People's Liberation Army Ground Force

"Chinese Ground Forces" redirect here; not to be confused with Republic of China Army. For other uses, see Chinese Army (disambiguation).

People's Liberation Army Ground Force
中国人民解放军陆军
Emblem of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force
Founded	1927 (1927)
Country	People's Republic of China
Allegiance	Chinese Communist Party
Type	Army
Role	Land warfare
Size	965,000 active personnel (2024)
Part of	People's Liberation Army
Headquarters	Central Military Commission
Motto(s)	"Serve the people!" (Chinese: 为人民服务) "Follow the Party! Fight to win! Forge exemplary conduct!" (Chinese: 听党指挥、能打胜仗、作风优良)
Colors	Red   Green
March	March of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force
Equipment	List of PLAGF equipment
Engagements	Chinese Civil War (1927-37, 1945-49) Second Sino Japanese War (1937-45) Korean War (1950-53) Campaign at the China–Burma border (1960-61) Sino-Indian War (1962) Vietnam War (1962-75) Nathu La and Cho La clashes (1967) Sino-Soviet border conflict (1969) Sino-Vietnamese War (1979) Sino-Vietnamese conflicts 1979-90 (1979-90) 1999 East Timorese crisis Northern Mali conflict (2012–present) South Sudanese Civil War (2013-20) 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes (2020–21)
Website	Official website
Commanders
Commander	General Li Qiaoming
Political Commissar	General Chen Hui
Chief of Staff	General Li Zhonglin
Insignia
Symbol
Flag
Sleeve badge

The People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), also referred to as the PLA Army, is the land-based service branch of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and also its largest and oldest branch. The PLAGF can trace its lineage from 1927 as the Chinese Red Army; however, it was not officially established until 1948.

History

Main article: History of the People's Liberation Army

See also: Military history of China before 1911

In February 1949, the existing large number of armies and divisions were regularized into up to seventy armies of three divisions each. While some, such as the 1st Army, survived for over fifty years, a number were quickly amalgamated and disestablished in the early 1950s. It appears that twenty per cent or even more of the seventy new armies were disestablished up to 1953; in 1952 alone, the 3rd, 4th, 10th, 17th, 18th, and 19th Armies were disbanded.

The PLAGF consist of conventionally armed main and regional units, which in 1987 made up over 70 percent of the PLA. It provided a good conventional defense, but in 1987 had only limited offensive potential and was poorly equipped for nuclear, biological, or chemical warfare. Main forces included about 35 group armies, comprising 118 infantry divisions, 13 armored divisions, and 33 artillery and antiaircraft artillery divisions, plus 71 independent regiments and 21 independent battalions of mostly support troops. Regional forces consisted of 73 divisions of border defense and garrison troops plus 140 independent regiments.

Under the old system, a field army consisted of three partially motorized infantry divisions and two regiments of artillery and anti-aircraft artillery. Each field army division had over 12,000 personnel in three infantry regiments, one artillery regiment, one armored regiment, and one anti-aircraft artillery battalion. Organization was flexible, the higher echelons being free to tailor forces for combat around any number of infantry divisions. At least theoretically, each division had its own armor and artillery — actual equipment levels were not revealed and probably varied — and the assets at the army level and within the independent units could be apportioned as needed.

In 1987 the new, main-force group armies typically included 46,300 soldiers in up to four divisions, believed to include infantry, armor, artillery, air defense, airborne, and air support elements. Although the new group armies were supposed to reflect a move to combined-arms operations, because of a lack of mechanization they continued to consist of infantry supported by armor, artillery, and other units. The 13 armored divisions each had 3 regiments and 240 main battle tanks (MBT) but lacked adequate mechanized infantry support.

There was little evidence of the use of armored personnel carriers during the Sino-Vietnamese border conflict in 1979, and tanks were used as mobile artillery and as support for dismounted infantry. Artillery forces emphasized towed guns, howitzers, and truck-mounted multiple rocket launchers. In the 1980s some self-propelled artillery entered service, but the PLA also produced rocket launchers as a cheaper but not totally effective alternative to self-propelled guns. There was a variety of construction equipment, mobile bridging, trucks, and prime movers. A new multiple rocket launcher for scattering antitank mines appeared in 1979, but mine-laying and mine-clearing equipment remained scarce.

