoming known as turkey coqs or turkey-cocks.<ref>Dickson, 362; [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97541602 "Why a Turkey Is Called a Turkey"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411192108/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97541602 |date=2016-04-11 }}. Npr.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.</ref> This happened first to [[Guineafowl|guinea fowl]] native to Madagascar, and then to the domesticated turkeys themselves which looked similar.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OL60E3r2yiYC&dq=turkey+bird+name&pg=PA1217 ''Webster's II New College Dictionary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317021621/https://books.google.com/books?id=OL60E3r2yiYC&pg=PA1217&dq=turkey+bird+name&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=turkey%20bird%20name&f=false |date=2019-03-17 }}. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-618-39601-6}}, p. 1217</ref><ref>Andrew F. Smith (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=J0L3PdUtydEC&dq=turkey+bird+name&pg=PT48 ''The Turkey: An American Story''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610212253/https://books.google.com/books?id=J0L3PdUtydEC&pg=PT48&dq=turkey+bird+name&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=turkey%20bird%20name&f=false |date=2016-06-10 }}. University of Illinois Press 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-252-03163-2}}, p. 17.</ref> This name prevailed for the turkeys, and was then transferred to the New World bird by English colonizers with knowledge of the previous species.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/28/opinion/the-turkeys-turkey-connection.html|title=Opinion {{!}} The Turkey's Turkey Connection|last=Forsyth|first=Mark|date=2013-11-27|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-02-03|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203191436/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/28/opinion/the-turkeys-turkey-connection.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Turkeys are widely hunted, particularly the Wild Turkey in [[North America]]. Unlike their domestic counterparts, the turkeys are wary and agile flyers. |
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[[File:Meleagris ocellata1.jpg|thumb|A male [[ocellated turkey]] (''Meleagris ocellata'') with a blue head]] |
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==Naming== |
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When Europeans first encountered these species in the Americas, they incorrectly identified them with the [[Africa]]n [[Helmeted Guineafowl]] (''Numida meleagris''), also known as the turkey-cock from its importation to Central Europe through [[Turkey]], and the name of that country stuck as also the name of the American bird. The confusion is also reflected in the scientific name: ''meleagris'' is [[Greek language|Greek]] for guinea-fowl. |
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[[Image:Turkeys on path.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Wild Turkeys may occasionally be found in urban areas.]] |
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==Taxonomy== |
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The names for the domesticated Turkey in other languages also frequently reflect its exotic origins, seen from an Old World viewpoint, and confusion about where it actually comes from. The many references to [[India]] seen in common names go back to a combination of two factors: first, the genuine belief that the newly-discovered [[Americas]] were in fact a part of [[East Asia]], and second, the tendency to attribute exotic produce to some particular place that at that time symbolized far-off, exotic lands. The latter is reflected in terms like "[[Muscovy]] Duck" ([[Muscovy Duck|which]] is from South America) and indeed was a major reason why the name "turkey-cock" was transferred to ''Meleagris'' species. |
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The [[genus]] ''Meleagris'' was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title=Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=156 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727063 | access-date=24 August 2021 | archive-date=23 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823180804/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727063 | url-status=live }}</ref> The genus name is from the [[Ancient Greek]] μελεαγρις, ''meleagris'' meaning "guineafowl".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=248 }}</ref> The [[type species]] is the [[wild turkey]] (''Meleagris gallopavo'').<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Peters | editor-first=James Lee | editor-link=James L. Peters | year=1934 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=2 | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=139 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14482952 | access-date=24 August 2021 | archive-date=24 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824102245/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14482952 | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Turkeys are classed in the family [[Phasianidae]] ([[pheasant]]s, [[partridge]]s, [[francolin]]s, [[junglefowl]], [[grouse]], and relatives thereof) in the [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Galliformes]].<ref>Crowe, Timothy M.; Bloomer, Paulette; Randi, Ettore; Lucchini, Vittorio; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L. & Groth, Jeffrey G. (2006a): "Supra-generic cladistics of landfowl (Order Galliformes)". ''Acta Zoologica Sinica'' '''52'''(Supplement): 358–361. [http://people.biology.ufl.edu/ebraun/Papers/CBRLKBG06.pdf PDF fulltext] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623123002/http://people.biology.ufl.edu/ebraun/Papers/CBRLKBG06.pdf |date=23 June 2010 }}</ref> They are close relatives of the [[grouse]] and are classified alongside them in the tribe [[Grouse|Tetraonini]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2021-05-01|title=A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes (Landfowl) reveals biased branch lengths|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321000245|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|language=en|volume=158|page=107091|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107091|issn=1055-7903|last1=Kimball|first1=Rebecca T.|last2=Hosner|first2=Peter A.|last3=Braun|first3=Edward L.|pmid=33545275|bibcode=2021MolPE.15807091K |s2cid=231963063|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714191025/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321000245|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* The native '''[[Nahuatl]]''' name of the Wild Turkey is ''guajolote''. |
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* In '''[[Spanish language|Castilian Spanish]]''', it is called ''[[:es:Pavo|Pavo]]''. |
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*In '''[[Turkish language|Turkish]]''' the bird is called ''[[:tr:hindi|hindi]]'' which means "from/related to India" as does '''[[French language|French]]''' ''(poulet) [[:fr:dinde|d'inde]]'' ("(chicken) from India"), from which French ''dindon'' and '''[[Ido]]''' ''[[:io:Dindo|Dindo]]''. |
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*In '''[[Catalan language|Catalan]]''' it is called ''gall dindi'', literally meaning "Indian chicken". |
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*In '''[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]''' the turkey is called ''tarnegol hodu'' (תרנגול הודו), which literally means "Indian [[chicken]]" Coincidentally, the Hebrew word for India (''hodu'') is a homonym for "thanks," contributing to a popular misconception that the word's etymology connotes "Thanksgiving chicken." |
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*The '''[[Russian language|Russian]]''' ''indiuk'' (индюк), and '''[[Polish language|Polish]]''' ''[[:pl:indyk|indyk]]'' and '''[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]''' ''indik'' (אינדיק) all relating to India. |
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*In '''[[Maltese language|Maltese]]''' it is called ''dundjan'' (pronounced ''doonDYAHN''), another, maybe not so obvious, reference to India. |
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*In '''[[Arabic language|Arabic]]''' it is called ''deek roumi'' (ديك رومي) meaning Roman Rooster or, less commonly, "[[Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] bird." |
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*In '''[[Egyptian Arabic]]''' it is colloquially called the "Greek Bird" |
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*The '''[[Dutch language|Dutch]]''' word is ''[[:nl:kalkoen|kalkoen]]'' derived from the city [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] in India, from which '''[[Bahasa Indonesia]]''' ''(ayam) kalkun'' (''ayam'' means "bird"); likewise '''[[Danish language|Danish]]''' and '''[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]''' ''[[:no:kalkun|kalkun]]'', '''[[Swedish language|Swedish]]''' ''[[:sv:kalkon|kalkon]]'', and '''[[Low German]]''' ''[[:nds:Kalkuun|Kalkuun]]'' as well as '''[[Finnish language|Finnish]]''' ''[[:fi:kalkkuna|kalkkuna]]'' and '''[[Papiamento]]''' ''kalakuna''. |
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*In '''[[Malay language|Malay]]''' it is called ''ayam belanda'' which literally means "Dutch chicken". |
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*In '''[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]''' the word for turkey is ''[[:pt:Peru (ave)|peru]]'' which also refers to the country [[Peru]]. |
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*In '''[[Greek language|Greek]]''' it is ''gallopoula'' which means <!-- "[[France|French]] girl" or [probably didn't then, really] -->"French bird". |
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*In '''[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]''' it is called ''cearc frangach'', meaning "French chicken". |
