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The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós (Hungarian: Nagyszentmiklósi kincs; German: Schatz von Nagyszentmiklós; Romanian: Tezaurul de la Sânnicolau Mare) is an important hoard of 23 early medieval gold vessels, in total weighing 9.945 kg (about 22 lbs), found in 1799 near Nagyszentmiklós,^[1] Kingdom of Hungary (German: Groß-Sankt-Niklaus, today Sânnicolau Mare, Romania), meaning "Great St Nicholas".^[2]^[3] After the excavation, the treasure was transferred to Vienna, the dynastic capital of the Habsburg Monarchy. Ever since, it has been in the possession of the Kunsthistorisches Museum there, where it is on permanent display.

A wide range of views continue to be held as to the dating and the origins of the styles of the pieces, and the context in which they were made, which may well vary between the pieces. Unusually, the inscriptions on some pieces have increased the complexity of the arguments rather than reduced them. In 2008 Romanian officials asked the Austrian government for the treasure's repatriation.^[4]^[5]

In the 19th century the treasure was widely regarded in Hungary as originating with precursors of the Hungarian people, and played a notable part as an icon of Hungarian nationalism. In particular the gold cup with a bull's head facing back over the bowl was known as the "Cup of Attila" - Attila the Hun having died in 453.

The treasure, consisting of 23 gold vessels and variously dated from the 6th to the 10th century, was found on 3 July 1799 by Neru Vuin, a Serbian peasant farmer, in the vicinity of Nagyszentmiklós (Sânnicolau Mare).^[6] The figure of the "victorious Prince" dragging a prisoner along by his hair (see figure on the right) and the mythological scene at the back of the golden jar, as well as the design of other ornamental objects, show close affinities with finds at Novi Pazar, Bulgaria and at Sarkel, Russia. Stylistically, Central Asian, Persian-Sassanid and Byzantine influences are predominant.^[7]

Inscriptions

On one of the vessels in the hoard there is an inscription written in the Greek alphabet which reads:

ΒΟΥΗΛΑ

bouēla

ΖΟΑΠΑΝ

zoapan

ΤΕΣΗ

tesē

ΔΥΓΕΤΟΙΓΗ

dygetoigē

ΒΟΥΤΑΟΥΛ

boutaoul

ΖΩΑΠΑΝ

zōapan

ΤΑΓΡΟΓΗ

tagrogē

ΗΤΖΙΓΗ

ētzigē

ΤΑΙΣΗ

taisē

^[8]

^[9]

Today almost all scholars share the view that the text is written in a Turkic language,^[10]^[11]^[12] but it has not been deciphered and the exact classification of the language has been a subject of debate.^[10]^[13] It has been often compared with the Turkic Bulgar language of the First Bulgarian Empire,^[14]^[13]^[15] attested on several 8th-9th century inscriptions written in Greek letters.^[16] More recently Eugene Helimski argued the language is close to Proto-Tungusic,^[17] but this proposal was rejected by Marcel Erdal as far-fetched.^[18]

"Number 8 Bow inscription" from the Treasure of Nagy Szent Miklos; runiform script

There is another inscription in the Greek language. Also, there are several other very short inscriptions in a runiform script which are also likely to be in a Turkic language, but these are very brief and also have not been deciphered.^[19]^[20]

Cultural context

The cultural milieu or milieux in which the objects in the treasure were created, assembled and deposited remains controversial, with the debate often influenced by nationalistic concerns.^{[citation needed]}

Illustration on the treasure of Nagyszentmiklós depicting a scene of the divine Garuda bird lifting up a human body, or alluding to Ancient Greek mythology with Zeus transforming into animals to rape a man or woman.^{[citation needed]} Some claim to be similar to one in the Álmos legend from the Hungarian mythology: Emese's dream of the Turul bird.^[21]

Avar

Scholars have connected the treasure with the Avar Khaganate.^[22]^[23] The newest research shows it is closely related to the Avar culture.^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]

Byzantine

According to a Greek text of a vessel, the treasure may have a Byzantine Empire origin. In a study of a Romanian scientist, the text of a vessel has to be read as ΔEA[=ΔIA] YΔATOC ANAΠΛYΣON A<YT˃ON EIC PHTON[=PEITON] OMAYLON. Meaning: "With water clean it [the disc] in the neighboring [sacred] stream". Also, he wrote the treasure belonged to Ahtum, a voivode of Banat.^[28]

Magyar or Bulgar

As noted above, close affinities have been recognized between the Nagyszentmiklós material and that found at Novi Pazar and in Khazaria. Archaeologists in both Hungary and Bulgaria consider these affinities to support theories of ancient migration between regions. Both were allied with Khazars for a period. The treasure gives some idea of the art of the First Bulgarian Empire, Hungarian and Khazar states. According to Professor Nykola Mavrodinov (based on Vilhelm Thomsen), the script on vessel number 21 is in Bulgar, written in Greek letters, surrounding a cross, and reads, "Boyla Zoapan made this vessel. Butaul Zoapan intended it for drinking."^[29]

Khazar

One school of Hungarian archaeologists maintains that the tenth century gold- and silversmiths working in Hungary were Khazar.^[30] When the Magyars migrated to Pannonia in 896, some Khazar tribes, known as the Khavars, came with them to their new homes. The Khavars were skilled gold and silversmiths.