Regional forces consisted of full-time PLA troops organized as independent divisions for garrison missions. Garrison divisions were static, artillery-heavy units deployed along the coastline and borders in areas of likely attack. Regional forces were armed less heavily than their main-force counterparts, and they were involved in training the militia. They were the PLA units commonly used to restore order during the Cultural Revolution. When chairman Mao proclaimed the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, the PLAGF was a 4.9 million-strong peasant army. After some time, the demobilization of ill-trained and politically unreliable troops began, resulting in the reduction of army strength.

In the 21st century, the PLAGF are continuing to undergo significant reform, experimentation, modernization, and restructuring to deal with potential threats and enhance their capabilities. Divisions are downsized into combined arms brigades, which reorganized into high-readiness army groups. The division echelon is phased out with only a limited number of division structures remaining existent. While the size of the PLA Ground Force has been reduced over the past few decades, technology-intensive elements such as special operations forces (SOF), army aviation (helicopters), surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), and electronic warfare units have all been rapidly expanded.

The latest operational doctrine of the PLAGF highlights the importance of information technology, electronic and information warfare, and long-range precision strikes in future warfare. The older generation telephone/radio-based command, control, and communications (C3) systems are being replaced by integrated battlefield information networks featuring local/wide-area networks (LAN/WAN), satellite communications, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based surveillance and reconnaissance systems, and mobile command and control centers.

• 
  Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace shakes hands with Chinese tankers at Shenyang in 2007
• 
  Soldiers of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force in 2011
• 
  PLAGF and Oregon National Guard work alongside during a disaster response exercise in 2017
• 
  PLAGF infantryman at the International Army Games in 2021

Structure

Main article: 2015 People's Republic of China military reform

The five theater commands of the PLA [1]

Organization

Command of the Chinese armed forces is exercised by the Central Military Commission (CMC) through the service headquarters, including PLAGF headquarters, and the theater commands (TC). The PLAGF component in each TC is the Theater Command Army. Both PLAGF and TC headquarters exercise control over operational units in peacetime, with the TC taking complete control wartime. The military-political dual-command structure is present throughout.

Units in sensitive areas, like Beijing, Hong Kong, and Xinjiang, may be subordinated directly to PLAGF headquarters.

Branches of service

The PLAGF has a standing regular army and a reserve force. Although conscription is employed in China by law, mandatory military service has not been implemented since 1949 as the People's Liberation Army has been able to recruit sufficient numbers voluntarily. Chinese militia is not a component of the People's Liberation Army, however, they could provide a certain degree of reserve function, which was indicated by "Militia Military Training and Evaluation Outline" released by the People's Liberation Army General Staff Department in 2007.

PLAGF branches of service (Chinese: 兵种; pinyin: Bīngzhǒng) are composed of infantry (including mechanized infantry), armour, artillery, air defense, aviation, military engineering, anti-chemical, communications, special operations, logistics, reconnaissance, electronic warfare, etc. These branches of service have their respective military education institutions.

Operational structure

PLA operational structure reflects China's strategic missions, political environment, and geographical circumstances. There are 13 corps sized group armies (Chinese: 集团军; pinyin: Jítuánjūn, also known as combined corps) since the end of April 2017, divided among five Theater commands — Eastern, Southern, Northern, Western and Central. Within the group armies, the old divisions (Chinese: 师; pinyin: Shī) are being downsized into brigades (Chinese: 旅; pinyin: Lǚ). Each group army includes six maneuver combined arms brigades, fire support/artillery brigades, air defense brigades, aviation brigades, special operations brigades, combat support brigades, and sustainment brigades.

The maneuver combat components of the group armies are combined arms brigades (Chinese: 合成旅; pinyin: Héchénglǚ), including a mix of heavy combined arms brigades, medium combined arms brigades, light combined arms brigade, amphibious combined arms brigades, and mountain combined arms brigades. The practice is functionally similar to the US Army brigade combat team concept with unique modifications influenced by China's terrain diversity, strategic priority, political system, and military history.