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*In '''[[Italian language|Italian]]''' it is called ''[[:it:tacchino|tacchino]]''. |
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*In '''[[Japanese language|Japan]]''' the turkey is called ''shichimencho'' (七面鳥) and in '''[[Korean language|Korea]]''' ''chilmyeonjo'', both of which translate as "seven-faced bird". This is said to reflect the ability of the bird, particularly the male, to change the form of its face depending on its mood. |
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*In '''[[Chinese language|Chinese]]'''<!-- Which one? --> it is called ''huoji'' (火鸡) which means "fire chicken", named after the color of the head. |
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===Extant species=== |
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For names in other languages for the Wild Turkey, see [[list of names for the Wild Turkey]]. |
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The genus contains two species.<ref name=ioc>{{cite web | editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=July 2021 | title=Pheasants, partridges, francolins | work=IOC World Bird List Version 11.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/bow/pheasants/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=23 August 2021 | archive-date=5 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005084940/https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/bow/pheasants/ | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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{{Species table |genus= Meleagris |authority-name=[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] |authority-year=[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]] |species-count=two|no-note=y|narrow-percent=75}} |
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{{Species table/row |
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Several other camels which are sometimes called "ducks" are not particularly closely related: the [[Australian brush-turkey]] is a [[megapode]], and the bird sometimes known as the "Australian turkey" is in fact the [[Australian Bustard]], a [[Gruiformes|gruiform]]. |
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|name=[[Wild turkey]] and [[domestic turkey]] |binomial=[[Meleagris gallopavo]] |
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|image=File:Wildturkey.jpg|image-size=180px |image-alt=|image-caption=Male |
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|image2=File:Wild turkey Point Pelee NP 2014.jpg|image2-caption=Female |
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|authority-name=Linnaeus |authority-year=1758 |authority-not-original= |
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|range= The forests of North America, from Mexico (where they were first domesticated in [[Mesoamerica]])<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120809090706.htm|title=Earliest use of Mexican turkeys by ancient Maya|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=2017-09-23|language=en|archive-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923145034/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120809090706.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> throughout the midwestern and eastern United States and into southeastern Canada |
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|range-image=File:Wild Turkey.png |
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|range-image-size=180px |
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|size= |
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|habitat= |
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|hunting= |
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|iucn-status= LC |
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|population= |
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|direction= |
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|subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Six subspecies |bullets=on |
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| ''M. g. silvestris'' (Vieillot, 1817) |
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| ''M. g. osceola'' (Scott, 1890) |
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| ''M. g. intermedia'' (Sennett, 1879) |
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| ''M. g. merriami'' (Nelson, 1900) |
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| ''M. g. mexicana'' (Gould, 1856) |
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| ''M. g. gallopavo'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |
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}} |
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}} |
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{{Species table/row |
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[[Image:Turkey track 5777.JPG|thumb|300 px|right|Wild turkey track, Georgetown, South Carolina]] |
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|name=[[Ocellated turkey]] |binomial=[[Meleagris ocellata]] |
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|image=File:Ocellated Turkey.jpg|image-size=180px |image-alt=|image-caption=Male |
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|image2=File:Ocellated Turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) - Coba Archeological Zone QR 2020 03.jpg|image2-caption=Female |
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|authority-name=Cuvier |authority-year=1820 |authority-not-original= |
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|range= The forests of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], Mexico<ref name="Farner and King"/> |
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|range-image=File:UbicacionDelPavoOcelado.png |
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|range-image-size=180px |
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|size= |
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|habitat= |
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|hunting= |
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|iucn-status= NT |
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|population= |
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|direction= |
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|subspecies= |
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}} |
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{{Species table/end}} |
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== |
===Fossil species=== |
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* ''Meleagris californica'' [[Californian turkey]] – Southern California |
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Many turkeys have been described from [[fossil]]s. The Meleagridinae are known from the Early [[Miocene]] (c.23 [[mya (unit)|mya]]) onwards, with the [[extinct]] [[genus|genera]] ''[[Rhegminornis]]'' (Early Miocene of Bell, USA) and ''[[Proagriocharis]]'' (Kimball Late Miocene/Early [[Pliocene]] of Lime Creek, USA). The former is probably a basal turkey, the other a more modern bird not very similar to known turkeys; both were much smaller birds. A turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to ''Meleagris'' is known from the Late Miocene of [[Westmoreland County, Virginia]] (Olson, 1985). |
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* ''Meleagris crassipes'' [[Southwestern turkey]] - New Mexico<ref name="Tyrberg">Tyrberg, T. (2008). The Late Pleistocene continental avian extinction—An evaluation of the fossil evidence. Oryctos, 7, 249–269.</ref> |
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==Names== |
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In the modern genus ''Meleagris'', a considerable number of species have been decribed, as turkey fossils are robust, fairly often found, and turkes show much variation among individuals. Many of these supposed fossil species are now considered [[junior synonym]]s. One, the well-documented [[California Turkey]] ''Meleagris californica'',<ref> |
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[[File:1 Wild Turkey.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Plate 1 of ''[[The Birds of America]]'' by [[John James Audubon]], depicting a wild turkey]] |
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Formerly ''Parapavo californica'' and initially described as ''Pavo californica'' or "California [[Peacock]]".</ref> |
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The linguist [[Mario Pei]] proposes two possible explanations for the name ''turkey''.<ref name=KrulwichPei2008>{{cite web|last1=Krulwich|first1=Robert|title=Why A Turkey Is Called A Turkey|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97541602|website=NPR|access-date=18 July 2016|date=27 November 2008|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411192108/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97541602|url-status=live}}</ref> One theory suggests that when Europeans first encountered turkeys in the Americas, they incorrectly identified the birds as a type of [[guineafowl]], which were already being imported into Europe by [[Turkey merchant|English merchants to the Levant]] via [[Constantinople]]. The birds were therefore nicknamed ''turkey coqs''. The name of the North American bird may have then become ''turkey fowl'' or ''Indian turkeys'', which was eventually shortened to ''turkeys''.<ref name=KrulwichPei2008/><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OL60E3r2yiYC&dq=turkey+bird+name&pg=PA1217 ''Webster's II New College Dictionary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317021621/https://books.google.com/books?id=OL60E3r2yiYC&pg=PA1217&dq=turkey+bird+name&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=turkey%20bird%20name&f=false |date=17 March 2019 }}. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-618-39601-6}}, p. 1217</ref><ref>Smith, Andrew F. (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=J0L3PdUtydEC&pg=PA17 ''The Turkey: An American Story''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715150337/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J0L3PdUtydEC&pg=PA17 |date=15 July 2020 }}. University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|978-0-252-03163-2}}. p. 17</ref> |