Persian

Khazar art is believed to be modelled on Persian-Sassanide art patterns. The Soviet archaeologist O. H. Bader emphasized the role of the Khazars in the spread of Persian-style silverware towards the north.^[31] Some of these works may have been re-exported by the Khazars, as middlemen; others were imitations made in Khazar workshops, ruins of which have been found near the ancient Khazar fortress of Sarkel. The Swedish archaeologist T. J. Arne mentions ornamental plates, clasps and buckles of Sassanide and Byzantine inspiration, manufactured in Khazaria or territories under their influence, being found as far afield as Sweden.^[32] Thus, the Khazars, Magyars and Bulgars could have been intermediaries in spreading Persian-Sassanide art in Eastern Europe.^[33]

References

^ Franz Heinrich Ungewitter, Europe, past and present: a comprehensive manual of European geography and history (1850), page 528
^ Hanswilhelm Haefs (2009). Das goldene Reich der Pamir-Bulgaren an Donau und Wardar: Skyten-Gold. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 7. ISBN 978-3-8334-2340-6.
^ Official description at Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Archived 2007-10-24 at the Wayback Machine
^ Banatenii spera sa recupereze Tezaurul de la Sannicolau. Retrieved September 02, 2008.
^ Comorile Banatului se intorc acasa Archived 2017-08-16 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved September 02, 2008
^ Gyula László, István Rácz: The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, Corvina, 1984, pp. 19 [1]
^ László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos. Helikon, Budapest
^ Gyula Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica: Sprachreste der Türkvölker in den byzantinischen Quellen (1983)
^ Francis Dvornik, "Deux inscriptions gréco-bulgares de Philippes", Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, 1928 Vol. 52 no. 52, pp. 125-147 [2], accessed Oct. 10, 2011
^ ^a ^b Alemany 2009, p. 5.
^ Göbl & Róna-Tas 1995, pp. 18–19.
^ Róna-Tas 1999, pp. 131–132.
^ ^a ^b Göbl & Róna-Tas 1995, p. 19.
^ Erdal 1988, p. 223.
^ Thomsen 1918, p. 27.
^ Fiedler 2008, pp. 189–191.
^ Helimski 2000, pp. 271–277.
^ Erdal 2007, p. 79.
^ András Róna-Tas, Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages (Central European University Press, 1999; ISBN 963-9116-48-3), pp. 131-132
^ Agustí Alemany, "From Central Asia to Balkans: the title *ču(b)-pān" in Christine Allison, Anke Joisten-Pruschke, Antje Wendtland (eds.), Daēnā to Dîn: Religion, Kultur und Sprache in der iranischen Welt (2009; ISBN 978-3-447-05917-6), pp. 3-The inscription is executed with Greek capital letters along the periphery of a richly decorated with an open-work interlaced design golden disk, complementarily mounted on the bottom of a shallow semispherical golden cup in the shape of an oval basin with a diameter of 12, p. 5
^ Szabó, Géza (2021). "A nő ábrázolása a Nagyszentmiklósi kincs 2. korsóján - Értelmezési lehetőségek a kaukázusi régészeti és néprajzi párhuzamok, valamint az újabb kutatási eredmények alapján" [Representation of the woman on the 2nd jar of the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós - Interpretation possibilities based on the archaeological and ethnographic parallels in the Caucasus, as well as the results of recent research] (PDF). A női dimenzió (in Hungarian). 1: 33–45. doi:10.55344/andfh.2101033.
^ Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history. In: C Entwistle, N Adams, Byzantine goldsmithwork. London: British Museum Press, 2009. p. 62.
^ A short essay on the Nagyszentmiklós treasure. in: The Gold of the Avars. The Nagyszentmiklós Treasure. General editor: T. Kovács. Budapest 2002, 57-80.
^ Bálint 2010, pp. 153, 155.
^ Daim 2003, p. 516.
^ Fiedler 2008, p. 218.
^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 132.
^ Vasile Muntean, Contribuţii la istoria Banatului, Timişoara 1990, p.6
^ László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Helikon, Budapest
^ Dunlop, D. M., "Khazars", in Enc. Judaica, 1971-2 printing.
^ Bader, O. H., Studies of the Kama Archaeological Expedition (in Russian, Kharkov, 1953)
^ Arne, T. J., "La Su de et l'Orient", Archives d'Études Orientales, 8º. v.8, Upsala, 1914.
^ Bálint Cs. (2004): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs. (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Varia Archaeologica Hungarica c. series, XVIa, Budapest

Sources

Alemany, Agustí (2009). "From Central Asia to the Balkans: the title *ču(b)-pān". In Allison, Christine; Joisten-Pruschke, Anke; Wendtland, Antje (eds.). Daēnā to Dîn: Religion, Kultur und Sprache in der iranischen Welt. pp. 3–12.
Bálint, Csanád (2010). "Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history". In Adams, Noel; Entwistle, Chris (eds.). Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine Jewellery. pp. 146–160.
Daim, Falko (2003). "Avars and Avar archaeology. An introduction". In Goetz, Hans Werner; Jarnut, Jörg; Pohl, Walter (eds.). Regna and gentes: the relationship between late antique and early medieval peoples and kingdoms in the transformation of the Roman world. pp. 463–570.
Erdal, Marcel (1988). "The Turkic Nagy-Szent-Miklós inscription in Greek letters". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 42: 221–234.
Erdal, Marcel (2007). "The Khazar language". In Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (eds.). The World of the Khazars. pp. 75–108.
Fiedler, Uwe (2008). "Bulgars in the Lower Danube region. A survey of the archaeological evidence and of the state of current research.". In Curta, Florin; Kovalev, Roman (eds.). The other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans. pp. 151–236.
Göbl, Robert; Róna-Tas, András (1995). Die Inschriften des Schatzes von Nagy-Szentmiklós: Eine paläographische Dokumentation.
Helimski, Eugene A. (2000). "On probable Tungus-Manchurian origin of the Buyla inscription from Nagy-Szentmiklós". Компаративистика, уралистика: Лекции и статьи. pp. 268–277.
Róna-Tas, András (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages.
Thomsen, Vilhelm (1918). Une inscription de la trouvaille d'or de Nagy-Szent-Miklós (Hongrie).