The PLA heavy, medium, and light combined arms brigades share a modular construct, resembling its superior and subordinate units at the corps and battalion level. A typical PLAGF combined arms brigade has the brigade HQ, four maneuver combat battalions, and other support battalions. For instance, a heavy combined arms brigade includes four combined arms battalions (Chinese: 合成营; pinyin: Héchéngyíng), one artillery battalion, one air defense battalion, one reconnaissance battalion, one combat support battalion, and one sustainment battalion.

Combined arms battalions apply a structure drawn from the brigade echelon. For example, heavy combined arms battalions consist of battalions HQ company (including subordinate medic, reconnaissance, and air defense platoons), four maneuver combat companies including two tank companies (14 tanks per company), and two mechanized infantry companies (14 vehicles per company), one firepower company, and one combat support/sustainment company.

Before the 2015 reform, the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) attributes the PLA Ground Force with nine active armored divisions consisting of a number of armored brigades, 25 infantry divisions (mechanized or motorized), organized into a number of infantry brigades, and 8 artillery divisions, also organized into field artillery brigades. Dennis Blasko wrote in 2000 that the traditional structure of PLA divisions (armored and mechanized) consisted roughly of three regiments – tuan (Chinese: 团; pinyin: Tuán) – of the main service arm, each of three battalions (Chinese: 营; pinyin: yíng) plus support units, a fourth regiment/brigade of infantry (in an armored division) or armor (in an infantry division), a field artillery regiment, an anti-aircraft defense regiment or battalion, and signals, engineer, reconnaissance, and chemical defense battalions or companies, plus combat service support units.

Special operations forces

Main article: People's Liberation Army Special Operations Forces

The PLA first became interested in modern special warfare in the mid-1980s when it was shifting from the "People's War" to "active defense." After the reform, PLA special operations forces are organized under the combined corps level, as special operations brigades (Chinese: 特战旅; pinyin: Tèzhànlǚ). Special operation brigades provide organic deep reconnaissance and commando operation capability to the combined arms maneuver operations of their respective group armies, and they are highly specialized to operate in their specific theater. Different from Western-style special operations forces, PLAGF special operations brigades focus on operating in conventional military environments with missions focusing on Special Reconnaissance, target acquisition, Direct Action, sabotage, raids, and search and rescue. The unconventional warfare, counterterrorism, foreign internal defense, civil affairs, and internal security capability in China are covered by People's Armed Police (PAP) special operations units, instead of the military.

• 
  U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates greets Chinese Defense Minister Cao Gangchuan in Beijing, China on 5 November 2007
• 
  Military guard of the PLAGF in 2012
• 
  PLAGF infantrymen at the 2015 China Victory Day Parade

Personnel

Main article: Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force

Commissioned officers

The current system of officer ranks and insignia is established in 1988. There are several paths to becoming a commissioned officer, such as joining a military academy, attending reserve officer program, or cadre selection program.

Officers may use Comrade to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "comrade Colonel", "comrade battalion leader", or simply "comrade(s)" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several service people.)

Title	上将 Shang jiang	中将 Zhong jiang	少将 Shao jiang	大校 Da xiao	上校 Shang xiao	中校 Zhong xiao	少校 Shao xiao	上尉 Shang wei	中尉 Zhong wei	少尉 Shao wei	学员 Xue yuan
Equivalent translation	General	Lieutenant general	Major general	Senior colonel	Colonel	Lieutenant colonel	Major	Captain	First lieutenant	Second lieutenant	Officer cadet
Shoulder insignia
Collar insignia

Enlisted personnel

The current system of other ranks and insignia dates from 2022. Sergeant and Corporal are referred to as non-commissioned officers. New recruits have no military ranks before the boot camp is completed, and they will be awarded the rank of private after they have graduated from the induction training. According to Article 16 of Chapter 3 of the "Regulations on the Service of Active Soldiers of the Chinese People's Liberation Army" (Chinese: 中国人民解放军现役士兵服役条例), "The lowest enlisted rank is Private".