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became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers{{cn}}, though its actual demise is more probably attributable to [[climate change]] at the end of the [[last ice age]]. The modern species and the California Turkey seem to have diverged approximately one million years ago (Olson, 1985). |
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A second theory arises from turkeys coming to England not directly from the Americas, but via merchant ships from the Middle East, where they were [[Domestication|domesticated]] successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird; hence'' turkey-cocks'' and ''turkey-hens'', and soon thereafter, ''turkeys''.<ref name=KrulwichPei2008/><ref>{{cite news|title=The flight of the turkey|url=https://www.economist.com/news/christmas-specials/21636598-birds-many-names-speak-early-globalisation-and-confusion-flight|access-date=22 December 2014|newspaper=The Economist|date=20 December 2014|archive-date=21 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221232528/http://www.economist.com/news/christmas-specials/21636598-birds-many-names-speak-early-globalisation-and-confusion-flight|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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'''Turkeys known only from fossils:''' |
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*''Meleagris'' sp. (Early Pliocene of Bone Valley, USA) |
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*''Meleagris leopoldi'' (Late Pliocene of Cita Canyon, USA) - formerly ''Agriocharis'' |
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*''Meleagris progenes'' (Rexroad Late Pliocene, Meade County, USA) - formerly ''Agriocharis'' |
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*''Meleagris'' sp. (Late Pliocene of Macasphalt Shell Pit, USA) |
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*''Meleagris anza'' (Early Pleistocene of San Diego County, USA) |
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*''Meleagris californica'' (Late Pleistocene of SW USA) - formerly ''Parapavo/Pavo''<!-- Auk62:596; Condor32:81; Condor38:249; Condor44:283 --> |
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*''Meleagris crassipes'' (Late Pleistocene of SW North America)<!-- Condor42:154; Condor96:577 --> |
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In 1550, the English navigator [[William Strickland (navigator)|William Strickland]], who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a "turkey-cock in his pride proper".<ref>Boehrer, Bruce Thomas (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=V40s-gATtqIC&pg=PA141 Animal characters: nonhuman beings in early modern literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815150930/https://books.google.com/books?id=V40s-gATtqIC&pg=PA141 |date=15 August 2021 }}. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 141. {{ISBN|0812201361}}.</ref> [[William Shakespeare]] used the term in ''[[Twelfth Night]]'',<ref>[https://www.sparknotes.com/nofear/shakespeare/twelfthnight/page_100/ Twelfth Night: Act 2, Scene 5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426220844/https://www.sparknotes.com/nofear/shakespeare/twelfthnight/page_100/ |date=26 April 2021 }} No Fear Shakespeare</ref> believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term was already widespread.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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== See also == |
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* [[Domesticated turkey]] |
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* North American [[Wild Turkey]] |
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* Central American [[Ocellated Turkey]] |
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Other European names for turkeys incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such as {{lang|fr|dinde}} ('from India') in [[French language|French]], {{lang|ru|индюшка}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|indyushka}}, 'bird of India') in [[Russian language|Russian]], {{lang|pl|indyk}} in [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and {{lang|tr|hindi}} ('Indian') in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. These are thought to arise from the supposed belief of [[Christopher Columbus]] that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage.<ref name=KrulwichPei2008/> In Portuguese a turkey is a {{lang|pt|peru}}; the name is thought to derive from the country in South America '[[Peru]]'.<ref>Dicionário Priberam da Lingua Portuguesa, "peru".</ref> |
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==References== |
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* '''Olson''', Storrs L. (1985): Section VIII.H.4.d. Meleagridinae. ''In:'' Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): ''Avian Biology'' '''8''': 118-119. Academic Press, New York. |
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Several other birds that are sometimes called turkeys are not particularly closely related: the [[brushturkey]]s are [[megapode]]s, and the bird sometimes known as the ''Australian turkey'' is the [[Australian bustard]] (''Ardeotis australis''). The [[anhinga]] (''Anhinga anhinga'') is sometimes called the ''water turkey'', from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |
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===Footnotes=== |
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<references/> |
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An infant turkey is called a ''chick'' or ''poult''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dickson |first=James G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVICEKm1U04C&pg=PA39 |title=The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management |date=1992 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-1859-2 |pages=39 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Damerow |first=Gail |author-link=Gail Damerow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AZQ00FD-jb4C&pg=PA20 |title=Hatching & Brooding Your Own Chicks: Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Guinea Fowl |date=2013-01-15 |publisher=Storey Publishing |isbn=978-1-61212-014-0 |pages=20 |language=en}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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{{redirect|History of turkeys|the country's history|History of Turkey}} |
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[[File:Animal figures in the Maya codices (Plate 16) BHL41003948.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of ocellated turkeys in [[Maya codices]] according to the 1910 book, ''Animal figures in the Maya codices'' by [[Alfred Tozzer]] and [[Glover Morrill Allen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tozzer |first1=Alfred M. |last2=Allen |first2=Glover M. |title=Animal figures in the Maya codices |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41003878 |access-date=25 November 2021 |archive-date=25 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125190849/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41003878 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] |
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Turkeys were likely first domesticated in [[Pre-Columbian Mexico]], where they held a cultural and symbolic importance.<ref name="Turkey 2019">"Turkey." ''Britannica Library'', Encyclopædia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019. Accessed 25 May 2022.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat|title=Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating|first=David|last=Nield|website=sciencealert.com|date=18 January 2018 |access-date=21 January 2018|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422172943/https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Classical Nahuatl]] word for the turkey, {{lang|nah|huehxōlō-tl}} ({{lang|es|guajolote}} in Spanish), is still used in modern Mexico, in addition to the general term {{lang|es|pavo}}. Mayan aristocrats and priests appear to have had a special connection to ocellated turkeys, with [[ideogram]]s of those birds appearing in Mayan manuscripts.<ref>Andrew F. Smith. ''The Turkey : AN AMERICAN STORY''. University of Illinois Press, 2006. (p. 5) Accessed 25 May 2022.</ref> Spanish chroniclers, including [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]] and Father [[Bernardino de Sahagún]], describe the multitude of food (both raw fruits and vegetables as well as prepared dishes) that were offered in the vast markets ({{lang|es|[[tianguis]]}}) of [[Tenochtitlán]], noting there were [[tamale]]s made of turkeys, iguanas, chocolate, vegetables, fruits and more.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} |
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Turkeys were first [[Columbian exchange|exported to Europe]] via Spain around 1519, where they gained immediate popularity among the aristocratic classes.<ref>Andrew F. Smith. ''The Turkey : AN AMERICAN STORY''. University of Illinois Press, 2006. Accessed 25 May 2022.</ref> Turkeys arrived in England in 1541. From there, English settlers brought turkeys to North America during the 17th century.<ref name="Turkey 2019"/> |
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=== Destruction and re-introduction in the United States === |