External links

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
THE GOLDEN TREASURE OF THE BULGARIAN KHANS FROM ATTILA TO SIMEON (in English)
THE GOLDEN TREASURE OF THE BULGARIAN KHANS FROM ATTILA TO SIMEON (in Bulgarian)

[1] Franz Heinrich Ungewitter, Europe, past and present: a comprehensive manual of European geography and history (1850), page 528

[Haefs2009-2] Hanswilhelm Haefs (2009). Das goldene Reich der Pamir-Bulgaren an Donau und Wardar: Skyten-Gold. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 7. ISBN 978-3-8334-2340-6.

[3] Official description at Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Archived 2007-10-24 at the Wayback Machine

[4] Banatenii spera sa recupereze Tezaurul de la Sannicolau. Retrieved September 02, 2008.

[5] Comorile Banatului se intorc acasa Archived 2017-08-16 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved September 02, 2008

[6] Gyula László, István Rácz: The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, Corvina, 1984, pp. 19 [1]

[7] László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos. Helikon, Budapest

[8] Gyula Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica: Sprachreste der Türkvölker in den byzantinischen Quellen (1983)

[9] Francis Dvornik, "Deux inscriptions gréco-bulgares de Philippes", Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, 1928 Vol. 52 no. 52, pp. 125-147 [2], accessed Oct. 10, 2011

[FOOTNOTEAlemany20095-10] Alemany 2009, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTEGöblRóna-Tas199518–19-11] Göbl & Róna-Tas 1995, pp. 18–19.

[FOOTNOTERóna-Tas1999131–132-12] Róna-Tas 1999, pp. 131–132.

[FOOTNOTEGöblRóna-Tas199519-13] Göbl & Róna-Tas 1995, p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEErdal1988223-14] Erdal 1988, p. 223.

[FOOTNOTEThomsen191827-15] Thomsen 1918, p. 27.

[FOOTNOTEFiedler2008189–191-16] Fiedler 2008, pp. 189–191.

[FOOTNOTEHelimski2000271–277-17] Helimski 2000, pp. 271–277.

[FOOTNOTEErdal200779-18] Erdal 2007, p. 79.

[19] András Róna-Tas, Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages (Central European University Press, 1999; ISBN 963-9116-48-3), pp. 131-132

[20] Agustí Alemany, "From Central Asia to Balkans: the title *ču(b)-pān" in Christine Allison, Anke Joisten-Pruschke, Antje Wendtland (eds.), Daēnā to Dîn: Religion, Kultur und Sprache in der iranischen Welt (2009; ISBN 978-3-447-05917-6), pp. 3-The inscription is executed with Greek capital letters along the periphery of a richly decorated with an open-work interlaced design golden disk, complementarily mounted on the bottom of a shallow semispherical golden cup in the shape of an oval basin with a diameter of 12, p. 5

[21] Szabó, Géza (2021). "A nő ábrázolása a Nagyszentmiklósi kincs 2. korsóján - Értelmezési lehetőségek a kaukázusi régészeti és néprajzi párhuzamok, valamint az újabb kutatási eredmények alapján" [Representation of the woman on the 2nd jar of the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós - Interpretation possibilities based on the archaeological and ethnographic parallels in the Caucasus, as well as the results of recent research] (PDF). A női dimenzió (in Hungarian). 1: 33–45. doi:10.55344/andfh.2101033.

[22] Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history. In: C Entwistle, N Adams, Byzantine goldsmithwork. London: British Museum Press, 2009. p. 62.

[23] A short essay on the Nagyszentmiklós treasure. in: The Gold of the Avars. The Nagyszentmiklós Treasure. General editor: T. Kovács. Budapest 2002, 57-80.

[FOOTNOTEBálint2010153,_155-24] Bálint 2010, pp. 153, 155.

[FOOTNOTEDaim2003516-25] Daim 2003, p. 516.

[FOOTNOTEFiedler2008218-26] Fiedler 2008, p. 218.

[FOOTNOTERóna-Tas1999132-27] Róna-Tas 1999, p. 132.

[28] Vasile Muntean, Contribuţii la istoria Banatului, Timişoara 1990, p.6

[29] László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Helikon, Budapest

[30] Dunlop, D. M., "Khazars", in Enc. Judaica, 1971-2 printing.

[31] Bader, O. H., Studies of the Kama Archaeological Expedition (in Russian, Kharkov, 1953)

[32] Arne, T. J., "La Su de et l'Orient", Archives d'Études Orientales, 8º. v.8, Upsala, 1914.

