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{{Short description|Series of diplomatic meetings, 1856, to negotiate peace in the Crimean War}} |
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| ⚫ | The '''Congress of Paris''' |
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{{Other uses of|Paris Peace Conference}} |
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[[File:Edouard Dubufe Congrès de Paris.jpg|thumb|300px|Diplomats assembled at Congress of Paris. ''[[The Congress of Paris]]'' by [[Édouard Dubufe|Edouard Dubufe]]]] |
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| ⚫ | The '''Congress of Paris''' is the name for a series of diplomatic meetings held in 1856 in [[Paris]], [[France]], to negotiate peace between the warring powers in the [[Crimean War]] that had started almost three years earlier.<ref name=Britannica>"Paris, Treaty of (1856)". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Volume 9. 15th ed. pp. 153-154. 2007.</ref> |
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The Congress was attended by diplomatic representatives from the nations of France, [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]], [[Austria]], and [[Prussia]], as well as from the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Piedmont-Sardinia]] and was presided by the French Prime-Minister [[Alexandre Colonna-Walewski]]. The agreement resulted in continued recognition of the Ottoman Empire and the return to pre-war territorial borders for Russia and the Empire. |
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== Background == |
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| ⚫ | One reason often communicated was the Russians' demand for both better treatment of and their right to protect the Ottoman Empire's Orthodox subjects.<ref name=Good>The Crimean War 1853- 1856. http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/cite/crimean1853.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525015423/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/cite/crimean1853.htm |date=25 May 2011 }}. 2008.</ref> That would be promised by the sultan at the Congress of Paris. |
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Then, on 26 January 1855, Sardinia-Piedmont also entered the war against Russia by sending 10,000 troops to aid the allies.<ref name="Good"/> Throughout the war, the Russian army's main concern was to make sure that Austria stayed out of the war. Still, Austria threatened to enter the war, causing peace. |
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The reasons and interests playing a role in the background can be read from the following agreements negotiated in the peace treaty: the Black Sea became neutral, meaning its waters were closed to all warships and the building of fortresses was forbidden, the Danube was opened to the shipping of all nations. |
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== The Congress == |
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Also important appeared to be a multilateral agreement on some basic legal principles of maritime warfare, resulting in the separate [[Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law]], that was acceded by altogether 55 nations. |
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Backed by Britain and France, the sultan declared war against Russia on 4 October 1853.<ref name="Good"/> On 28 March 1854, both of the other powers declared war against Russia. On 26 January 1855, [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Piedmont-Sardinia]] also entered the war by sending 10,000 troops to aid Britain and France against Russia.<ref name="Good"/> |
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Throughout the war, the [[Russian Army]]'s main concern was to make sure that the [[Austrian Empire]] stayed out of the war. Its threats to enter the war did put an end to military actions on the side of Russia. |
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[[File:Congrès de Paris, 1856.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Épinal print]] of the sovereigns of Europe during the Congress of Paris, 1856]] |
[[File:Congrès de Paris, 1856.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Épinal print]] of the sovereigns of Europe during the Congress of Paris, 1856]] |
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France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia and the Ottoman Chaliphate were at that time considered as the [[great powers]] in Europe, they were all represented at the congress as was Piedmont-Sardinia as warring party.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name=Congress>"Congress of Paris". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Paris-Co.html. 2008</ref> They assembled soon after 1 February 1856, when Russia accepted the first set of peace terms after Austria threatened to enter the war. It is also notable that the meeting took place in Paris, after the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|1855 Exposition Universelle]]<ref name="Good"/> |
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The Congress of Paris worked out the final terms from 25 February to 30 March 1856, the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed on 30 March 1856 with Russia on one side and France, Great Britain, Turkey and Piedmont-Sardinia on the other.<ref name="Britannica"/> at the [[Quai d'Orsay]].<ref name=Barchard>{{cite web|last=Barchard|first=David|title=Setting the World to Rights|url=https://www.cornucopia.net/magazine/articles/setting-the-world-to-rights/|date=2006}}</ref> |
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One of the representatives who attended the Congress of Paris on behalf of the Ottoman Empire was [[Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha]], who was the Ottoman Empire's [[grand vizier]].<ref name="Barchard"/> Russia was represented by Prince [[Orlov (family)|Orlov]] and Baron [[Brunnov]]. Britain sent [[Henry Wellesley, 1st Earl Cowley|Lord Cowley]], its ambassador to France. |