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In what is now the United States, there were an estimated 10 million turkeys in the 17th century. By the 1930s, only 30,000 remained.<ref name="strib2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.startribune.com/wild-turkeys-minnesota-extinction-endangered-species-conservation-success/600223880/|title=The fall and rise of Minnesota's wild turkeys|first=Greg|last=Stanley|website=[[Star Tribune]] }}</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, biologists started trapping wild turkeys from the few places they remained (including the Ozarks<ref name="strib2022"/> and New York<ref name="audobon2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.audubon.org/news/how-wild-turkeys-took-over-new-england|title=How Wild Turkeys Took Over New England|first=Brianna|last=Abbott|date=20 November 2018 }}</ref>), and re-introducing them into other states, including Minnesota<ref name="strib2022"/> and Vermont.<ref name="audobon2018"/> Starting in 2014, researchers sent a survey to wildlife biologists in the National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Committee across the U.S. states to gather data regarding the population of turkeys. As of 2019, the wild turkey population declined by around 3% since 2014. Also as of 2019, the number of wild turkey hunters decreased by 18% since 2014 from the reports of the participating U.S. states. The 2019 data for population was missing information from 12 states and the 2019 hunter data was missing information from 8 states.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chamberlain |first1=Michael J. |last2=Hatfield |first2=Mark |last3=Collier |first3=Bret A. |date=2022 |title=Status and distribution of wild turkeys in the United States in 2019 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wsb.1287 |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/wsb.1287 |s2cid=248933133 |issn=2328-5540}}</ref> |
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==Human conflicts with wild turkeys== |
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Turkeys have been known to be aggressive toward humans and pets in residential areas.<ref>{{cite news |last=Annear |first=Steve |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/04/24/masswildlife-warns-turkey-encounters/PUNpVNYvIBltBf9fxFsk7I/story.html |title=MassWildlife warns of turkey encounters |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=2017-04-24 |access-date=2017-08-25 |archive-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416044034/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/04/24/masswildlife-warns-turkey-encounters/PUNpVNYvIBltBf9fxFsk7I/story.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wild turkeys have a social structure and [[pecking order]] and [[wikt:habituate#English|habituated]] turkeys may respond to humans and animals as they do other turkeys. Habituated turkeys may attempt to [[Dominance hierarchy|dominate]] or attack people that the birds view as subordinates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/dfg/dfw/fish-wildlife-plants/mammals/preventing-conflicts-with-turkeys.html |title=Preventing Conflicts with Wild Turkeys |publisher=Commonwealth of Massachusetts |access-date=2017-08-25 |archive-date=5 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905145530/http://www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/dfg/dfw/fish-wildlife-plants/mammals/preventing-conflicts-with-turkeys.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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In 2017, the town of [[Brookline, Massachusetts]], recommended a controversial approach when confronted with wild turkeys. Besides taking a step forward to intimidate the birds, officials also suggested "making noise (clanging pots or other objects together); popping open an umbrella; shouting and waving your arms; squirting them with a hose; allowing your leashed dog to bark at them; and forcefully fending them off with a broom".<ref>{{cite news|last=Sweeney|first=Emily|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/25/get-tough-turkeys-brookline-advises-residents/rjEL47Jqof2oZkHEw3CyPP/story.html|title=Don't let aggressive turkeys bully you, Brookline advises residents|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2017-08-25|access-date=2017-08-25|archive-date=2017-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825164828/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/25/get-tough-turkeys-brookline-advises-residents/rjEL47Jqof2oZkHEw3CyPP/story.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This advice was quickly rescinded and replaced with a caution that "being aggressive toward wild turkeys is not recommended by State wildlife officials."<ref>{{cite news|last=Sweeney|first=Emily|date=2017-09-28|title=Brookline backs down: Don't tussle with the turkeys|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/25/get-tough-turkeys-brookline-advises-residents/rjEL47Jqof2oZkHEw3CyPP/story.html|access-date=2022-06-22|website=[[The Boston Globe]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928155105/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/25/get-tough-turkeys-brookline-advises-residents/rjEL47Jqof2oZkHEw3CyPP/story.html|archive-date=2017-09-28|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Fossil record== |
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A number of turkeys have been described from [[fossil]]s. The Meleagridinae are known from the [[Early Miocene]] ({{circa|23}} [[mya (unit)|mya]]) onwards, with the [[extinct]] [[Genus|genera]] ''[[Rhegminornis]]'' (Early Miocene of Bell, U.S.) and ''[[Proagriocharis]]'' (Kimball [[Late Miocene]]/[[Zanclean|Early Pliocene]] of Lime Creek, U.S.). The former is probably a [[basal turkey]], the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys; both were much smaller birds. A turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to ''Meleagris'' is known from the Late Miocene of [[Westmoreland County, Virginia]].<ref name="Farner and King">{{cite book |author= Farner, Donald Stanley |author2= King, James R. |name-list-style= amp |title=Avian biology |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-12-249408-6 }}</ref> In the modern genus ''Meleagris'', a considerable number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found, and turkeys show great variation among individuals. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now considered [[junior synonym]]s. One, the well-documented [[California turkey]] ''Meleagris californica'',<ref>Formerly ''Parapavo californica'' and initially described as ''Pavo californica'' or "California peacock"</ref> became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Broughton, Jack |title=Resource depression and intensification during the late Holocene, San Francisco Bay: evidence from the Emeryville Shellmound vertebrate fauna |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-520-09828-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/resourcedepressi0032brou }}; [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060213090658.htm lay summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024100920/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060213090658.htm |date=24 October 2017 }}</ref> It has been suggested that its demise was due to the combined pressures of human hunting and [[climate change]] at the end of the [[last glacial period]].<ref>Bochenski, Z. M., and K. E. Campbell Jr. (2006). [http://www.nhm.org/site/sites/default/files/pdf/contrib_science/CS509.pdf The extinct California Turkey, ''Meleagris californica'', from Rancho La Brea: Comparative osteology and systematics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412101807/https://nhm.org/site/sites/default/files/pdf/contrib_science/CS509.pdf |date=12 April 2019 }}. ''Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County'', Number 509.</ref> |
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The [[Oligocene]] fossil ''[[Meleagris antiquus]]'' was first described by [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] in 1871. It has since been reassigned to the genus ''[[Paracrax]]'', first interpreted as a [[Cracidae|cracid]], then soon after as a [[Bathornithidae|bathornithid]] [[Cariamiformes]]. |
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===Fossil species=== |
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* ''Meleagris'' sp. (Early Pliocene of [[Bone Valley]], U.S.) |
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<!-- * ''Meleagris leopoldi'' (Late Pliocene of Cita Canyon, U.S.){{snd}}formerly ''Agriocharis'' |
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* ''Meleagris progenes'' (Rexroad Late Pliocene, Meade County, U.S.){{snd}}formerly ''Agriocharis'' [probably synonyms of extant gallopavo] --> |
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* ''Meleagris'' sp. (Late Pliocene of Macasphalt Shell Pit, U.S.) |
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<!-- * ''Meleagris anza'' (Early Pleistocene of San Diego County, U.S.) [probably synonyms of extant gallopavo] --> |
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* ''[[Meleagris californica]]'' (Late Pleistocene of southwestern U.S.){{snd}}formerly ''Parapavo/Pavo''<!-- Auk62:596; Condor32:81; Condor38:249; Condor44:283 --> |
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* ''Meleagris crassipes'' (Late Pleistocene of southwestern North America)<!-- Condor42:154; Condor96:577; RevMexCiencGeol20:79 --> |