[33] Bálint Cs. (2004): A nagyszentmiklósi kincs. (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Varia Archaeologica Hungarica c. series, XVIa, Budapest

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Twenty-three early medieval gold vessels found in what is now Romania}}
-[[File:Tezaurul Sannicolau Mare 3.jpg|thumb|Part of the treasure of Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare in the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]].]]
+[[File:Tezaurul Sannicolau Mare 3.jpg|thumb|Part of the treasure of Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós in the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]].]]
 [[File:KHM Wien - Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós.jpg|thumb|Another part of the treasure.]]
+[[File:Proto Bulgars crop.jpg|thumb|[[Turanid race|Asiatic looking]] horseman and his captive on the Ewer from Nagyszentmiklós.]]
-The '''Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare''' or '''Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós''' is an important [[hoard]] of 23 [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] gold vessels, in total weighing 9.945&nbsp;kg (about 22&nbsp;lbs), found in 1799 near the town of [[Sânnicolau Mare]] (''Nagyszentmiklós'' in Hungarian,<ref>Franz Heinrich Ungewitter, ''Europe, past and present: a comprehensive manual of European geography and history'' (1850), page 528</ref> ''Groß-Sankt-Niklaus'' in German, all meaning "Great St Nicholas")<ref name="Haefs2009">{{cite book|author=Hanswilhelm Haefs|title=Das goldene Reich der Pamir-Bulgaren an Donau und Wardar: Skyten-Gold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CUu3kdlzUPMC&pg=PA7|year=2009|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-3-8334-2340-6|page=7}}</ref> in northern [[Banat]] (then part of the [[Torontál County]] of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Kingdom of Hungary]] within the  [[Habsburg Monarchy|Habsburg Empire]], today in [[Timiş County]] in western [[Romania]]).<ref>[http://www.khm.at/system2E.html?/staticE/page1592.html Official description at Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024141809/http://www.khm.at/system2E.html?%2FstaticE%2Fpage1592.html |date=2007-10-24 }}</ref> After the excavation, the treasure was transferred to [[Vienna]], the capital of the empire. Ever since, it has been in the possession of the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] there, where it is on permanent display. A wide range of views continue to be held as to the dating and the origins of the styles of the pieces, and the context in which they were made, which may well vary between the pieces. Unusually, the inscriptions on some pieces have increased the complexity of the arguments rather than reduced them. Recently,{{when?|date=August 2018}} Romanian officials have asked the Austrian government for the treasure's [[Art repatriation|repatriation]].<ref>[http://www.stirilocale.ro/Timi_B_n_enii_sper_s_recupereze_Tezaurul_de_la_SA_nnicolau_IDN356788.html Banatenii spera sa recupereze Tezaurul de la Sannicolau]. Retrieved September 02, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.romanialibera.ro/articol-Comorile-Banatului-se-intorc-acasa-87490.htm Comorile Banatului se intorc acasa]. Retrieved September 02, 2008</ref>
+The '''Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós''' ({{langx|hu|Nagyszentmiklósi kincs}}; {{langx|de|Schatz von Nagyszentmiklós}}; {{langx|ro|Tezaurul de la Sânnicolau Mare}}) is an important [[hoard]] of 23 [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] gold vessels, in total weighing 9.945&nbsp;kg (about 22&nbsp;lbs), found in 1799 near Nagyszentmiklós,<ref>Franz Heinrich Ungewitter, ''Europe, past and present: a comprehensive manual of European geography and history'' (1850), page 528</ref> [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Kingdom of Hungary]] ({{langx|de|Groß-Sankt-Niklaus}}, today [[Sânnicolau Mare]], [[Romania]]), meaning "Great St Nicholas".<ref name="Haefs2009">{{cite book|author=Hanswilhelm Haefs|title=Das goldene Reich der Pamir-Bulgaren an Donau und Wardar: Skyten-Gold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CUu3kdlzUPMC&pg=PA7|year=2009|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-3-8334-2340-6|page=7}}</ref><ref>[http://www.khm.at/system2E.html?/staticE/page1592.html Official description at Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024141809/http://www.khm.at/system2E.html?%2FstaticE%2Fpage1592.html |date=2007-10-24 }}</ref> After the excavation, the treasure was transferred to [[Vienna]], the dynastic capital of the Habsburg Monarchy. Ever since, it has been in the possession of the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] there, where it is on permanent display.
+A wide range of views continue to be held as to the dating and the origins of the styles of the pieces, and the context in which they were made, which may well vary between the pieces. Unusually, the inscriptions on some pieces have increased the complexity of the arguments rather than reduced them.  In 2008 Romanian officials asked the Austrian government for the treasure's [[Art repatriation|repatriation]].<ref>[http://www.stirilocale.ro/Timi_B_n_enii_sper_s_recupereze_Tezaurul_de_la_SA_nnicolau_IDN356788.html Banatenii spera sa recupereze Tezaurul de la Sannicolau]. Retrieved September 02, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.romanialibera.ro/articol-Comorile-Banatului-se-intorc-acasa-87490.htm Comorile Banatului se intorc acasa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816111313/http://romanialibera.ro/articol-Comorile-Banatului-se-intorc-acasa-87490.htm |date=2017-08-16 }}. Retrieved September 02, 2008</ref>