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The [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814) with over 200 nations participating, spread questions and issues for different committees to resolve. The Congress of Paris could resolved everything in a relatively short period of time.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|first=Walter Alison |last=Phillips|wstitle=Congress|volume=6|page=938}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | A significant diplomatic victory was scored by [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Piedmont-Sardinia]] although it was not considered a European great power by being granted a seat by French Emperor [[Napoleon III]], mostly for having sent an expeditionary corps of 18,000 men to fight against Russia, but also possibly because of the influence of the attractive minded [[Virginia Oldoini|Countess of Castiglione]], who had caught Napoleon's attention. Foreign minister [[Camillo Benso di Cavour]] seized the opportunity to denounce Austrian political and military interference in the [[Italian Peninsula]], which he said was stifling the wish of Italians to choose their government. |
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== Multilateral agreement restoring peace == |
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The Congress of Paris worked out the final terms from 25 February to 30 March 1856. The [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]] was then signed on 30 March 1856 with Russia on one side and France, Great Britain, Ottoman Turkey, and Sardinia-Piedmont on the other.<ref name="Britannica"/> The group of men negotiated at the Quai d'Orsay.<ref name=Barchard>Barchard, David. SETTING THE WORLD TO RIGHTS. http://www.cornucopia.net/highlights35.html. 2008</ref> One of the representatives who attended the Congress of Paris on behalf of the Ottoman Empire was [[Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha]], who was the grand vizier of the Empire.<ref name="Barchard"/> Russia was represented by Prince [[Orlov (family)|Orlov]] and Baron Brunnov. Britain sent their Ambassador to France, who at the time was the [[Henry Wellesley, 1st Earl Cowley|Lord Cowley]]. While other congresses, such as the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814), spread questions and issues for different committees to resolve, the Congress of Paris resolved everything in one group.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|first=Walter Alison |last=Phillips|wstitle=Congress|volume=6|page=938}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[File:Black sea crimean war.jpg|thumb|350px|Picture of the territory affected by the Congress. In light green, to the left, is the area of the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia). In light green is the border of southern Bessarabia, which was transferred from Russia to [[Moldavia]] between the [[Danube River]] and Moldavia.]] |
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| ⚫ | Also, Russia gave up the left bank of the mouth of the Danube River, including part of [[Bessarabia]],<ref name="Congress"/> to [[Moldavia]], as well as its claim to the special protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia and [[Wallachia]], which together would become [[Romania]] in 1858, along with Serbia, were recognized as quasi-independent self-governing principalities under protection of the other European powers. The Ottoman sultan agreed, in return, to help to improve the status of the Christian subjects in his empire.<ref name="Congress"/> |
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| ⚫ | A significant diplomatic victory was scored by |
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| ⚫ | The territories of Russia and the Ottoman Empire were restored to their prewar boundaries.<ref name="Congress"/> The [[Black Sea]] was neutralized and so that no warships were allowed to enter, but it was open to all other nations.<ref name="Congress"/> It also opened the [[Danube River]] for shipping from all nations.<ref name="Britannica"/> |
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== Results of the Congress == |
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| ⚫ | [[File:Black sea crimean war.jpg|thumb|350px|Picture of the |
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== Multilateral agreement on naval warfare, open for accession == |
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| ⚫ | Also, Russia gave up the left bank of the mouth of the Danube River, including part of [[Bessarabia]]<ref name="Congress"/> to [[Moldavia]] |
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{{for|the main article|Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law}} |
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After signing the peace treaty, on a proposal of the French Prime-Minister, the [[plenipotentiaries]] assembled in the conference also agreed on a declaration respecting maritime law during wartime. This was mainly the outcome of a ''modus vivendi'' signed between France and Britain at the dawn of the Crimean War in 1854. Both large naval powers had different opinions on certain issues in maritime warfare and being allies for the first time, they had to find a common line. They agreed they would not seize enemy goods on neutral vessels nor neutral goods on enemy vessels and they would not issue [[letters of marque]]. |
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The Declaration all warring parties agreed upon at the Congress of Paris regulated four issues: |
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<blockquote> |
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* Privateering is and remains abolished; |
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* The neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war; |
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* Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under the enemy's flag; |
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* Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective-that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient enough to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/decparis.asp |title=Laws of War : Declaration of Paris; April 16, 1856 |access-date=30 September 2022 |author=The Avalon Project : Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy |publisher=Yale Law School}}</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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The Declaration has been signed by Great Britain, [[Austrian Empire|Austria]], [[Second French Empire|France]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Sardinia]] and [[Turkey]]. |
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As an important juridical novelty in [[international law]] the treaty for the first time in history created the possibility for nations that were not involved in the establishment of the agreement and did not sign, to become a party by acceding the declaration afterwards.<ref>{{Cite book |title=De verklaring van Parijs en Neutraliteit - Nederland en de ontwikkeling van het Internationaal Maritieme recht van 1856 tot de Eerste Wereldoorlog |author=Timon Schultz |url=https://www.academia.edu/15320040 |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculteit der Letteren, Geschiedenis |date=April 2015 |lang=nl}}</ref> Within a short period after signing, 55 states, royal houses and free cities ratified the Declaration, which meant a big step in the globalisation of international (maritime) law. |