Conscripts can be promoted to privates first class in their second year. At the end of two years, conscripts may retire or become NCOs if they volunteer, though the position requires at least high school diploma, specialized skills, or undertaking training courses. They can also attend a military academy to become officers after evaluations.

In 2014, the position of unit "master chief" or "sergeant major" is established to award experienced NCOs that can assist platoon, company, battalion, and higher commands in leadership and training responsibilities.

Soldiers may use Comrade to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "comrade Sergeant", "comrade squad leader", or simply "comrade(s)" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several service people.)

Rank group	高级军士 Gao ji jun shi			中级军士 Zhōng ji jun shi		初级军士 Chu ji jun shi		义务兵 Yi wu bing
Title	一级军士长 Yi ji jun shi zhang	二级军士长 Er ji jun shi zhang	三级军士长 San ji jun shi zhang	一级上士 Yī jí jūnshì	二级上士 yi ji shang shi	中士 Zhōng shi	下士 Xia shi	上等兵 Shang deng bing	列兵 Lie bing
Equivalent translation	Master sergeant first class	Master sergeant second class	Master sergeant third class	Staff Sergeant First Class	Staff Sergeant Second Class	Sergeant	Corporal	Private first class	Private
Shoulder insignia
Collar insignia

Equipment

Main articles: List of equipment of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force and List of active People's Liberation Army aircraft § People's Liberation Army Ground Force

Heavy equipment

Type 99A main battle tank

IS-2 tanks on display at the 10th anniversary of the founding of the PRC in 1959

The PLA Ground Force is heavily mechanized with armored platforms, advanced electronic warfare capability, concentrated firepower, and modern weapon systems that are competitive against Western counterparts. The PLA ground force is divided into highly mechanized heavy, medium, and light combined arms units. Heavy combined arms brigades are armored with main battle tanks and tracked infantry fighting vehicles, medium combined arms brigades are armed with tracked or wheeled infantry fighting vehicles, and light combined arms brigades are mobilized with armored personnel carriers, MRAP trucks, or armored cars.

At combined corps level, the PLAGF employs combined arms brigades, heavy artillery systems, medium-range air defense systems, special forces, army aviation units, and various engineering, and electronic warfare support systems. Weapon systems at this level include PLZ-05 howitzer, PCL-181 howitzer, PHL-03/16 multiple rocket launcher, and HQ-16 air defense system. Air assets within the aviation brigade include Z-10 attack helicopter, Z-19 recon helicopter, and Z-20 utility helicopter, etc. Unmanned aerial systems are employed extensively in PLA formations of all types.

At combined arms brigade level, brigade HQ can deploy various combined arms battalions composited with tanks, assault guns, and infantry fight vehicles (IFV) such as the ZTZ-99A tank, the ZBD-04A IFV, the ZBL-08 IFV, the ZTL-11 assault gun, and the CSK-181 MRAP fast-attack vehicle. Fire support, reconnaissance, and air defense battalion are equipped with PLZ-07, PLL-09, PCL-161/171 self-propelled artilleries, PHL-11, PHZ-11 multiple rocket launchers, AFT-9/10 missile carriers, PGZ-09/95, PGL-12/625, HQ-17/A air defense systems, and such as large amount of unmanned aerial vehicles.

At battalion level, battalion HQ can direct tank company, assault gun company, mechanized infantry company, and firepower company (Chinese: 火力连; pinyin: Huǒlìlián) to provide rapid close-combat maneuver, with support assets including the PCP-001 rapid-firing mortar, PLL-05/PLZ-10 self-propelled gun-mortars, AFT-8 missile carrier, MANPADS, and crew-served weapon systems such as QJG-85 heavy machine gun, PP-87 or newer PBP-172 mortar, QLZ-04 automatic grenade launcher, and HJ-8E wire-guided missile.