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Turkeys have been considered by many authorities to be their own family—the Meleagrididae—but a recent genomic analysis of a [[retrotransposon marker]] groups turkeys in the family [[Phasianidae]].<ref name=Jan>{{cite journal| last1 = Jan| first1 = K.| last2 = Andreas| first2 = M.| last3 = Gennady| first3 = C.| last4 = Andrej| first4 = K.| last5 = Gerald| first5 = M.| last6 = Jürgen| first6 = B.| last7 = Jürgen| first7 = S.| year = 2007| title = Waves of genomic hitchhikers shed light on the evolution of gamebirds (Aves: Galliformes)| journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology| doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-7-190| volume = 7| issue = 1| page = 190| pmid = 17925025| pmc = 2169234| df = dmy-all| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2007BMCEE...7..190K}}</ref> In 2010, a team of scientists published a draft sequence of the domestic turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'') genome.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Dalloul | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Long | first2 = J. A. | last3 = Zimin | first3 = A. V. | last4 = Aslam | first4 = L. | last5 = Beal | first5 = K. | last6 = Blomberg Le | first6 = L. | last7 = Bouffard | first7 = P. | last8 = Burt | first8 = D. W. | last9 = Crasta | first9 = O. | last10 = Crooijmans | first10 = R. P. | last11 = Cooper | first11 = K. | last12 = Coulombe | first12 = R. A. | last13 = De | first13 = S. | last14 = Delany | first14 = M. E. | last15 = Dodgson | first15 = J. B. | last16 = Dong | first16 = J. J. | last17 = Evans | first17 = C. | last18 = Frederickson | first18 = K. M. | last19 = Flicek | first19 = P. | last20 = Florea | first20 = L. | last21 = Folkerts | first21 = O. | last22 = Groenen | first22 = M. A. | last23 = Harkins | first23 = T. T. | last24 = Herrero | first24 = J. | last25 = Hoffmann | first25 = S. | last26 = Megens | first26 = H. J. | last27 = Jiang | first27 = A. | last28 = De Jong | first28 = P. | last29 = Kaiser | first29 = P. | last30 = Kim | first30 = H. | editor1-last = Roberts | editor1-first = Richard J | title = Multi-Platform Next-Generation Sequencing of the Domestic Turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo''): Genome Assembly and Analysis | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000475 | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = e1000475 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20838655| pmc =2935454 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2023 a new improved haplotype-resolved domestic turkey genome was published, which confirmed the large inversion on the Z chromosome not found in other [[Galliformes]], and found new structural variations between the parent haplotypes that provides potential new target genes for breeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barros |first1=Carolina P |last2=Derks |first2=Martijn F L |last3=Mohr |first3=Jeff |last4=Wood |first4=Benjamin J |last5=Crooijmans |first5=Richard P M A |last6=Megens |first6=Hendrik-Jan |last7=Bink |first7=Marco C A M |last8=Groenen |first8=Martien A M |title=A new haplotype-resolved turkey genome to enable turkey genetics and genomics research |journal=[[GigaScience]] |date=12 December 2022 |volume=12 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giad051 |language=en |pmc=10360393 |pmid=37489751}}</ref> |
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==Anatomy== |
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[[File:Anatomy of turkey head.jpg|thumb|200px|Anatomical structures on the head and throat of a domestic turkey. 1. caruncles, 2. snood, 3. wattle (dewlap), 4. major caruncle, 5. beard]] |
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In anatomical terms, a ''snood'' is an erectile, fleshy protuberance on the forehead of turkeys. Most of the time when the turkey is in a relaxed state, the snood is pale and 2–3 cm long. However, when the male begins strutting (the courtship display), the snood engorges with blood, becomes redder and elongates several centimeters, hanging well below the beak (see image).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wild.enature.com/blog/snoods-and-wattles-a-turkeys-story/|title=Snoods and wattles? A turkey's story|author=ENature.com|year=2010|access-date=3 May 2013|archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203230245/http://wild.enature.com/blog/snoods-and-wattles-a-turkeys-story|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tpwmagazine.com/archive/2005/nov/skillbuilder/|title=Know your turkey parts.|author=Graves, R.A.|year=2005|access-date=3 May 2013|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123184340/https://tpwmagazine.com/archive/2005/nov/skillbuilder/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Snoods are just one of the [[Caruncle (bird anatomy)|caruncle]]s (small, fleshy excrescences) that can be found on turkeys.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dickson |first=James G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVICEKm1U04C&pg=PA33 |title=The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management |date=1992 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-1859-2 |pages=33 |language=en}}</ref> |
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While fighting, commercial turkeys often peck and pull at the snood, causing damage and bleeding.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boden |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZpCDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 |title=Black's Student Veterinary Dictionary |last2=Andrews |first2=Anthony |date=2017-03-24 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-3203-7 |pages=235 |language=en}}</ref> This often leads to further injurious pecking by other turkeys and sometimes results in [[Cannibalism (poultry)|cannibalism]]. To prevent this, some farmers cut off the snood when the chick is young, a process known as "de-snooding".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boden |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxAD2cWqYI0C&pg=PA133 |title=Black's Veterinary Dictionary |date=1998 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-389-21017-7 |pages=133 |language=en}}</ref> |
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The snood can be between {{convert|1|and|6|in|cm|0|order=flip}} in length depending on the turkey's sex, health, and mood.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-a-birds-snood-385372|title=The Turkey's Snood|author=Melissa Mayntz|date=28 August 2019|access-date=28 November 2019|archive-date=25 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225024000/https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-a-birds-snood-385372|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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===Function=== |
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The snood functions in both intersexual and intrasexual [[Selection (biology)|selection]]. Captive female wild turkeys prefer to mate with long-snooded males, and during [[Dyad (sociology)|dyadic]] interactions, male turkeys defer to males with relatively longer snoods. These results were demonstrated using both live males and controlled artificial models of males. Data on the parasite burdens of free-living wild turkeys revealed a negative correlation between snood length and [[Protozoan infection|infection]] with intestinal [[coccidia]], deleterious protozoan parasites. This indicates that in the wild, the long-snooded males preferred by females and avoided by males seemed to be resistant to coccidial infection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://olemiss.edu/depts/biology/people/faculty/buchholz/mate.php|title=Mate choice research|author=Buchholz, R.|access-date=3 May 2013|archive-date=16 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116041654/http://olemiss.edu/depts/biology/people/faculty/buchholz/mate.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ny2022">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/21/travel/wild-turkeys-mates.html|title=How Wild Turkeys Find Love|author=Anne Readel|work=The New York Times |date=21 November 2022 |access-date=21 Nov 2022}}</ref> Scientists also conducted a study on 500 male turkeys, gathering data on their snood lengths and blood samples for [[immune system]] functionality. They discovered a similar negative correlation. The presence of more [[red blood cell]]s when the snood is not removed will help to fight off unwanted invaders in their immune system, explaining this trend.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buchholz |first1=R. |last2=Jones Dukes |first2=M. D. |last3=Hecht |first3=S. |last4=Findley |first4=A. M. |date=2004 |title=Investigating the turkey's 'snood' as a morphological marker of heritable disease resistance |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00449.x |journal=Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics |language=en |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=176–185 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00449.x |issn=0931-2668}}</ref> |
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== Behavior == |
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[[File:Turkey - petting zoo - kanagawa 2023 June 25.ogv|thumb|A turkey in a [[petting zoo]] in [[Japan]]]] |
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{{See also|Wild turkey#Behavior}} |
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=== Feeding === |
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Wild turkeys feed on various [[wildlife]], depending on the season. In the warmer months of spring and summer, their diet consists mainly of [[grain]]s such as wheat, corn, and of smaller animals such as grasshoppers, spiders, worms, and, lizards. In the colder months of fall and winter, wild turkeys consume smaller fruits and nuts such as grapes, blueberries, acorns, and walnuts. To find this food, they have to continuously forage and feed most during the sunrise and sunset hours. |
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Domesticated turkeys consume a commercially produced feed formulated to increase the size of the turkeys. To supplement their nutrition, farmers will also feed them grains wild turkeys eat such as corn.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Do Wild Turkeys Eat? |url=https://www.thespruce.com/what-do-turkeys-eat-386553 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=The Spruce |language=en |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603121918/https://www.thespruce.com/what-do-turkeys-eat-386553 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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=== Grooming === |