-==Description==
-The treasure, consisting of 23 gold vessels and variously dated from the 6th to the 10th century, was found on 3 July 1799 by Neru Vuin, two Bulgarian farmers, in the vicinity of Sânnicolau Mare / Groß-Sankt-Niklaus / Nagyszentmiklos.<ref>Gyula László, István Rácz: The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, Corvina, 1984, pp. 19 [https://books.google.com/books?ei=g_YxT5y1OeTjmAWT79ivBQ&id=BIHWAAAAMAAJ&dq=1799+serb+Treasure+of+Nagyszentmikl%C3%B3s&q=1799+serbian+Treasure+of+Nagyszentmikl%C3%B3s#search_anchor]</ref> The figure of the "victorious Prince" dragging a prisoner along by his hair (see figure on the right) and the mythological scene at the back of the golden jar, as well as the design of other ornamental objects, show close affinities with finds at [[Novi Pazar, Bulgaria|Novi Pazar]], [[Bulgaria]] and at [[Sarkel]], [[Russia]]. Stylistically, [[Central Asia]]n, [[Persian-Sassanid art patterns|Persian-Sassanid]] and [[Byzantine Art|Byzantine]] influences are predominant.<ref>László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): ''A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs'' [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos]]. Helikon, Budapest</ref>
+In the 19th century the treasure was widely regarded in [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] as originating with precursors of the [[Hungarian people]], and played a notable part as an icon of [[Hungarian nationalism]].  In particular the gold cup with a bull's head facing back over the bowl was known as the "Cup of Attila" - [[Attila the Hun]] having died in  453.
+The treasure, consisting of 23 gold vessels and variously dated from the 6th to the 10th century, was found on 3 July 1799 by Neru Vuin, a Serbian peasant farmer, in the vicinity of Nagyszentmiklós (Sânnicolau Mare).<ref>Gyula László, István Rácz: The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, Corvina, 1984, pp. 19 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BIHWAAAAMAAJ&q=1799+serbian+Treasure+of+Nagyszentmikl%C3%B3s]</ref> The figure of the "victorious Prince" dragging a prisoner along by his hair (see figure on the right) and the mythological scene at the back of the golden jar, as well as the design of other ornamental objects, show close affinities with finds at [[Novi Pazar, Bulgaria|Novi Pazar]], [[Bulgaria]] and at [[Sarkel]], [[Russia]]. Stylistically, [[Central Asia]]n, [[Persian-Sassanid art patterns|Persian-Sassanid]] and [[Byzantine Art|Byzantine]] influences are predominant.<ref>László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): ''A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs'' [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos]]. Helikon, Budapest</ref>
 ==Inscriptions==
-{{main|The Buyla inscription}}
+{{main|Buyla inscription}}
 On one of the vessels in the hoard there is an inscription written in the [[Greek alphabet]] which reads:
+{{fs interlinear |indent=2
-:ΒΟΥΗΛΑ.ΖΟΑΠΑΝ.ΤΕΣΗ.ΔΥΓΕΤΟΙΓΗ.ΒΟΥΤΑΟΥΛ.ΖΩΑΠΑΝ.ΤΑΓΡΟΓΗ.ΗΤΖΙΓΗ.ΤΑΙΣΗ<ref>Gyula Moravcsik, ''Byzantinoturcica: Sprachreste der Türkvölker in den byzantinischen Quellen'' (1983)</ref>
+|ΒΟΥΗΛΑ ΖΟΑΠΑΝ ΤΕΣΗ ΔΥΓΕΤΟΙΓΗ ΒΟΥΤΑΟΥΛ ΖΩΑΠΑΝ ΤΑΓΡΟΓΗ ΗΤΖΙΓΗ ΤΑΙΣΗ
-::(Transliteration: ''bouēla zoapan tesē dygetoigē boutaoul zōapan tagrogē ētzigē taisē''<ref>Francis Dvornik, "Deux inscriptions gréco-bulgares de Philippes", ''Bulletin de correspondance hellénique'', 1928 Vol. 52 no. 52, pp. 125-147 [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bch_0007-4217_1928_num_52_1_2919], accessed Oct. 10, 2011</ref>)
+|bouēla zoapan tesē dygetoigē boutaoul zōapan tagrogē ētzigē taisē
+|c1=<ref>Gyula Moravcsik, ''Byzantinoturcica: Sprachreste der Türkvölker in den byzantinischen Quellen'' (1983)</ref>
+|c2=<ref>Francis Dvornik, "Deux inscriptions gréco-bulgares de Philippes", ''Bulletin de correspondance hellénique'', 1928 Vol. 52 no. 52, pp. 125-147 [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bch_0007-4217_1928_num_52_1_2919], accessed Oct. 10, 2011</ref>
+|}}
+Today almost all scholars share the view that the text is written in a Turkic language,{{sfn|Alemany|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Göbl|Róna-Tas|1995|pp=18-19}}{{sfn|Róna-Tas|1999|pp=131-132}} but it has not been deciphered and the exact classification of the language has been a subject of debate.{{sfn|Alemany|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Göbl|Róna-Tas|1995|p=19}} It has been often compared with the Turkic [[Bulgar language]] of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]],{{sfn|Erdal|1988|p=223}}{{sfn|Göbl|Róna-Tas|1995|p=19}}{{sfn|Thomsen|1918|p=27}} attested on several 8th-9th century inscriptions written in Greek letters.{{sfn|Fiedler|2008|pp=189-191}} More recently [[Eugene Helimski]] argued the language is close to [[Tungusic languages|Proto-Tungusic]],{{sfn|Helimski|2000|pp=271-277}} but this proposal was rejected by [[Marcel Erdal]] as far-fetched.{{sfn|Erdal|2007|p=79}}