Under each mechanized infantry company are standard infantry platoons and a firepower platoon (Chinese: 火力排; pinyin: Huǒlìpái), which is equipped with lightweight mortar, anti-material rifle, 35 mm automatic grenade launcher, various rocket launcher, and heavy machine gun. At platoon level, a mechanized infantry squad consists of nine infantrymen, in which seven members are dismounted during combat. Infantry squads vary in composition based on the type of combined arms battalions. Medium and light infantry squads equip reusable rocket launchers to improve anti-armor and anti-fortification capability, whereas heavy infantry squads have no squad-level rockets, instead relying upon fire support from the firepower platoon, or their own ZBD-04A infantry fighting vehicle.

Weapons

Individual and crew-served weapons

The standard-issue rifle of PLA infantrymen is QBZ-95/191 chambered in proprietary 5.8×42mm, and the sidearm is QSZ-92 chambered in 5.8×21mm DAP92. Vehicle crews are equipped with QBZ-95B short-barreled carbine. The QCW-05 is a 5.8 mm submachine gun used by special forces and non-combat personnel. Sharpshooting is provided by the QBU-88/191 marksman rifle and QBU-141/202 sniper rifle. Indirect fire is provided by the QLG-10 grenade launcher. QBS-09 combat shotgun is issued for door breaching and close-quarters battle. The QJB-95 serves as the squad automatic weapon with its 75-round drum magazine.

PF-89, PF-97, and DZJ-08 disposable rocket launchers could be distributed on an ad hoc basis to infantry squads for direct-fire applications. Specialized fire support weapons, often equipped with dedicated rocketeers, or members of the firepower platoons, include the HJ-12 anti-tank guided missile, PF-98 rocket launcher, the QLZ-87 and QLZ-04 35 mm automatic grenade launcher, the QBU-10 anti-material rifle, QLU-11 sniper grenade launcher, QJG-02 anti-air machine gun, QJZ-89 heavy machine gun, and the PP-89/93 60 mm mortar.

Infantry equipment and uniforms

A PLAGF soldier armed with a QBZ-191 assault rifle and QSZ-92A pistol with Type-19 uniform in the 2021 International Army Games

In 2014, the cost to equip a single Chinese soldier is about 9,400 yuan (US$1,523). The standard kit includes Type 07 camouflage uniforms, helmet, tactical vest, gas mask, backpack, first-aid kit, infantry weapons, woven belt, rain cap, camouflaged uniform, kettle, and combat boots. However, regular infantrymen rarely use the issued body armor stored in the armory. Prior to 2015, only deployed special operation detachments were equipped with body armor.

The infantry equipment such as heavy body armor, personal radio, and knee pads has been seen in the standard kit in 2015 when PLA are deployed into high-risk areas, as observed for units participating in UN Peacekeeping and counter-piracy operations. The PLA has started to procure body armors for soldiers on large scale since March 2020, with 1.4 million body armor on order, which includes 930,000 units of plates for universal bulletproof vests and 467,000 units of plates for an enhanced bulletproof vest.

The Type 19 uniform with new xingkong digital camouflage patterns, tactical vest, backpack, protective gear, and eyewear started to replace Type 07 uniform series since 2019. Along with the uniform, a new communication system, personal computer, tactical interface, and assault rifle family QBZ-191, new variants of the QSZ-92 pistol family, along with whole new sets of weapon systems are also being adopted by the PLAGF since 2019. These new upgrades are components of the new Integrated Soldier Combat System, a program aiming to overhaul the PLA's infantry equipment.

Transformation

In 1987 the PLAGF, which relied upon obsolescent but serviceable equipment, were most anxious to improve defenses against armored vehicles and aircraft. Most equipments was produced from Soviet designs of the 1950s, but weapons were being incrementally upgraded, some with Western technology. One example of upgraded, Soviet-design equipment was the Type 69 MBT, an improved version of the Type 59 MBT, itself based on the Soviet T-54. The Type 69 had improved armor, a gun stabilizer, a fire control system including a laser rangefinder, infrared searchlights, and a 105 mm smooth-bore gun.

In 1987 the existence of a new, Type 80 MBT was revealed in the Western press. The tank had a new chassis, a 105 mm gun, and a fire control system. The PLA was believed to have atomic demolition munitions, and there were unconfirmed reports that it also had tactical nuclear weapons. In any case, nuclear bombs and missiles in the Chinese inventory could be used in a theater role.