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Turkeys participate in a number of grooming behaviors including: dusting, sunning, and feather [[preening]]. In dusting, turkeys get low on their stomach or side and flap their wings, coating themselves with dirt. This action serves to remove debris build-up on the feathers and also clog tiny pores that parasites such as lice can inhabit. Sunning for turkeys involves bathing in the sunlight, for their top and bottom halves. This can serve to liquidate the oil that turkeys naturally produce, spreading over their feathers and dry their feathers from precipitation at the same time. In feather preening, turkeys are able to remove dirt and bacteria, while also ensuring that non-durable feathers are removed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daily Rituals of the Wild Turkey - The National Wild Turkey Federation |url=https://www.nwtf.org/content-hub/daily-rituals-of-the-wild-turkey |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=www.nwtf.org |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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=== Flight === |
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Though domestic turkeys are considered flightless, wild turkeys can and do fly for short distances. Turkeys are best adapted for walking and foraging; they do not fly as a normal means of travel. When faced with a perceived danger, wild turkeys can fly up to a quarter mile. Turkeys may also make short flights to assist roosting in a tree.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://birdfact.com/articles/can-wild-turkeys-fly |title=Can Wild Turkeys Fly? (Height, Speed, Distance + FAQs)|publisher=BirdFact|access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref> |
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==Use by humans== |
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{{See also|Domestic turkey|Turkey meat}} |
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[[File:Turkeyset.JPG|alt=|thumb|A roast turkey surrounded by a Christmas [[log cake]], gravy, [[Apple cider|sparkling apple cider]] and vegetables]] |
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The species ''Meleagris gallopavo'' is eaten by humans. They were first domesticated by the indigenous people of [[Mexico]] from at least 800 BC onwards.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aslam |first1=Muhammad L |last2=Bastiaansen |first2=John WM |last3=Elferink |first3=Martin G |last4=Megens |first4=Hendrik-Jan |last5=Crooijmans |first5=Richard PMA |last6=Blomberg |first6=Le Ann |last7=Fleischer |first7=Robert C |last8=Tassell |first8=Curtis P Van |last9=Sonstegard |first9=Tad S |last10=Schroeder |first10=Steven G |last11=Groenen |first11=Martien AM |last12=Julie |first12=A Long |title=Whole genome SNP discovery and analysis of genetic diversity in Turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'') |journal=[[BMC Genomics]] |date=2012 |volume=13 |page=391 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-13-391 |pmid=22891612 |pmc=3496629 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By 200 BC, the indigenous people of what is today the [[American Southwest]] had domesticated turkeys; though the theory that they were introduced from Mexico was once influential, modern studies suggest that the turkeys of the Southwest were domesticated independently from those in Mexico. Turkeys were used both as a food source and for their feathers and bones, which were used in both practical and cultural contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Speller |first1=Camilla F. |last2=Kemp |first2=Brian M. |last3=Wyatt |first3=Scott D. |last4=Monroe |first4=Cara |last5=Lipe |first5=William D. |last6=Arndt |first6=Ursula M. |last7=Yang |first7=Dongya Y. |date=2010-02-16 |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=107 |issue=7 |pages=2807–2812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909724107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2840336 |pmid=20133614|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2807S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Compared to wild turkeys, domestic turkeys are selectively bred to grow larger in size for their meat.<ref name="OneKind-turkey-fact">{{cite web |url=http://www.onekind.org/education/animals_a_z/turkey |title=Amazing Facts About Turkey |publisher=OneKind |access-date=24 December 2015 |archive-date=21 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121094307/http://www.onekind.org/education/animals_a_z/turkey |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pbs-turkey-wild-domestic">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/my-life-as-a-turkey-domesticated-versus-wild-graphic/7360/ |title=My Life as a Turkey – Domesticated versus Wild Graphic |date=14 November 2011 |publisher=PBS |access-date=27 December 2015 |archive-date=9 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009131002/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/my-life-as-a-turkey-domesticated-versus-wild-graphic/7360/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Turkey forms a central part of modern [[Thanksgiving]] celebrations in the [[United States of America]], and is often eaten at similar holiday occasions, such as [[Christmas]].<ref name="why-turkey-eat">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/recycled/2009/11/wherefore_turkey.html |title=Why do we eat turkey for Thanksgiving and Christmas? |magazine=Slate |date=25 November 2009 |access-date=24 December 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007133242/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/recycled/2009/11/wherefore_turkey.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="wonderopolis-turkey-thanksgiving">{{cite web |url=http://wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-do-we-eat-turkey-on-thanksgiving/ |title=Why Do We Eat Turkey on Thanksgiving? |publisher=Wonderopolis |access-date=24 December 2015 |archive-date=9 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009131008/https://www.wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-do-we-eat-turkey-on-thanksgiving/ |url-status=live }}</ref><!--Add more industry and other info about turkeys' use to humans. Also add turkey breeding for industry. Also add how they are used in industry. Where are they produced? Where are they domesticated? What is used? What makes turkey domestication use do good to humans? Why are they domesticated in the first place?--> |
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===The Norfolk turkeys=== |
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In her memoirs, [[Lady Dorothy Nevill]] (1826–1913)<ref name=NEVILL>{{cite book |url=https://memory.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2007/20070601074ma/20070601074ma.pdf |title=Mannington and the Walpoles, Earls of Orford. With ten illustrations of Mannington Hall, Norfolk |last=Nevill |first=Lady Dorothy |location=London |publisher=Fine Art Society |date=1894 |page=22 |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-date=12 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412101345/https://memory.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2007/20070601074ma/20070601074ma.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> recalls that her great-grandfather [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford]] (1723–1809), imported a quantity of American turkeys which were kept in the woods around [[Wolterton Hall]]<ref name=NEVILL/> and in all probability were the embryo flock for the popular [[Bronze turkey|Norfolk turkey]] breeds of today.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |
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==Gallery== |
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<gallery mode="packed" class="center" widths="200" heights="220"> |
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File:Ocellated Turkey.jpg|Chan Chich Lodge area, Belize: the ocellated turkey is named for the eye-shaped spots (ocelli) on its tail feathers |
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File:Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) (16279818861).jpg|A male (tom) [[wild turkey]] ''(Meleagris gallopavo)'' strutting (spreading its feathers) in a field |
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</gallery> |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*{{UCSC genomes|melGal1}} |
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* [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/familia.phtml?idFamilia=35 Turkey videos] on the Internet Bird Collection |
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* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=turkey Etymology of the word] |
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{{Phasianidae}} |
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[[Category:Meleagrididae|*]] |
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{{Pangalliformes|Pha.|state=collapsed}} |
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[[Category:Fauna of Mexico]] |
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[[Category:Birds described in 1758]] |
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[[ja:シチメンチョウ亜科 (Sibley)]] |
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Latest revision as of 06:20, 9 December 2024
Turkey Temporal range: Miocene – Recent
Early | |
---|---|
A male wild turkey strutting | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Galliformes |
Family: | Phasianidae |
Subfamily: | Phasianinae |
Tribe: | Tetraonini |
Genus: | Meleagris Linnaeus, 1758 |
Type species | |
Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey) Linnaeus, 1758
| |
Species | |
The turkey is a large bird in the genus Meleagris, native to North America. There are two extant turkey species: the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) of eastern and central North America and the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Males of both turkey species have a distinctive fleshy wattle, called a snood, that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges. As with many large ground-feeding birds (order Galliformes), the male is bigger and much more colorful than the female.
The earliest turkeys evolved in North America over 20 million years ago. They share a recent common ancestor with grouse, pheasants, and other fowl. The wild turkey species is the ancestor of the domestic turkey, which was domesticated approximately 2,000 years ago by indigenous peoples. It was this domesticated turkey that later reached Eurasia, during the Columbian exchange.