-The language of the inscription is not clearly known. While there is no consensus as to the meaning of the inscription, several translations have been suggested (see [[Buyla inscription|the article on the inscription]]) and there is general agreement that [[Buyla inscription#Buyla|Buyla]] and [[Buyla inscription#Butaul|Butaul]] are Turkic names or titles, and that they are associated with the title of ''[[župan]]''.
 [[File:Treasure_of_Nagyszentmiklos,_bow_N_8_inscription.png|thumb|300px|"Number 8 Bow inscription" from the Treasure of Nagy Szent Miklos; runiform script]]
@@ Line 22: / Line 31: @@
 The cultural milieu or milieux in which the objects in the treasure were created, assembled and deposited remains controversial, with the debate often influenced by nationalistic concerns.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}
-[[File:Emesesdreemhungary.JPG|thumb|right|Illustration on the treasure of Nagyszentmiklós depicting a scene of the divine Garuda bird lifting up a human body. Some claim to be similar to one in the [[High Prince Álmos|Álmos]] legend from the [[Hungarian mythology]]: [[Emese]]'s dream of the [[Turul]] bird.]]
+[[File:Emesesdreemhungary.JPG|thumb|right|Illustration on the treasure of Nagyszentmiklós depicting a scene of the divine [[Garuda]] bird lifting up a human body, or alluding to Ancient Greek mythology with Zeus transforming into animals to rape a man or woman.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} Some claim to be similar to one in the [[High Prince Álmos|Álmos]] legend from the [[Hungarian mythology]]: [[Emese]]'s dream of the [[Turul]] bird.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szabó |first=Géza |date=2021 |title=A nő ábrázolása a Nagyszentmiklósi kincs 2. korsóján - Értelmezési lehetőségek a kaukázusi régészeti és néprajzi párhuzamok, valamint az újabb kutatási eredmények alapján |trans-title=Representation of the woman on the 2nd jar of the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós - Interpretation possibilities based on the archaeological and ethnographic parallels in the Caucasus, as well as the results of recent research |url=http://real.mtak.hu/140180/1/Szabo_Geza_220216_v4.pdf |journal=A női dimenzió |volume=1 |pages=33–45 |doi=10.55344/andfh.2101033 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>]]
-[[File:KHM Wien VIIIb 11 - Bull's head bowl, Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós.jpg|thumb|A bull's head bowl from the treasure.]]
+[[File:KHM Wien VIIIb 11 - Bull's head bowl, Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós.jpg|thumb|A bull's head bowl from the treasure; this piece is known in Hungary as "[[Attila]]'s Cup".]]
 ===Avar===
-Scholars have connected the treasure with the [[Avar Khaganate]].<ref>Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history.  In: C Entwistle, N Adams, Byzantine goldsmithwork.  London: British Museum Press, 2009. p. 62.</ref><ref>A short essay on the Nagyszentmiklós treasure. in: The Gold of the Avars. The Nagyszentmiklós Treasure. General editor: T. Kovács. Budapest 2002, 57-80.</ref> The newest research shows it is closely related to the Avar culture.{{sfn|Bálint|2010|pp=153,155}}{{sfn|Daim|2003|p=516}}{{sfn|Fiedler|2008|p=218}}{{sfn|Róna-Tas|1999|p=132}}{{full citation needed|date=October 2018}}
+Scholars have connected the treasure with the [[Avar Khaganate]].<ref>Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history.  In: C Entwistle, N Adams, Byzantine goldsmithwork.  London: British Museum Press, 2009. p. 62.</ref><ref>A short essay on the Nagyszentmiklós treasure. in: The Gold of the Avars. The Nagyszentmiklós Treasure. General editor: T. Kovács. Budapest 2002, 57-80.</ref> The newest research shows it is closely related to the Avar culture.{{sfn|Bálint|2010|pp=153,155}}{{sfn|Daim|2003|p=516}}{{sfn|Fiedler|2008|p=218}}{{sfn|Róna-Tas|1999|p=132}}
-===Romanian===
+===Byzantine===
+According to a Greek text of a vessel, the treasure may have a [[Byzantine Empire]] origin. In a study of a Romanian scientist, the text of a vessel has to be read as ΔEA[=ΔIA] YΔATOC ANAΠΛYΣON A<YT˃ON EIC PHTON[=PEITON] OMAYLON. Meaning: "With water clean it [the disc] in the neighboring [sacred] stream". Also, he wrote the treasure belonged to Ahtum, a voivode of Banat.<ref>Vasile Muntean, Contribuţii la istoria Banatului, Timişoara 1990, p.6</ref>
-According to interpretation of Romanian researcher Paul Lazăr Tonciulescu, this inscription was written by local people (Romanians/Vlachs and Bulgars according to the quite unreliable ''[[Gesta Hungarorum]]'' by the [[Anonymus (chronicler)|Anonymus chronicler]]), and objects were the property of a local ruler. He further claims the last owner of treasure was Ahtum, who according to Anonymous was the duke of modern Banat with his capital at ''Morisena'', very close to Sannicolau Mare. When Ahtum lost his last battle against Magyars, his family buried the treasure.  Tonciulescu translated the text: "Jupan Buila [has] all rights, jupan Butaul [has the right of] entering [in] all towns". "Jupan" is also used in the Romanian language<ref>Paul Lazăr Tonciulescu, De la Țara Luanei la Ieud, Editura Miracol, București, 1998</ref>
-===Slavic===
+===Magyar or Bulgar===
+As noted above, close affinities have been recognized between the Nagyszentmiklós material and that found at Novi Pazar and in Khazaria. Archaeologists in both [[Hungary]] and [[Bulgaria]] consider these affinities to support theories of ancient migration between regions. Both were allied with Khazars for a period. The treasure gives some idea of the art of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], [[Principality of Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Khazar]] states. According to Professor Nykola Mavrodinov (based on [[Vilhelm Thomsen]]), [[Buyla inscription|the script on vessel number 21]] is in [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]], written in [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letters, surrounding a cross, and reads, "Boyla Zoapan made this vessel. Butaul Zoapan intended it for drinking."<ref>László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): ''A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs'' (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Helikon, Budapest</ref>
-According to interpretation of [[Buyla inscription|the inscription on one of the vessels]], this inscription was written by a people whose local leaders had [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] names and bore [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] titles (such as the title of [[župan]]).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=I-RTt0Q6AcYC&pg=PA131#v=snippet&q=%22whose%20local%20leaders%20had%20Turkic%20names%20and%20bore%20Slavic%20titles%22&f=false Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history, András Róna-Tas, Central European University Press, 1999, page 132.]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=22vxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22buta+ul%22&dq=%22buta+ul%22&hl=sr&ei=fRiUTvqqC4nCtAaWgOH-BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBg Popoli delle steppe: unni, avari, ungari, 23-29 aprile 1987, Том 2, Presso la sede del centro, 1988, page 503.]</ref>
-===Hungarian or Bulgar===
-As noted above, close affinities have been recognized between the Sânnicolau Mare material and that found at Novi Pazar and in Khazaria. Archaeologists in both [[Hungary]] and [[Bulgaria]] consider these affinities to support theories of ancient migration between regions. Both were allied with Khazars for a period. The treasure gives some idea of the art of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], [[Magyar tribes|Hungarian]] and [[Khazar]] states. According to Professor Nykola Mavrodinov (based on [[Vilhelm Thomsen]]), [[Buyla inscription|the script on vessel number 21]] is in [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]], written in [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letters, surrounding a cross, and reads, "Boyla Zoapan made this vessel. Butaul Zoapan intended it for drinking."<ref>László Gy., Rácz I. (1986): ''A Nagyszentmiklósi kincs'' (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Helikon, Budapest</ref>
 ===Khazar===
-One school of Hungarian archaeologists maintains that the tenth century [[goldsmith|gold-]] and [[silversmith]]s working in [[Hungary]] were [[Khazars|Khazar]].<ref>Dunlop, D. M., "Khazars", in ''Enc. Judaica,'' 1971-2 printing.</ref> When the Magyars migrated to Pannonia in 896, some Khazar tribes, known as the [[Kabars|Khavars]], came with them to their new homes. The Khavars were skilled gold and silversmiths.
+One school of Hungarian archaeologists maintains that the tenth century [[goldsmith|gold-]] and [[silversmith]]s working in [[Principality of Hungary|Hungary]] were [[Khazars|Khazar]].<ref>Dunlop, D. M., "Khazars", in ''Enc. Judaica,'' 1971-2 printing.</ref> When the Magyars migrated to Pannonia in 896, some Khazar tribes, known as the [[Kabars|Khavars]], came with them to their new homes. The Khavars were skilled gold and silversmiths.
 ===Persian===
 Khazar art is believed to be modelled on [[Persian-Sassanide art patterns]]. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] archaeologist O. H. Bader emphasized the role of the Khazars in the spread of Persian-style silverware towards the north.<ref>Bader, O. H., ''Studies of the Kama Archaeological Expedition'' (in Russian, Kharkov, 1953)</ref> Some of these works may have been re-exported by the Khazars, as middlemen; others were imitations made in Khazar workshops, ruins of which have been found near the ancient Khazar fortress of Sarkel. The [[Sweden|Swedish]] archaeologist T. J. Arne mentions ornamental plates, clasps and buckles of Sassanide and Byzantine inspiration, manufactured in [[Khazaria]] or territories under their influence, being found as far afield as Sweden.<ref>Arne, T. J., "La Su de et l'Orient", ''Archives d'Études Orientales'', 8º. v.8, Upsala, 1914.</ref> Thus, the Khazars, Magyars and Bulgars could have been intermediaries in spreading Persian-Sassanide art in Eastern Europe.<ref>Bálint Cs. (2004): ''A nagyszentmiklósi kincs''. (Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos). Varia Archaeologica Hungarica c. series, XVIa, Budapest</ref>
-===Central Asian===