The PLA had a scarcity of antitank guided missiles, tactical surface-to-air missiles, and electronics to improve communications, fire control, and sensors. China began production of the Soviet Sagger antitank missile in 1979 but lacked a more powerful, longer range, semiautomatic antitank guided missile. The PLA required a mobile surface-to-air missile and an infantry shoulder-fired missile for use against helicopters and certain other aircraft.

The PLAGF continue to undergo significant modernization and re-structuring to deal with potential threats and enhance their capabilities. Front line troops such as special forces, marines and paratroopers are given priority in receiving modern weapon systems and equipment. Other areas of improvement are its battlefield C4ISR capabilities, with the introduction of satellite communications, wireless networks, and digital radios, army commanders are now able to maintain constant communications with their front-line units while on the move. The bulk of the ground forces have been regularly asked to operate under severe electronic countermeasures conditions in exercises. Also a network-centric warfare capability connecting different combat, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance elements to form an integrated network is being developed.

Equipment summary

The PLAGF inventory maintains an array of military vehicles. All figures below are provided by the International Institute for Strategic Studies. Auxiliary vehicles such as engineering vehicles, logistics vehicles, reconnaissance vehicles, as well as antiquated and reserved equipment are not included.

Type	Active
Main battle tanks	4,700
Light tanks	1,250
Assault guns	1,200
Infantry fighting vehicles	8,050
Armored personnel carriers	3,600
Amphibious armored vehicles	750
Anti-tank missile carriers	1,125
Tank destroyers	480
Towed anti-tank guns	1,308
Self-propelled artillery	3,240
Towed artillery	900
Self-propelled gun-mortars	1,250
Multiple rocket launchers	1,330+
Surface-to-air missile systems	754+
Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns	396
Towed anti-aircraft guns	7,000+
Attack helicopters	320+
Multi-role helicopters	208
Transport helicopters	512

• 
  ZLT-11 assault vehicle
• 
  PLZ-05 self-propelled howitzer
• 
  PHL-03 multiple rocket launcher
• 
  ZBD-04A infantry fighting vehicle
• 
  CAIC Z-10 attack helicopter
• 
  Infantrymen with QBZ-95

Relationship with other organizations

See also: People's Armed Police and Paramilitary forces of China

Troops of the People's Armed Police

The People's Liberation Army Ground Force maintains close relationships with several paramilitary organizations within China, primarily the People's Armed Police (PAP) and the Militia (also known as the China Militia). Both of these paramilitary organisations act as a reserve force for the PLAGF during a time of national emergency such as war or natural disaster. The PAP consists of approximately 1.5 million personnel. Their primary mission during peacetime is internal security and counter-terrorism.

The Militia is a mass force engaged in daily production under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and forms part of the Chinese armed forces. Under the command of the military organs, it undertakes such jobs as war preparation services, security and defense operation tasks and assistance in maintaining social order and public security. The Militia numbers some 3 million service men and women.

See also

• Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China
• Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force
• People's Armed Police
• Militia (China)
• Republic of China (Taiwan) Army

References

Bibliography

• United States Army (2021). Chinese Tactics (PDF). Army Techniques Publication. Vol. 7-100.3. Washington, D.C. ISBN 979-8457607118. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• International Institute for Strategic Studies (February 2024). The Military Balance 2024. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781032780047.
• Saunders, Phillip C.; Ding, Arthur S.; Scobell, Andrew; Yang, Andrew N.D.; Joel, Wuthnow, eds. (2019). Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press. ISBN 978-1070233420.
• TRADOC (2021). People's Liberation Army "Ground Force" Quick Reference Guide (Report). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: United States Army Training and Doctrine Command.
• TRADOC (2019). OEE Red Diamond Jul-Sep 2019 (Report). Vol. 10. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: United States Army Training and Doctrine Command.
• TRADOC (2022). China: PLAA Combined-Arms Brigade's Logistics Operations (PDF) (Report). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: United States Army Training and Doctrine Command.
• Sinodefence.com – Chinese military information website
• Global Defence Forum
• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.