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| ⚫ | The territories of Russia and |
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== Aftermath == |
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The results of the Treaty of Paris (1856) were immediately eroded and revised. In the Danube principalities rose movement for their Union. The crucial stage came in the years 1857-1861. In 1861 Turkey lost control over the territory and then it was formed independent state of Romania. |
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Turkish historians still express dissatisfaction: "Although [the] Ottoman Empire was on the side of victors, the Porte also lost the right to have a navy in the Black Sea together with Russia. Put differently, the Empire had become a part of the European Concert, but not an actor in the European balance of power. Thus it was not recognized as a great power that could claim compensation in case of territorial gain by another member of the system".<ref name="Candan Badem 1856 p.403">Candan Badem, The Ottoman Crimean War (1853-1856). Leiden-Boston.1970.p.403</ref> |
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The |
The conditions of the Paris Congress collapsed after the defeat of France in the 1870-1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]]. After the surrender of the fortress of Metz, when France lost hope of winning the war, Russia announced its refusal to comply with the terms of the treaty. |
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Foreign Minister |
Russian Foreign Minister [[Alexander Gorchakov]] denounced the treaty's Black Sea clauses on 31 October 1870, which was documented by the [[Treaty of London (1871)]]. |
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Some of the rules and agreements would be changed by the [[Congress of Berlin]].<ref name="Congress"/> |
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==References== |
== References == |
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{{cite book | author=[[R.R. Palmer]], Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer | title=A History of the Modern World since 1815 | publisher =McGraw Hill | year=2002 | isbn=0-07-250280-0}} |
{{cite book | author=[[R.R. Palmer]], Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer | title=A History of the Modern World since 1815 | publisher =McGraw Hill | year=2002 | isbn=0-07-250280-0}} |
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<references /> |
<references /> |
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[[Category:1850s in Paris]] |
[[Category:1850s in Paris]] |
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[[Category:1856 conferences]] |
[[Category:1856 conferences]] |
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[[Category:Conferences in Paris]] |
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Latest revision as of 01:41, 26 September 2024
The Congress of Paris is the name for a series of diplomatic meetings held in 1856 in Paris, France, to negotiate peace between the warring powers in the Crimean War that had started almost three years earlier.[1]
The Congress was attended by diplomatic representatives from the nations of France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, as well as from the Ottoman Empire and Piedmont-Sardinia and was presided by the French Prime-Minister Alexandre Colonna-Walewski. The agreement resulted in continued recognition of the Ottoman Empire and the return to pre-war territorial borders for Russia and the Empire.
Background
[edit]The Crimean War was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula by Russia on one side and Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Piedmont-Sardinia on the other side for two main official reasons.
One reason often communicated was the Russians' demand for both better treatment of and their right to protect the Ottoman Empire's Orthodox subjects.[2] That would be promised by the sultan at the Congress of Paris.
Another reason was a dispute between the Russians and the French about the privileges of the Russian Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches in Palestine.[2]
The reasons and interests playing a role in the background can be read from the following agreements negotiated in the peace treaty: the Black Sea became neutral, meaning its waters were closed to all warships and the building of fortresses was forbidden, the Danube was opened to the shipping of all nations.
Also important appeared to be a multilateral agreement on some basic legal principles of maritime warfare, resulting in the separate Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law, that was acceded by altogether 55 nations.
Backed by Britain and France, the sultan declared war against Russia on 4 October 1853.[2] On 28 March 1854, both of the other powers declared war against Russia. On 26 January 1855, Piedmont-Sardinia also entered the war by sending 10,000 troops to aid Britain and France against Russia.[2]
Throughout the war, the Russian Army's main concern was to make sure that the Austrian Empire stayed out of the war. Its threats to enter the war did put an end to military actions on the side of Russia.
Congress
[edit]
France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia and the Ottoman Chaliphate were at that time considered as the great powers in Europe, they were all represented at the congress as was Piedmont-Sardinia as warring party.[1][3] They assembled soon after 1 February 1856, when Russia accepted the first set of peace terms after Austria threatened to enter the war. It is also notable that the meeting took place in Paris, after the 1855 Exposition Universelle[2]
The Congress of Paris worked out the final terms from 25 February to 30 March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856 with Russia on one side and France, Great Britain, Turkey and Piedmont-Sardinia on the other.[1] at the Quai d'Orsay.[4]
One of the representatives who attended the Congress of Paris on behalf of the Ottoman Empire was Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, who was the Ottoman Empire's grand vizier.[4] Russia was represented by Prince Orlov and Baron Brunnov. Britain sent Lord Cowley, its ambassador to France.
The Congress of Vienna (1814) with over 200 nations participating, spread questions and issues for different committees to resolve. The Congress of Paris could resolved everything in a relatively short period of time.[5]
A significant diplomatic victory was scored by Piedmont-Sardinia although it was not considered a European great power by being granted a seat by French Emperor Napoleon III, mostly for having sent an expeditionary corps of 18,000 men to fight against Russia, but also possibly because of the influence of the attractive minded Countess of Castiglione, who had caught Napoleon's attention. Foreign minister Camillo Benso di Cavour seized the opportunity to denounce Austrian political and military interference in the Italian Peninsula, which he said was stifling the wish of Italians to choose their government.
Multilateral agreement restoring peace
[edit]
The Congress resulted in a pledge by all powers to jointly maintain "the integrity of the Ottoman Empire", thus guaranteeing its independence.[1]
Also, Russia gave up the left bank of the mouth of the Danube River, including part of Bessarabia,[3] to Moldavia, as well as its claim to the special protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia and Wallachia, which together would become Romania in 1858, along with Serbia, were recognized as quasi-independent self-governing principalities under protection of the other European powers. The Ottoman sultan agreed, in return, to help to improve the status of the Christian subjects in his empire.[3]
The territories of Russia and the Ottoman Empire were restored to their prewar boundaries.[3] The Black Sea was neutralized and so that no warships were allowed to enter, but it was open to all other nations.[3] It also opened the Danube River for shipping from all nations.[1]
Multilateral agreement on naval warfare, open for accession
[edit]After signing the peace treaty, on a proposal of the French Prime-Minister, the plenipotentiaries assembled in the conference also agreed on a declaration respecting maritime law during wartime. This was mainly the outcome of a modus vivendi signed between France and Britain at the dawn of the Crimean War in 1854. Both large naval powers had different opinions on certain issues in maritime warfare and being allies for the first time, they had to find a common line. They agreed they would not seize enemy goods on neutral vessels nor neutral goods on enemy vessels and they would not issue letters of marque. The Declaration all warring parties agreed upon at the Congress of Paris regulated four issues:
- Privateering is and remains abolished;
- The neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war;
- Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under the enemy's flag;
- Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective-that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient enough to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.[6]
The Declaration has been signed by Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey.
As an important juridical novelty in international law the treaty for the first time in history created the possibility for nations that were not involved in the establishment of the agreement and did not sign, to become a party by acceding the declaration afterwards.[7] Within a short period after signing, 55 states, royal houses and free cities ratified the Declaration, which meant a big step in the globalisation of international (maritime) law.
Aftermath
[edit]Turkish historians still express dissatisfaction: "Although [the] Ottoman Empire was on the side of victors, the Porte also lost the right to have a navy in the Black Sea together with Russia. Put differently, the Empire had become a part of the European Concert, but not an actor in the European balance of power. Thus it was not recognized as a great power that could claim compensation in case of territorial gain by another member of the system".[8]
The conditions of the Paris Congress collapsed after the defeat of France in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War. After the surrender of the fortress of Metz, when France lost hope of winning the war, Russia announced its refusal to comply with the terms of the treaty. Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov denounced the treaty's Black Sea clauses on 31 October 1870, which was documented by the Treaty of London (1871).
Some of the rules and agreements would be changed by the Congress of Berlin.[3]
References
[edit]R.R. Palmer, Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer (2002). A History of the Modern World since 1815. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-250280-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ a b c d e "Paris, Treaty of (1856)". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Volume 9. 15th ed. pp. 153-154. 2007.
- ^ a b c d e The Crimean War 1853- 1856. http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/cite/crimean1853.htm Archived 25 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f "Congress of Paris". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Paris-Co.html. 2008
- ^ a b Barchard, David (2006). "Setting the World to Rights".
- ^ Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 938.
- ^ The Avalon Project : Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. "Laws of War : Declaration of Paris; April 16, 1856". Yale Law School. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ Timon Schultz (April 2015). De verklaring van Parijs en Neutraliteit - Nederland en de ontwikkeling van het Internationaal Maritieme recht van 1856 tot de Eerste Wereldoorlog (in Dutch). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculteit der Letteren, Geschiedenis.
- ^ Candan Badem, The Ottoman Crimean War (1853-1856). Leiden-Boston.1970.p.403