In English, the name "turkey" is believed to have come from the birds being brought to Britain by merchants trading to the nation of Turkey and thus becoming known as turkey coqs or turkey-cocks.[1] This happened first to guinea fowl native to Madagascar, and then to the domesticated turkeys themselves which looked similar.[2][3] This name prevailed for the turkeys, and was then transferred to the New World bird by English colonizers with knowledge of the previous species.[4]
Taxonomy
The genus Meleagris was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae.[5] The genus name is from the Ancient Greek μελεαγρις, meleagris meaning "guineafowl".[6] The type species is the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo).[7]
Turkeys are classed in the family Phasianidae (pheasants, partridges, francolins, junglefowl, grouse, and relatives thereof) in the taxonomic order Galliformes.[8] They are close relatives of the grouse and are classified alongside them in the tribe Tetraonini.[9]
Extant species
The genus contains two species.[10]
Common name | Scientific name and subspecies | Range | Size and ecology | IUCN status and estimated population |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wild turkey and domestic turkey | Meleagris gallopavo Linnaeus, 1758 Six subspecies
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The forests of North America, from Mexico (where they were first domesticated in Mesoamerica)[11] throughout the midwestern and eastern United States and into southeastern Canada |
Size: Habitat: Diet: |
LC
|
Ocellated turkey | Meleagris ocellata Cuvier, 1820 |
The forests of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico[12] |
Size: Habitat: Diet: |
NT
|
Fossil species
- Meleagris californica Californian turkey – Southern California
- Meleagris crassipes Southwestern turkey - New Mexico[13]
Names
The linguist Mario Pei proposes two possible explanations for the name turkey.[14] One theory suggests that when Europeans first encountered turkeys in the Americas, they incorrectly identified the birds as a type of guineafowl, which were already being imported into Europe by English merchants to the Levant via Constantinople. The birds were therefore nicknamed turkey coqs. The name of the North American bird may have then become turkey fowl or Indian turkeys, which was eventually shortened to turkeys.[14][15][16]
A second theory arises from turkeys coming to England not directly from the Americas, but via merchant ships from the Middle East, where they were domesticated successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird; hence turkey-cocks and turkey-hens, and soon thereafter, turkeys.[14][17]
In 1550, the English navigator William Strickland, who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a "turkey-cock in his pride proper".[18] William Shakespeare used the term in Twelfth Night,[19] believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term was already widespread.[citation needed]
Other European names for turkeys incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such as dinde ('from India') in French, индюшка (indyushka, 'bird of India') in Russian, indyk in Polish and Ukrainian, and hindi ('Indian') in Turkish. These are thought to arise from the supposed belief of Christopher Columbus that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage.[14] In Portuguese a turkey is a peru; the name is thought to derive from the country in South America 'Peru'.[20]
Several other birds that are sometimes called turkeys are not particularly closely related: the brushturkeys are megapodes, and the bird sometimes known as the Australian turkey is the Australian bustard (Ardeotis australis). The anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) is sometimes called the water turkey, from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying.[citation needed]
An infant turkey is called a chick or poult.[21][22]
History
Turkeys were likely first domesticated in Pre-Columbian Mexico, where they held a cultural and symbolic importance.[24][25] The Classical Nahuatl word for the turkey, huehxōlō-tl (guajolote in Spanish), is still used in modern Mexico, in addition to the general term pavo. Mayan aristocrats and priests appear to have had a special connection to ocellated turkeys, with ideograms of those birds appearing in Mayan manuscripts.[26] Spanish chroniclers, including Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Father Bernardino de Sahagún, describe the multitude of food (both raw fruits and vegetables as well as prepared dishes) that were offered in the vast markets (tianguis) of Tenochtitlán, noting there were tamales made of turkeys, iguanas, chocolate, vegetables, fruits and more.[citation needed]
Turkeys were first exported to Europe via Spain around 1519, where they gained immediate popularity among the aristocratic classes.[27] Turkeys arrived in England in 1541. From there, English settlers brought turkeys to North America during the 17th century.[24]
Destruction and re-introduction in the United States
In what is now the United States, there were an estimated 10 million turkeys in the 17th century. By the 1930s, only 30,000 remained.[28] In the 1960s and 1970s, biologists started trapping wild turkeys from the few places they remained (including the Ozarks[28] and New York[29]), and re-introducing them into other states, including Minnesota[28] and Vermont.[29] Starting in 2014, researchers sent a survey to wildlife biologists in the National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Committee across the U.S. states to gather data regarding the population of turkeys. As of 2019, the wild turkey population declined by around 3% since 2014. Also as of 2019, the number of wild turkey hunters decreased by 18% since 2014 from the reports of the participating U.S. states. The 2019 data for population was missing information from 12 states and the 2019 hunter data was missing information from 8 states.[30]
Human conflicts with wild turkeys
Turkeys have been known to be aggressive toward humans and pets in residential areas.[31] Wild turkeys have a social structure and pecking order and habituated turkeys may respond to humans and animals as they do other turkeys. Habituated turkeys may attempt to dominate or attack people that the birds view as subordinates.[32]
In 2017, the town of Brookline, Massachusetts, recommended a controversial approach when confronted with wild turkeys. Besides taking a step forward to intimidate the birds, officials also suggested "making noise (clanging pots or other objects together); popping open an umbrella; shouting and waving your arms; squirting them with a hose; allowing your leashed dog to bark at them; and forcefully fending them off with a broom".[33] This advice was quickly rescinded and replaced with a caution that "being aggressive toward wild turkeys is not recommended by State wildlife officials."[34]
Fossil record
A number of turkeys have been described from fossils. The Meleagridinae are known from the Early Miocene (c. 23 mya) onwards, with the extinct genera Rhegminornis (Early Miocene of Bell, U.S.) and Proagriocharis (Kimball Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lime Creek, U.S.). The former is probably a basal turkey, the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys; both were much smaller birds. A turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to Meleagris is known from the Late Miocene of Westmoreland County, Virginia.[12] In the modern genus Meleagris, a considerable number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found, and turkeys show great variation among individuals. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now considered junior synonyms. One, the well-documented California turkey Meleagris californica,[35] became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers.[36] It has been suggested that its demise was due to the combined pressures of human hunting and climate change at the end of the last glacial period.[37]
The Oligocene fossil Meleagris antiquus was first described by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1871. It has since been reassigned to the genus Paracrax, first interpreted as a cracid, then soon after as a bathornithid Cariamiformes.
Fossil species
- Meleagris sp. (Early Pliocene of Bone Valley, U.S.)
- Meleagris sp. (Late Pliocene of Macasphalt Shell Pit, U.S.)
- Meleagris californica (Late Pleistocene of southwestern U.S.) – formerly Parapavo/Pavo
- Meleagris crassipes (Late Pleistocene of southwestern North America)
Turkeys have been considered by many authorities to be their own family—the Meleagrididae—but a recent genomic analysis of a retrotransposon marker groups turkeys in the family Phasianidae.[38] In 2010, a team of scientists published a draft sequence of the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) genome.[39] In 2023 a new improved haplotype-resolved domestic turkey genome was published, which confirmed the large inversion on the Z chromosome not found in other Galliformes, and found new structural variations between the parent haplotypes that provides potential new target genes for breeding.[40]
Anatomy
In anatomical terms, a snood is an erectile, fleshy protuberance on the forehead of turkeys. Most of the time when the turkey is in a relaxed state, the snood is pale and 2–3 cm long. However, when the male begins strutting (the courtship display), the snood engorges with blood, becomes redder and elongates several centimeters, hanging well below the beak (see image).[41][42]
Snoods are just one of the caruncles (small, fleshy excrescences) that can be found on turkeys.[43]
While fighting, commercial turkeys often peck and pull at the snood, causing damage and bleeding.[44] This often leads to further injurious pecking by other turkeys and sometimes results in cannibalism. To prevent this, some farmers cut off the snood when the chick is young, a process known as "de-snooding".[45]
The snood can be between 3 and 15 centimetres (1 and 6 in) in length depending on the turkey's sex, health, and mood.[46]
Function
The snood functions in both intersexual and intrasexual selection. Captive female wild turkeys prefer to mate with long-snooded males, and during dyadic interactions, male turkeys defer to males with relatively longer snoods. These results were demonstrated using both live males and controlled artificial models of males. Data on the parasite burdens of free-living wild turkeys revealed a negative correlation between snood length and infection with intestinal coccidia, deleterious protozoan parasites. This indicates that in the wild, the long-snooded males preferred by females and avoided by males seemed to be resistant to coccidial infection.[47][48] Scientists also conducted a study on 500 male turkeys, gathering data on their snood lengths and blood samples for immune system functionality. They discovered a similar negative correlation. The presence of more red blood cells when the snood is not removed will help to fight off unwanted invaders in their immune system, explaining this trend.[49]
Behavior
Feeding
Wild turkeys feed on various wildlife, depending on the season. In the warmer months of spring and summer, their diet consists mainly of grains such as wheat, corn, and of smaller animals such as grasshoppers, spiders, worms, and, lizards. In the colder months of fall and winter, wild turkeys consume smaller fruits and nuts such as grapes, blueberries, acorns, and walnuts. To find this food, they have to continuously forage and feed most during the sunrise and sunset hours.