-Several elements of the Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare have Central Asian counterparts. One is the scene of the divine [[Garuda]] bird lifting up a human body. This motif can be found all over Central Asia, India and Siberia. The motif of an animal drinking from the cup also occurs throughout Eurasia from China, through Siberia, to Hungary. The image of the nautilus shell in the set may relate to India, where the animal is native to the Indian Ocean. This relation goes back to the [[Hephthalites]], the white Huns who ruled during the 4th and 5th centuries in [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]].<ref>Bálint Cs. (2000): "Der Schatz von Nagyszentmiklós in der Bulgarischen Archäologischen Forschung", in ''Acta Archaeologica Academiae Hungaricae,'' 51. 1999/2000. 1-4. 429-438</ref>
-However, this scene might also be about the [[Persian language|Persian]] story of [[Zal]] and legendary bird of [[Simorgh]]. Zal was the father of the greatest [[Persian people|Persian]]/[[Iran]]ian hero [[Rostam]] and the child of a famous hero called Sam Nariman. He was rejected by his father because he was [[albino]] and the Simorgh saved him and raised him.
 ==See also==
 * [[Scythian art]]
 * [[The Avar Treasure]]
+* [[Pereshchepina Treasure]]
+* [[Preslav Treasure]]
+* [[Rhyton]]
+* [[Griffin]]
+* [[Simurgh]]/Simorgh
+* [[Garuda]]
+* [[Sasanian art]]
+* [[Oxus Treasure]]
+* [[Ganymede (mythology)]]
 {{commons category|Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós}}
 ==References==
 {{reflist}}
+==Sources==
+* {{cite book|first=Agustí|last=Alemany|chapter=From Central Asia to the Balkans: the title *ču(b)-pān|title=Daēnā to Dîn: Religion, Kultur und Sprache in der iranischen Welt|year=2009|pages=3–12|editor1-first=Christine|editor1-last=Allison|editor2-first=Anke|editor2-last=Joisten-Pruschke|editor3-first=Antje|editor3-last=Wendtland}}
+* {{cite book|first=Csanád|last=Bálint|chapter=Avar goldsmiths' work from the perspective of cultural history|title=Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine Jewellery|year=2010|pages=146–160|editor1-first=Noel|editor1-last=Adams|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Entwistle}}
+* {{cite book|first=Falko|last=Daim|chapter=Avars and Avar archaeology. An introduction|title=Regna and gentes: the relationship between late antique and early medieval peoples and kingdoms in the transformation of the Roman world|year=2003|pages=463–570|editor1-first=Hans Werner|editor1-last=Goetz|editor2-first=Jörg|editor2-last=Jarnut|editor3-first=Walter|editor3-last=Pohl}}
+* {{cite journal|first=Marcel|last=Erdal|title=The Turkic Nagy-Szent-Miklós inscription in Greek letters|journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|year=1988|volume=42|pages=221–234}}
+* {{cite book|first=Marcel|last=Erdal|chapter=The Khazar language|title=The World of the Khazars|year=2007|pages=75–108|editor1-first=Peter B.|editor1-last=Golden|editor2-first=Haggai|editor2-last=Ben-Shammai|editor3-first=András|editor3-last=Róna-Tas}}
+* {{cite book|first=Uwe|last=Fiedler|chapter=Bulgars in the Lower Danube region. A survey of the archaeological evidence and of the state of current research.|title=The other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans|year=2008|pages=151–236|editor1-first=Florin|editor1-last=Curta|editor2-first=Roman|editor2-last=Kovalev}}
+* {{cite book|first1=Robert|last1=Göbl|first2=András|last2=Róna-Tas|title=Die Inschriften des Schatzes von Nagy-Szentmiklós: Eine paläographische Dokumentation|year=1995}}
+* {{cite book|first=Eugene A.|last=Helimski|chapter=On probable Tungus-Manchurian origin of the Buyla inscription from Nagy-Szentmiklós|title=Компаративистика, уралистика: Лекции и статьи|year=2000|pages=268–277}}
+<!--* {{cite journal|first=Eugene A.|last=Helimski|title=On probable Tungus-Manchurian origin of the Buyla inscription from Nagy-Szentmiklós|journal=Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia|year=2000|volume=5|pages=43-56}}-->
+* {{cite book|first=András|last=Róna-Tas|title=Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages|year=1999}}
+* {{cite book|first=Vilhelm|last=Thomsen|title=Une inscription de la trouvaille d'or de Nagy-Szent-Miklós (Hongrie)|year=1918}}
+{{Turkic inscriptions}}
+{{Authority control}}
 ==External links==
@@ Line 62: / Line 89: @@
 {{DEFAULTSORT:Treasure Of Nagyszentmiklos}}
+[[Category:7th-century inscriptions]]
+[[Category:8th-century inscriptions]]
+[[Category:1799 archaeological discoveries]]
+[[Category:Collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum]]
+[[Category:History of Banat]]
+[[Category:Inscriptions in unknown languages]]
+[[Category:Inscriptions of disputed origin]]
+[[Category:Migration Period]]
+[[Category:Proto-Bulgar inscriptions]]
 [[Category:Art and cultural repatriation]]
-[[Category:Treasure troves of Late Antiquity|Nagyszentmiklos, treasure of]]
+[[Category:Treasure troves of late antiquity|Nagyszentmiklos, treasure of]]
 [[Category:Treasure troves of Medieval Europe|Nagyszentmiklos, treasure of]]
-[[Category:History of Banat]]
 [[Category:Treasure troves in Romania|Nagyszentmiklos, treasure of]]
-[[Category:Collections of the Kunsthistorisches Museum]]
-[[Category:Archaeology of Romania]]
-[[Category:1799 archaeological discoveries]]