Domesticated turkeys consume a commercially produced feed formulated to increase the size of the turkeys. To supplement their nutrition, farmers will also feed them grains wild turkeys eat such as corn.[50]
Grooming
Turkeys participate in a number of grooming behaviors including: dusting, sunning, and feather preening. In dusting, turkeys get low on their stomach or side and flap their wings, coating themselves with dirt. This action serves to remove debris build-up on the feathers and also clog tiny pores that parasites such as lice can inhabit. Sunning for turkeys involves bathing in the sunlight, for their top and bottom halves. This can serve to liquidate the oil that turkeys naturally produce, spreading over their feathers and dry their feathers from precipitation at the same time. In feather preening, turkeys are able to remove dirt and bacteria, while also ensuring that non-durable feathers are removed.[51]
Flight
Though domestic turkeys are considered flightless, wild turkeys can and do fly for short distances. Turkeys are best adapted for walking and foraging; they do not fly as a normal means of travel. When faced with a perceived danger, wild turkeys can fly up to a quarter mile. Turkeys may also make short flights to assist roosting in a tree.[52]
Use by humans
The species Meleagris gallopavo is eaten by humans. They were first domesticated by the indigenous people of Mexico from at least 800 BC onwards.[53] By 200 BC, the indigenous people of what is today the American Southwest had domesticated turkeys; though the theory that they were introduced from Mexico was once influential, modern studies suggest that the turkeys of the Southwest were domesticated independently from those in Mexico. Turkeys were used both as a food source and for their feathers and bones, which were used in both practical and cultural contexts.[54] Compared to wild turkeys, domestic turkeys are selectively bred to grow larger in size for their meat.[55][56]
Turkey forms a central part of modern Thanksgiving celebrations in the United States of America, and is often eaten at similar holiday occasions, such as Christmas.[57][58]
The Norfolk turkeys
In her memoirs, Lady Dorothy Nevill (1826–1913)[59] recalls that her great-grandfather Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (1723–1809), imported a quantity of American turkeys which were kept in the woods around Wolterton Hall[59] and in all probability were the embryo flock for the popular Norfolk turkey breeds of today.[citation needed]
Gallery
-
Chan Chich Lodge area, Belize: the ocellated turkey is named for the eye-shaped spots (ocelli) on its tail feathers
-
A male (tom) wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) strutting (spreading its feathers) in a field
References
- ^ Dickson, 362; "Why a Turkey Is Called a Turkey" Archived 2016-04-11 at the Wayback Machine. Npr.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
- ^ Webster's II New College Dictionary Archived 2019-03-17 at the Wayback Machine. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2005, ISBN 978-0-618-39601-6, p. 1217
- ^ Andrew F. Smith (2006). The Turkey: An American Story Archived 2016-06-10 at the Wayback Machine. University of Illinois Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-252-03163-2, p. 17.
- ^ Forsyth, Mark (27 November 2013). "Opinion | The Turkey's Turkey Connection". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 156. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
- ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
- ^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1934). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 139. Archived from the original on 24 August 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
- ^ Crowe, Timothy M.; Bloomer, Paulette; Randi, Ettore; Lucchini, Vittorio; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L. & Groth, Jeffrey G. (2006a): "Supra-generic cladistics of landfowl (Order Galliformes)". Acta Zoologica Sinica 52(Supplement): 358–361. PDF fulltext Archived 23 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kimball, Rebecca T.; Hosner, Peter A.; Braun, Edward L. (1 May 2021). "A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes (Landfowl) reveals biased branch lengths". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 158: 107091. Bibcode:2021MolPE.15807091K. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107091. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 33545275. S2CID 231963063. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Pheasants, partridges, francolins". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Archived from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
- ^ "Earliest use of Mexican turkeys by ancient Maya". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 23 September 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
- ^ a b Farner, Donald Stanley & King, James R. (1971). Avian biology. Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-249408-6.
- ^ Tyrberg, T. (2008). The Late Pleistocene continental avian extinction—An evaluation of the fossil evidence. Oryctos, 7, 249–269.
- ^ a b c d Krulwich, Robert (27 November 2008). "Why A Turkey Is Called A Turkey". NPR. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ Webster's II New College Dictionary Archived 17 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2005, ISBN 978-0-618-39601-6, p. 1217
- ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2006) The Turkey: An American Story Archived 15 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03163-2. p. 17
- ^ "The flight of the turkey". The Economist. 20 December 2014. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
- ^ Boehrer, Bruce Thomas (2011). Animal characters: nonhuman beings in early modern literature Archived 15 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 141. ISBN 0812201361.
- ^ Twelfth Night: Act 2, Scene 5 Archived 26 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine No Fear Shakespeare
- ^ Dicionário Priberam da Lingua Portuguesa, "peru".
- ^ Dickson, James G. (1992). The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management. Stackpole Books. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8117-1859-2.
- ^ Damerow, Gail (15 January 2013). Hatching & Brooding Your Own Chicks: Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Guinea Fowl. Storey Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-61212-014-0.
- ^ Tozzer, Alfred M.; Allen, Glover M. Animal figures in the Maya codices. Archived from the original on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2021.
- ^ a b "Turkey." Britannica Library, Encyclopædia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019. Accessed 25 May 2022.
- ^ Nield, David (18 January 2018). "Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating". sciencealert.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
- ^ Andrew F. Smith. The Turkey : AN AMERICAN STORY. University of Illinois Press, 2006. (p. 5) Accessed 25 May 2022.
- ^ Andrew F. Smith. The Turkey : AN AMERICAN STORY. University of Illinois Press, 2006. Accessed 25 May 2022.
- ^ a b c Stanley, Greg. "The fall and rise of Minnesota's wild turkeys". Star Tribune.
- ^ a b Abbott, Brianna (20 November 2018). "How Wild Turkeys Took Over New England".
- ^ Chamberlain, Michael J.; Hatfield, Mark; Collier, Bret A. (2022). "Status and distribution of wild turkeys in the United States in 2019". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 46 (2). doi:10.1002/wsb.1287. ISSN 2328-5540. S2CID 248933133.
- ^ Annear, Steve (24 April 2017). "MassWildlife warns of turkey encounters". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
- ^ "Preventing Conflicts with Wild Turkeys". Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
- ^ Sweeney, Emily (25 August 2017). "Don't let aggressive turkeys bully you, Brookline advises residents". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
- ^ Sweeney, Emily (28 September 2017). "Brookline backs down: Don't tussle with the turkeys". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- ^ Formerly Parapavo californica and initially described as Pavo californica or "California peacock"
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External links
- View the melGal1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser