Sea lion: Difference between revisions

Sea lion; Temporal range: Late Oligocene–Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
	California sea lion (Zalophus californianus)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Clade:	Pinnipedia
Family:	Otariidae
Subfamily:	Otariinae; Gray 1825
Genera
	Eumetopias; Neophoca; Otaria; Phocarctos; Zalophus

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Sea lions are pinnipeds characterized by external ear flaps, long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, short and thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the fur seals, they make up the family Otariidae, eared seals. The sea lions have six extant and one extinct species (the Japanese sea lion) in five genera. Their range extends from the subarctic to tropical waters of the global ocean in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, with the notable exception of the northern Atlantic Ocean.^[1] They have an average lifespan of 20–30 years.^[2] A male California sea lion weighs on average about 300 kg (660 lb) and is about 2.4 m (8 ft) long, while the female sea lion weighs 100 kg (220 lb) and is 1.8 m (6 ft) long. The largest sea lions are Steller's sea lions, which can weigh 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) and grow to a length of 3.0 m (10 ft). Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their body weight (about 6.8–15.9 kg (15–35 lb)) at a single feeding. Sea lions can move around 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) in water and at their fastest they can reach a speed of about 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph).^[3] Three species, the Australian sea lion, the Galápagos sea lion and the New Zealand sea lion, are listed as endangered.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Taxonomy

Sea lions are related to walruses and seals. Together with the fur seals, they constitute the family Otariidae, collectively known as eared seals. Until recently, sea lions were grouped under a single subfamily called Otariinae, whereas fur seals were grouped in the subfamily Arcocephalinae. This division was based on the most prominent common feature shared by the fur seals and absent in the sea lions, namely the dense underfur characteristic of the former. Recent genetic evidence, suggests Callorhinus, the genus of the northern fur seal, is more closely related to some sea lion species than to the other fur seal genus, Arctocephalus.^[7] Therefore, the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from many taxonomies.

Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater sexual dimorphism. All sea lions have certain features in common, in particular their coarse, short fur, greater bulk, and larger prey than fur seals. For these reasons, the distinction remains useful. The family Otariidae (Order Carnivora) contains the 15 extant species of fur seals and sea lions. Traditional classification of the family into the subfamilies Arctocephalinae (fur seals) and Otariinae (sea lions) is not supported, with the fur seal Callorhinus ursinus having a basal relationship relative to the rest of the family.^[8] This is consistent with the fossil record which suggests that this genus diverged from the line leading to the remaining fur seals and sea lions about 6 million years ago (mya). Similar genetic divergences between the sea lion clades as well as between the major Arctocephalus fur seal clades, suggest that these groups underwent periods of rapid radiation at about the time they diverged from each other. The phylogenetic relationships within the family and the genetic distances among some taxa highlight inconsistencies in the current taxonomic classification of the family.^[8]

Arctocephalus is characterized by ancestral character states such as dense underfur and the presence of double rooted cheek teeth and is thus thought to represent the most "primitive" line. It was from this basal line that both the sea lions and the remaining fur seal genus, Callorhinus, are thought to have diverged. The fossil record from the western coast of North America presents evidence for the divergence of Callorhinus about 6 mya, whereas fossils in both California and Japan suggest that sea lions did not diverge until years later.^[8]

Suborder Caniformia
- Family Otariidae
  - Subfamily Arctocephalinae
    - Genus Arctocephalus (southern fur seal; eight species)
    - Genus Callorhinus (northern fur seal; one species)
  - Subfamily Otariinae
    - Genus Eumetopias
      - Steller's sea lion, E. jubatus
    - Genus Neophoca
      - Australian sea lion, N. cinerea
    - Genus Otaria
      - South American sea lion, O. flavescens
    - Genus Phocarctos
      - New Zealand sea lion or Hooker's sea lion, P. hookeri
    - Genus Zalophus
      - California sea lion, Z. californianus
      - Japanese sea lion, Z. japonicus – extinct (1950s)
      - Galapagos sea lion, Z. wollebaeki
- Family Phocidae: true seals
- Family Odobenidae: walrus

Physiology

Diving adaptations

There are many components that make up sea lion physiology and these processes control aspects of their behavior. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction, metabolic rate, and many other aspects of sea lion ecology including but not limited to their ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions' bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion rate, and blood flow to allow individuals to dive for a long period of time and prevent side effects of high pressure at depth.

The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface.^[9] This process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression sickness.^[9] The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs, however. This means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in sea lions. By reducing heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as reducing the energy required for a high heart rate.^[10] Bradycardia is a control mechanism to allow a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea lions are diving to depth.^[10] Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and oxygen are consumed during this process; however, sea lions can limit digestion rate and decrease it by at least 54%.^[11] This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in these sea lions increases back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing.^[11] Oxygen depletion limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO₂) build-up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of many marine mammals. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO₂ is not expired as fast as oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO₂. However, having more than normal levels of CO₂ in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive behavior.^[12] Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing CO₂ which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breathe.^[12] This ability to ignore a response to CO₂ is likely brought on by increased carotid bodies which are sensors for oxygen levels that let the animal know its available oxygen supply.^[12] Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the effects of gradual CO₂ build-up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO₂ to be expired.^[12]

Parasites and diseases

Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki) can be infected with Philophthalmus zalophi, an eye fluke. These infections have heavy impacts on the survival of juveniles.^[13] The disease appears to be compounded by global warming. The number of infectious stages of different parasites species has a strong correlation with temperature change, therefore it is essential to consider the correlation between the increasing number of parasitic infections and climate changes. The Galapagos Islands go through seasonal changes in sea surface temperatures, which consist of high temperatures from the beginning of January through the month of May and lower temperatures throughout the rest of the year. Parasites surfaced in large numbers when the sea temperature was at its highest. Furthermore, data was collected by capturing sea lions in order to measure and determine their growth rates. Their growth rates were noted along with the citings of parasites which were found under the eyelid. The shocking results were that sea lions are affected by the parasites from the early ages of 3 weeks old up until the age of 4 to 8 months.^[13] The parasites found in the eye fluke did serious damage to the eye. From the data collected, 21 of the 91 survived; with a total of 70 deaths in just a span of two years.^[13] The parasites are attacking the pups at such young ages and causing the pups to not reach the age of reproduction. The death rates of the pups is surpassing the fertility rate by far. Since most pups are unable to reach the age of reproduction, the population is not growing fast enough to keep the species out of endangerment. Other parasites, like Anisakis and heartworm, can also infect sea lions.

Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) are also being affected by more frequent parasitic infections.^[14] The same method was used for the sea pups as on the Galapagos Islands, but in addition, the researchers in Australia took blood samples. The pups in Australia were being affected by hookworms, but they were also coming out in large numbers with warmer temperatures.^[14] New Zealand sea lion pups (Phocarctos hookeri) were also affected in really early ages by hookworms (Uncinaria). The difference is that in New Zealand researchers took the necessary steps and began treatment.^[15] The treatment seemed to be effective on the pups who have taken it. They found no traces of this infection afterwards. However, the percentage of pups who do have it is still relatively high at about 75%.^[15] Those pups who were treated had much better growth rates than those who did not. Overall parasites and hookworms are killing off enough pups to place them in endangerment. Parasites affect sea pups in various areas of the world. Reproductive success reduces immensely, survival methods, changes in health and growth have also been affected.

Similarly, climate change has resulted in increased toxic algae blooms in the oceans. These toxins are ingested by sardines and other fish which are then eaten by the sea lions, causing neurological damage and diseases such as epilepsy.^[16]

Gene expressions and diet

Gene expressions are being used more often to detect the physiological responses to nutrition, as well as other stressors. In a study done with four Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), three of the four sea lions underwent a 70-day trial which consisted of unrestricted food intake, acute nutritional stress, and chronic nutritional stress. Results showed that individuals under nutritional stress down-regulated some cellular processes within their immune response and oxidative stress. Nutritional stress was considered the most proximate cause of population decline in this species.^[17] In New Zealand sea lions, north-to south gradients driven by temperature differences were shown to be key factors in the prey mix.^[18] Adult California sea lions eat about 5% to 8% of their body weight per day (15–40 lb (6.8–18.1 kg)).^{[citation needed]}

California sea lions feed mainly offshore in coastal areas. They eat a variety of prey—such as squid, anchovies, mackerel, rockfish, and sardines—found in upwelling areas. They also may take fish from commercial fishing gear, sport fishing lines, and fish passage facilities at dams and rivers.^[19]

Geographic variation

The Australian sea lion vs. the Steller sea lion

Geographic variation for sea lions have been determined by the observations of skulls of several Otariidae species; a general change in size corresponds with a change in latitude and primary productivity. Skulls of Australian sea lions from Western Australia were generally smaller in length whereas the largest skulls are from cool temperate localities. Otariidae are in the process of species divergence, much of which may be driven by local factors, particularly latitude and resources.^[20] Populations of a given species tend to be smaller in the tropics, increase in size with increasing latitude, and reach a maximum in sub-polar regions. In a cool climate and cold waters there should be a selective advantage in the relative reduction of body surface area resulting from increased size, since the metabolic rate is related more closely to body surface area than to body weight.^[20]

Breeding and population

Breeding methods and habits

Sea lions, with three groups of pinnipeds, have multiple breeding methods and habits over their families but they remain relatively universal. Otariids, or eared sea lions, raise their young, mate, and rest in more earthly land or ice habitats. Their abundance and haul-out behavior have a direct effect on their on land breeding activity. Their seasonal abundance trend correlates with their breeding period between the austral summer of January to March. Their rookeries populate with newborn pups as well as male and female otariids that remain to defend their territories. At the end of the breeding period males disseminate for food and rest while females remain for nurturing. Other points in the year consist of a mix of ages and genders in the rookeries with haul-out patterns varying monthly.^[21]

Steller sea lions, living an average of 15 to 20 years, begin their breeding season when adult males establish territories along the rookeries in early May. Male sea lions reach sexual maturity from ages 5 to 7 and do not become territorial until around 9 to 13 years of age. The females arrive in late May bringing in an increase of territorial defense through fighting and boundary displays. After a week births consist most usually of one pup with a perinatal period of 3 to 13 days.

Steller sea lions have exhibited multiple competitive strategies for reproductive success. Sea lion mating is often polygamous as males usually mate with different females to increase fitness and success, leaving some males to not find a mate at all. Polygamous males rarely provide parental care towards the pup. Strategies used to monopolize females include the resource-defense polygyny, or occupying important female resources. This involves occupying and defending a territory with resources or features attractive to females during sexually receptive periods. Some of these factors may include pupping habitat and access to water. Other techniques include potentially limiting access of other males to females.^[22]

Population

Otaria flavescens (South American sea lion) lives along the Chilean coast with a population estimate of 165,000. According to the most recent surveys in northern and southern Chile the sealing period of the middle twentieth century that left a significant decline in sea lion population is recovering. The recovery is associated with less hunting, otariids rapid population growth, legislation on nature reserves, and new food resources. Haul-out patterns change the abundance of sea lions at particular times of the day, month, and year. Patterns in migration relate to temperature, solar radiation, and prey and water resources. Studies of South American sea lions and other otariids document maximum population on land during early afternoon, potentially due to haul-out during high air temperatures. Adult and subadult males do not show clear annual patterns, maximum abundance being found from October to January. Females and their pups hauled-out during austral winter months of June to September.^[23]

Interactions with humans

South American sea lions have been greatly impacted by human exploitation. During the late Holocene period to the middle of the twentieth century, hunter-gatherers along the Beagle Channel and northern Patagonia had greatly reduced the number of sea lions due to their hunting of the species and exploitation of the species' environment.^[24] Although sealing has been put to a halt, in many countries, such as Uruguay, the sea lion population continues to decline because of the drastic effects humans have on their ecosystems.^[24] As a result, South American sea lions have been foraging at higher tropical latitudes than they did prior to human exploitation.^[24] Fishermen play a key role in the endangerment of sea lions. Sea lions rely on fish, like pollock, as a food source and have to compete with fishermen for it.^[25] When fishermen are successful at their job, they greatly reduce the sea lion's food source, which in turn endangers the species.^[25] Also, human presence and human recreational activities can cause sea lions to engage in violent and aggressive actions.^[26] When humans come closer than 15 meters of a sea lion, the sea lions' vigilance increases because of the disturbance of humans.^[26] These disturbances can potentially cause sea lions to have psychological stress responses that cause the sea lions to retreat, sometimes even abandon their locations, and decreases the amount of time sea lions spend hauling out.^[26]

New Zealand sea lions were also exploited from hunting and sealing, and as a result were extirpated from New Zealand's mainland for over 150 years, with their population being restricted to the subantarctic.^[27] In 1993, a female New Zealand sea lion gave birth on the mainland for the first time, and since then, they have slowly been recolonizing.^[27] These sea lions are the only pinnipeds that regularly move up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) inland into forests.^[28]^[29]^[30] As consequence, they have been hit by cars on roads, deliberately killed, and been disturbed by dogs.^[31] Females need to move inland as a way to protect their pups, so roads, fences, residential areas, and private lands can inhibit their dispersal and breeding success.^[32] They have also adapted to commercial pine forests,^[32] and have given birth or nursed pups in residents' backyards and on golf courses.^[33] As one of the world's rarest sea lions, and an endangered and endemic species, efforts are being made to facilitate coexistence between them and humans.^[34]^[35]

Sea lion attacks on humans are rare, but when humans come within approximately 2.5 meters (8 ft), it can be very unsafe.^[26] In a highly unusual attack in 2007 in Western Australia, a sea lion leapt from the water and seriously mauled a 13-year-old girl surfing behind a speedboat. The sea lion appeared to be preparing for a second attack when the girl was rescued. An Australian marine biologist suggested that the sea lion may have viewed the girl "like a rag doll toy" to be played with.^[36]^[37]^[38] In San Francisco, where an increasingly large population of California sea lions crowds docks along San Francisco Bay, incidents have been reported in recent years of swimmers being bitten on the legs by large, aggressive males, possibly as territorial acts.^[39]^[40] In April 2015, a sea lion attacked a 62-year-old man who was boating with his wife in San Diego. The attack left the man with a punctured bone.^[41] In May 2017, a sea lion grabbed and pulled a girl into the water by her dress before retreating. The child was sitting on a pier side in British Columbia while tourists were illegally feeding the sea lions when the incident took place.^[42] She was pulled out of the water with minor injuries and received antibiotic prophylactic treatment for seal finger infection from the superficial bite injury.^[43]^[44]

There have also been documented events of sea lions assisting humans. One such notable instance of this is when Kevin Hines jumped off the Golden Gate Bridge in a suicide attempt and was helped to stay afloat by a sea lion until he was rescued by the Coast Guard.^[45]

Sea lions have also been a focus of tourism in Australia and New Zealand.^[26] One of the main sites to view sea lions is in the Carnac Island Nature Reserve near Perth in Western Australia. This tourist site receives over 100,000 visitors, many of whom are recreational boaters and tourists, who can watch the male sea lions haul out on to the shore.^[26] They have sometimes been called "the unofficial welcoming committee of the Galápagos Islands".^[46]

Gallery


A gathering of more than 40 sea lions off the coast of California	A military sea lion on board a U.S. Navy ship	A sea lion at the Memphis Zoo	A sea lion pup sleeping at Pantai Inn

A sea lion in Malibu, California	Sea Lion at Monterey Breakwater	A sea lion sleeps in the Ballestas Islands, Peru	A group of sea lions rest in the Ballestas Islands, Peru

References

^ "California Sea Lion – SeaWorld Info Book". SeaWorld. Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
^ "California sea lion". Smithsonian's National Zoo. 25 April 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
^ Riedman, Marianne (13 December 1989). The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea lions, and Walruses. University of California Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780520064973.
^ Chilvers, B. L. (2015). "Phocarctos hookeri. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T17026A1306343.en.
^ Trillmich, F. (2015). "Arctocephalus galapagoensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T2057A45223722.en.
^ Goldsworthy, S. D. (2015). "Neophoca cinerea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T14549A45228341.en.
^ Wynen, L.P.; Goldsworthy, SD; Insley, SJ; Adams, M; Bickham, JW; Francis, J; Gallo, JP; Hoelzel, AR; et al. (2001). "Phylogenetic relationships within the eared seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): implications for the historical biogeography of the family". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 21 (2): 270–284. Bibcode:2001MolPE..21..270W. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.1012. PMID 11697921.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wynen, Louise P.; Goldsworthy, Simon D.; Insley, Stephen J.; Adams, Mark; Bickham, John W.; Francis, John; Gallo, Juan Pablo; Hoelzel, A. Rus; Majluf, Patricia (1 November 2001). "Phylogenetic Relationships within the Eared Seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): Implications for the Historical Biogeography of the Family". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 21 (2): 270–284. Bibcode:2001MolPE..21..270W. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.1012. PMID 11697921.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gerlinsky, Carling D.; Rosen, David A. S.; Trites, Andrew W. (7 March 2014). "Sensitivity to hypercapnia and elimination of CO₂ following diving in Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 184 (4): 535–544. doi:10.1007/s00360-014-0819-y. ISSN 0174-1578. PMID 24604293. S2CID 4637738.
^ ^a ^b ^c Meise, Kristine; Garcia-Parra, Carolina (October 2015). "Behavioural and environmental correlates of Philophthalmus zalophi infections and their impact on survival in juvenile Galapagos sea lions". Marine Biology. 162 (10): 2107–2117. Bibcode:2015MarBi.162.2107M. doi:10.1007/s00227-015-2740-7. S2CID 83897007.
^ ^a ^b Higgins, Damien; Marcus, Alan; Gray, Rachael (2015). "Health assessment of free-ranging endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) pups: Effect of haematophagous parasites on haematological parameters". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. 184: 132–143. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.017. PMID 25724096.
^ ^a ^b Chilvers, B. L.; Duignan, P. J.; Robertson, B. C.; Castinel, A.; Wilkinson, I. S. (February 2009). "Effects of hookworms (Uncinaria sp.) on the early growth and survival of New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) pups". Polar Biology. 32 (2): 295–302. Bibcode:2009PoBio..32..295C. doi:10.1007/s00300-008-0559-0. S2CID 10260797.
^ Richtel, Matt (8 October 2020). "Brain Surgery for a 'Sweet Boy': Saving Cronutt the Sea Lion". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
^ Spitz, Jerome; Becquet, Vanessa; Rosen, David A.S; Trites, Andrew W. (September 2015). "A nutrigenomic approach to detect nutritional stress from gene expression in blood samples drawn from Steller sea lions". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A. 187: 214–223. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.006. PMID 25700740.
^ Roberts, J.; Lalas, C. (June 2015). "Diet of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) at their southern breeding limits". Polar Biology. 38 (9): 1483–1491. Bibcode:2015PoBio..38.1483R. doi:10.1007/s00300-015-1710-3. S2CID 7836909.
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^ Sepúlveda, Maritza (August 2015). "Annual, seasonal and daily variation in the abundance of the South American sea lion Otaria flavescens in two breeding colonies in northern Chile" (PDF). Revista de Biologia Marina y Oceanografia. 50 (2): 205–220. doi:10.4067/S0718-19572015000300001.
^ Parker, Pamela; Maniscalco, John, M. (20 March 2014). "A long-term study reveals multiple reproductive behavior strategies among territorial adult male Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 92 (5): 405–415. doi:10.1139/cjz-2013-0099.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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^ ^a ^b ^c Zenteno, Lisette; Borella, Florencia; Otero, Julieta Gómez; Piana, Ernesto; Belardi, Juan Bautista; Borrero, Luis Alberto; Saporiti, Fabiana; Cardona, Luis; Crespo, Enrique (1 June 2015). "Shifting niches of marine predators due to human exploitation: the diet of the South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) since the late Holocene as a case study". Paleobiology. 41 (3): 387–401. Bibcode:2015Pbio...41..387Z. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.9. ISSN 1938-5331. S2CID 86469393.
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^ Frans, Veronica F.; Augé, Amélie A.; Edelhoff, Hendrik; Erasmi, Stefan; Balkenhol, Niko; Engler, Jan O. (2018). "Quantifying apart what belongs together: A multi-state species distribution modelling framework for species using distinct habitats". Methods in Ecology and Evolution. 9 (1): 98–108. Bibcode:2018MEcEv...9...98F. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.12847. ISSN 2041-210X. S2CID 91050320.
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^ ^a ^b Frans, Veronica F.; Augé, Amélie A.; Fyfe, Jim; Zhang, Yuqian; McNally, Nathan; Edelhoff, Hendrik; Balkenhol, Niko; Engler, Jan O. (2022). "Integrated SDM database: Enhancing the relevance and utility of species distribution models in conservation management" (PDF). Methods in Ecology and Evolution. 13 (1): 243–261. Bibcode:2022MEcEv..13..243F. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.13736. ISSN 2041-210X. S2CID 243893898.
^ "New Zealand city closes busy road for weeks to protect sea lion mother and pup". the Guardian. 14 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ Graham-McLay, Charlotte (9 November 2021). "New Zealand's Sea Lions Are Back, and Crashing Golf Courses and Soccer Matches". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ "'Cheeky' sea lions are returning to New Zealand's shores — and locals are learning to share the coast". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ Sea lion attacks Australian girl. BBC News (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2016-05-09.
^ Hayward, Andrea (15 April 2007) Monster sea lion likely to be 'playing' with teen. news.com.au
^ Sea lion mauls girl. News.com.au (15 April 2007).
^ Kay, Jane (24 June 2011). "Rogue sea lion in S.F. menaces swimmers / Marauding mammal bites at least 14, chases 10 from Aquatic Park Lagoon". The San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Harrell, Ashley (7 October 2009). "Too Cute to Shoot? – Page 1 – News – San Francisco". SF Weekly. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
^ "Sea lion attacks San Diego man posing for photo, yanks him overboard". www.cbsnews.com. 30 April 2015.
^ "Video shows the terrifying moment a sea lion yanks a girl into the water". Washington Post. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
^ "Steveston Sea Lion Video: Girl Grabbed By Animal Treated For Superficial Wound". HuffPost Canada. 23 May 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
^ "Sea lion attack: Girl treated over 'seal finger' risk". BBC News. 26 May 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
^ Bergeron, Ryan (12 August 2019). "He jumped off the Golden Gate Bridge and survived. Now, he's seeing his wish for a safety net come true". CNN. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
^ "In the Galapagos Islands they’re so ubiquitous that they run the risk of being taken for granted. Here, you can find this unofficial welcoming committee almost everywhere"

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Subfamily of aquatic mammals}}
 {{about|the aquatic mammal}}
+{{distinguish|Thalassoleon}}
 {{pp-move-indef}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
-{{Automatic Taxobox
+{{Automatic taxobox
+| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Late Oligocene|Present}}
-| name = Sea lion
-| fossil_range = Late [[Oligocene]]-[[Holocene]]
 | image = California sea lion in La Jolla (70568).jpg
 | image_caption = [[California sea lion]] (''Zalophus californianus'')
@@ Line 17: / Line 18: @@
 ''[[Zalophus]]''
 }}
-'''Sea lions''' are sea mammals characterized by external [[pinna (anatomy)|ear flaps]], long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, short, thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the [[fur seal]]s, they comprise the family [[Otariidae]], [[eared seal]]s, which contains six [[extant taxa|extant]] and one extinct species (the [[Japanese sea lion]]) in five [[genera]]. Their range extends from the [[subarctic]] to [[tropical]] waters of the [[Ocean|global ocean]] in both the [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern]] and [[Southern Hemisphere]]s, with the notable exception of the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name=seaworld>{{cite web |url=http://seaworld.org/en/Animal-Info/Animal-Bytes/Mammals/California-Sea-Lion |title=California Sea Lion – SeaWorld Info Book|accessdate=26 December 2013 |publisher=SeaWorld}}</ref> They have an average lifespan of 20–30 years. A male California sea lion weighs on average about {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is about {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on}} long, while the female sea lion weighs {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} long. The largest sea lion is [[Steller's sea lion]], which can weigh {{convert|1000|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and grow to a length of {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}}. Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their body weight (about {{convert|15|–|35|lb|kg|abbr=on}}) at a single feeding. Sea lions can go around 16 knots in water and at their fastest they can go up to 30 knots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Riedman|first1=Marianne|title=The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea lions, and Walruses|date=13 December 1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520064973|page=7}}</ref> Three species, the [[Australian sea lion]], the [[Galápagos sea lion]] and the [[New Zealand sea lion]] are listed as Endangered.{{Citation Needed|date=January 2019}}
+'''Sea lions''' are [[pinniped]]s characterized by external [[pinna (anatomy)|ear flaps]], long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, short and thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the [[fur seal]]s, they make up the family [[Otariidae]], [[eared seal]]s.  The sea lions have six [[extant taxa|extant]] and one extinct species (the [[Japanese sea lion]]) in five [[genera]]. Their range extends from the [[subarctic]] to [[tropical]] waters of the [[Ocean|global ocean]] in both the [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern]] and [[Southern Hemisphere]]s, with the notable exception of the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name=seaworld>{{cite web |url=http://seaworld.org/en/Animal-Info/Animal-Bytes/Mammals/California-Sea-Lion |title=California Sea Lion – SeaWorld Info Book |access-date=26 December 2013 |publisher=SeaWorld |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414073258/http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-bytes/mammals/california-sea-lion/ |archive-date=14 April 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> They have an [[Life expectancy|average lifespan]] of 20–30 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-25 |title=California sea lion |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/california-sea-lion |access-date=2023-09-24 |website=Smithsonian's National Zoo |language=en}}</ref> A male California sea lion weighs on average about {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is about {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} long, while the female sea lion weighs {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} long. The largest sea lions are [[Steller's sea lion]]s, which can weigh {{convert|1000|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and grow to a length of {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}}. Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their body weight (about {{convert|15|-|35|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}) at a single feeding. Sea lions can move around {{convert|16|knots|km/h mph}} in water and at their fastest they can reach a speed of about {{convert|30|knots|km/h mph}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Riedman|first1=Marianne|title=The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea lions, and Walruses|url=https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried|url-access=registration|date=13 December 1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520064973|page=[https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried/page/7 7]}}</ref> Three species, the [[Australian sea lion]], the [[Galápagos sea lion]] and the [[New Zealand sea lion]], are listed as [[IUCN Red List endangered species (Animalia)|endangered]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chilvers|first=B. L.|author-link=Louise Chilvers|date=2015|title=Phocarctos hookeri. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url=|journal=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources|volume=|pages=|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T17026A1306343.en|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Trillmich|first=F.|date=2015|title=Arctocephalus galapagoensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|journal=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T2057A45223722.en|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldsworthy|first=S. D.|date=2015|title=Neophoca cinerea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|journal=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T14549A45228341.en|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 ==Taxonomy==
 [[Image:Alaska 2007 056.jpg|thumb|[[Steller sea lion]]s [[hauling-out|haul out]] on a rock off the coast of [[Raspberry Island (Alaska)]].]]
-Sea lions are related to walruses and seals. Together with the [[fur seal]]s, they constitute the family [[Otariidae]], collectively known as eared seals. Until recently, sea lions were grouped under a single subfamily called Otariinae, whereas fur seals were grouped in the subfamily Arcocephalinae. This division was based on the most prominent common feature shared by the fur seals and absent in the sea lions, namely the dense underfur characteristic of the former. Recent genetic evidence, suggests ''Callorhinus'', the genus of the [[northern fur seal]], is more closely related to some sea lion species than to the other fur seal genus, ''Arctocephalus''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wynen | first1 = L.P. | year = 2001 | title = Phylogenetic relationships within the eared seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): implications for the historical biogeography of the family | doi = 10.1006/mpev.2001.1012 | journal = Mol. Phylog. Evol. | volume = 21 | issue = 2| pages = 270–284 | pmid=11697921 | last2 = Goldsworthy | first2 = SD | last3 = Insley | first3 = SJ | last4 = Adams | first4 = M | last5 = Bickham | first5 = JW | last6 = Francis | first6 = J | last7 = Gallo | first7 = JP | last8 = Hoelzel | first8 = AR | last9 = Majluf | first9 = P| last10 = White | first10 = Robert W.G. | last11 = Slade | first11 = Rob | display-authors = 8 }}</ref> Therefore, the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from many taxonomies.
+Sea lions are related to walruses and seals. Together with the [[fur seal]]s, they constitute the family [[Otariidae]], collectively known as eared seals. Until recently, sea lions were grouped under a single subfamily called Otariinae, whereas fur seals were grouped in the subfamily Arcocephalinae. This division was based on the most prominent common feature shared by the fur seals and absent in the sea lions, namely the dense underfur characteristic of the former. Recent genetic evidence, suggests ''Callorhinus'', the genus of the [[northern fur seal]], is more closely related to some sea lion species than to the other fur seal genus, ''Arctocephalus''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wynen | first1 = L.P. | year = 2001 | title = Phylogenetic relationships within the eared seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): implications for the historical biogeography of the family | doi = 10.1006/mpev.2001.1012 | journal = Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. | volume = 21 | issue = 2| pages = 270–284 | pmid=11697921 | last2 = Goldsworthy | first2 = SD | last3 = Insley | first3 = SJ | last4 = Adams | first4 = M | last5 = Bickham | first5 = JW | last6 = Francis | first6 = J | last7 = Gallo | first7 = JP | last8 = Hoelzel | first8 = AR | last9 = Majluf | first9 = P| last10 = White | first10 = Robert W.G. | last11 = Slade | first11 = Rob | bibcode = 2001MolPE..21..270W | display-authors = 8 }}</ref> Therefore, the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from many taxonomies.
-Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater [[sexual dimorphism]]. All sea lions have certain features in common, in particular their coarse, short fur, greater bulk, and larger prey than fur seals. For these reasons, the distinction remains useful. The family Otariidae (Order Carnivora) contains the 14 extant species of fur seals and sea lions. Traditional classification of the family into the subfamilies Arctocephalinae (fur seals) and Otariinae (sea lions) is not supported, with the fur seal Callorhinus ursinus having a basal relationship relative to the rest of the family.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Phylogenetic Relationships within the Eared Seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): Implications for the Historical Biogeography of the Family|journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date = 1 November 2001|pages = 270–284|volume = 21|issue = 2|doi = 10.1006/mpev.2001.1012|first = Louise P.|last = Wynen|first2 = Simon D.|last2 = Goldsworthy|first3 = Stephen J.|last3 = Insley|first4 = Mark|last4 = Adams|first5 = John W.|last5 = Bickham|first6 = John|last6 = Francis|first7 = Juan Pablo|last7 = Gallo|first8 = A. Rus|last8 = Hoelzel|first9 = Patricia|last9 = Majluf|pmid=11697921}}</ref> This is consistent with the fossil record which suggests that this genus diverged from the line leading to the remaining fur seals and sea lions about 6 million years ago (mya). Similar genetic divergences between the sea lion clades as well as between the major Arctocephalus fur seal clades, suggest that these groups underwent periods of rapid radiation at about the time they diverged from each other. The phylogenetic relationships within the family and the genetic distances among some taxa highlight inconsistencies in the current taxonomic classification of the family.<ref name=":0" />
+Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater [[sexual dimorphism]]. All sea lions have certain features in common, in particular their coarse, short fur, greater bulk, and larger prey than fur seals. For these reasons, the distinction remains useful. The family Otariidae (Order Carnivora) contains the 15 extant species of fur seals and sea lions. Traditional classification of the family into the subfamilies Arctocephalinae (fur seals) and Otariinae (sea lions) is not supported, with the fur seal ''Callorhinus ursinus'' having a basal relationship relative to the rest of the family.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Phylogenetic Relationships within the Eared Seals (Otariidae: Carnivora): Implications for the Historical Biogeography of the Family|journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date = 1 November 2001|pages = 270–284|volume = 21|issue = 2|doi = 10.1006/mpev.2001.1012|first1 = Louise P.|last1 = Wynen|first2 = Simon D.|last2 = Goldsworthy|first3 = Stephen J.|last3 = Insley|first4 = Mark|last4 = Adams|first5 = John W.|last5 = Bickham|first6 = John|last6 = Francis|first7 = Juan Pablo|last7 = Gallo|first8 = A. Rus|last8 = Hoelzel|first9 = Patricia|last9 = Majluf|pmid=11697921| bibcode=2001MolPE..21..270W }}</ref> This is consistent with the fossil record which suggests that this genus diverged from the line leading to the remaining fur seals and sea lions about 6 million years ago (mya). Similar genetic divergences between the sea lion clades as well as between the major Arctocephalus fur seal clades, suggest that these groups underwent periods of rapid radiation at about the time they diverged from each other. The phylogenetic relationships within the family and the genetic distances among some taxa highlight inconsistencies in the current taxonomic classification of the family.<ref name=":0" />
-Arctocephalus is characterized by ancestral character states such as dense underfur and the presence of double rooted cheek teeth and is thus thought to represent the most "primitive" line. It was from this basal line that both the sea lions and the remaining fur seal genus, Callorhinus, are thought to have diverged. The fossil record from the western coast of North America presents evidence for the divergence of Callorhinus about 6 mya, whereas fossils in both California and Japan suggest that sea lions did not diverge until years later.<ref name=":0" />
+''Arctocephalus'' is characterized by ancestral character states such as dense underfur and the presence of double rooted cheek teeth and is thus thought to represent the most "primitive" line. It was from this basal line that both the sea lions and the remaining fur seal genus, ''Callorhinus'', are thought to have diverged. The fossil record from the western coast of North America presents evidence for the divergence of ''Callorhinus'' about 6 mya, whereas fossils in both California and Japan suggest that sea lions did not diverge until years later.<ref name=":0" />
 * '''''Suborder [[Caniformia]]'''''
@@ Line 52: / Line 54: @@
 ===Diving adaptations===
 [[File:Sea lion heart.jpg|thumb|Sea lion heart.]]
-There are many components that make up sea lion physiology and these processes control aspects of their behavior. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction, metabolic rate, and many other aspects on sea lion ecology including but not limited to their ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions' bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion rate, and blood flow to allow individuals to dive for a long period of time and prevent side-effects of high pressure at depth.
+There are many components that make up sea lion physiology and these processes control aspects of their behavior. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction, metabolic rate, and many other aspects of sea lion ecology including but not limited to their ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions' bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion rate, and blood flow to allow individuals to dive for a long period of time and prevent side effects of high pressure at depth.
-The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface.<ref name=":7" /> This process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression sickness.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Kooyman|first=G. L.|last2=Sinnett|first2=E. E.|date=1 January 1982|title=Pulmonary Shunts in Harbor Seals and Sea Lions during Simulated Dives to Depth|jstor=30158447|journal=Physiological Zoology|volume=55|issue=1|pages=105–111|doi=10.1086/physzool.55.1.30158447}}</ref> The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs however, this means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in the sea lions. By reducing heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as reducing the energy required for a high heart rate.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=McDonald|first=Birgitte I.|last2=Ponganis|first2=Paul J.|date=2014|title=Deep-diving sea lions exhibit extreme bradycardia in long-duration dives|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=217|issue=9|pages=1525–1534|doi=10.1242/jeb.098558|issn=0022-0949|pmid=24790100}}</ref> Bradycardia is a control mechanism to allow a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea lions are diving to depth.<ref name=":8" /> Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and oxygen are consumed during this process, however sea lions can limit digestion rate and decrease it by at least 54%.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Rosen|first=David A. S.|last2=Gerlinsky|first2=Carling D.|last3=Trites|first3=Andrew W.|date=1 August 2015|title=Evidence of partial deferment of digestion during diving in Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=469|pages=93–97|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2015.04.017}}</ref> This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in these sea lions increase back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing.<ref name=":9" /> Oxygen depletion limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) build up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of many marine mammals. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO<sub>2</sub> is not expired as fast as oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO<sub>2</sub>. However, having more than normal levels of CO<sub>2</sub> in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive behavior.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Gerlinsky|first=Carling D.|last2=Rosen|first2=David A. S.|last3=Trites|first3=Andrew W.|date=7 March 2014|title=Sensitivity to hypercapnia and elimination of CO<sub>2</sub> following diving in Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B|language=en|volume=184|issue=4|pages=535–544|doi=10.1007/s00360-014-0819-y|issn=0174-1578}}</ref> Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing CO<sub>2</sub> which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breathe.<ref name=":10" /> This ability to ignore a response to CO<sub>2</sub> is likely brought on by increase carotid bodies which are sensor for oxygen levels which let the animal know its available oxygen supply.<ref name=":10" /> Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the effects of gradual CO<sub>2</sub> build up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO<sub>2</sub> to be expired.<ref name=":10" />
+The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface.<ref name=":7" /> This process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression sickness.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Kooyman|first1=G. L.|last2=Sinnett|first2=E. E.|date=1 January 1982|title=Pulmonary Shunts in Harbor Seals and Sea Lions during Simulated Dives to Depth|jstor=30158447|journal=Physiological Zoology|volume=55|issue=1|pages=105–111|doi=10.1086/physzool.55.1.30158447|s2cid=87390381}}</ref> The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs, however. This means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in sea lions. By reducing heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as reducing the energy required for a high heart rate.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=McDonald|first1=Birgitte I.|last2=Ponganis|first2=Paul J.|date=2014|title=Deep-diving sea lions exhibit extreme bradycardia in long-duration dives|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=217|issue=9|pages=1525–1534|doi=10.1242/jeb.098558|issn=0022-0949|pmid=24790100|doi-access=free|url=http://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article-pdf/217/9/1525/1883736/1525.pdf}}</ref> [[Bradycardia]] is a control mechanism to allow a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea lions are diving to depth.<ref name=":8" /> Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and oxygen are consumed during this process; however, sea lions can limit digestion rate and decrease it by at least 54%.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Rosen|first1=David A. S.|last2=Gerlinsky|first2=Carling D.|last3=Trites|first3=Andrew W.|date=1 August 2015|title=Evidence of partial deferment of digestion during diving in Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=469|pages=93–97|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2015.04.017|bibcode=2015JEMBE.469...93R }}</ref> This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in these sea lions increases back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing.<ref name=":9" /> Oxygen depletion limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) build-up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of many [[marine mammal]]s. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO<sub>2</sub> is not expired as fast as oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO<sub>2</sub>. However, having more than normal levels of CO<sub>2</sub> in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive behavior.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Gerlinsky|first1=Carling D.|last2=Rosen|first2=David A. S.|last3=Trites|first3=Andrew W.|date=7 March 2014|title=Sensitivity to hypercapnia and elimination of CO<sub>2</sub> following diving in Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B|language=en|volume=184|issue=4|pages=535–544|doi=10.1007/s00360-014-0819-y|pmid=24604293|s2cid=4637738|issn=0174-1578}}</ref> Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing CO<sub>2</sub> which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breathe.<ref name=":10" /> This ability to ignore a response to CO<sub>2</sub> is likely brought on by increased carotid bodies which are sensors for oxygen levels that let the animal know its available oxygen supply.<ref name=":10" /> Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the effects of gradual CO<sub>2</sub> build-up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO<sub>2</sub> to be expired.<ref name=":10" />
 === Parasites and diseases ===
-Behavioural and environmental correlates of ''Philophthalmus zalophi'', a foot parasite. And the infection has impacted the survival of juvenile Galapagos sea lions (''Zalophus wollebaeki'').<ref name="Web of Science">{{cite journal |last1=Meise |first1=Kristine |last2=Garcia-Parra |first2=Carolina |title=Behavioural and environmental correlates of ''Philophthalmus zalophi'' infections and their impact on survival in juvenile Galapagos sea lions |journal=Marine Biology |date=October 2015 |volume=162 |issue=10 |pages=2107–2117 |doi=10.1007/s00227-015-2740-7}}</ref> This infection leads to diseases that are connected to global warming. The number of infectious stages of different parasites species has a strong correlation with temperature change, therefore it is essential to consider the correlation between the increasing number of parasitic infections and climate changes. To test this proposed theory researchers used Galapagos sea lions because they are endemic to the Galapagos islands.<ref name="Web of Science" /> The Galapagos Islands goes through seasonal changes in sea surface temperatures, which consist of high temperatures from the beginning of January through the month of May and lower temperatures throughout the rest of the year. Parasites surfaced in large numbers when the sea temperature was at its highest. Furthermore, data was collected by capturing sea lions in order to measure and determine their growth rates. Their growth rates were noted along with the citings of parasites which were found under the eyelid. The shocking results were that sea lions are affected  the parasites from the early ages of 3 weeks old up until the age of 4 to 8 months.<ref name="Web of Science" /> The parasites found in the eye fluke did serious damage to the eye. From the data collected, 21 of the 91 survived; with a total of 70 deaths in just a span of two years.<ref name="Web of Science" /> The parasites are attacking the pups at such young ages; thus causing the pups to not reach the age of reproduction. The death rates of the pups is surpassing the fertility rate by far. Since most pups are unable to reach the age of reproduction, the population is not growing fast enough to keep the species out of endangerment. The pups who do survive must pass their strong genes down to make sure their young survive and the generation that follows. Other parasites, like ''[[Anisakis]]'' and [[heartworm]] can also infect sea lions.
+Galapagos sea lions (''Zalophus wollebaeki'') can be infected with ''Philophthalmus zalophi'', an eye fluke. These infections have heavy impacts on the survival of juveniles.<ref name="Web of Science">{{cite journal |last1=Meise |first1=Kristine |last2=Garcia-Parra |first2=Carolina |title=Behavioural and environmental correlates of ''Philophthalmus zalophi'' infections and their impact on survival in juvenile Galapagos sea lions |journal=Marine Biology |date=October 2015 |volume=162 |issue=10 |pages=2107–2117 |doi=10.1007/s00227-015-2740-7|bibcode=2015MarBi.162.2107M |s2cid=83897007 }}</ref> The disease appears to be compounded by global warming. The number of infectious stages of different parasites species has a strong correlation with temperature change, therefore it is essential to consider the correlation between the increasing number of parasitic infections and climate changes. The Galapagos Islands go through seasonal changes in [[sea surface temperature]]s, which consist of high temperatures from the beginning of January through the month of May and lower temperatures throughout the rest of the year. Parasites surfaced in large numbers when the sea temperature was at its highest. Furthermore, data was collected by capturing sea lions in order to measure and determine their growth rates. Their growth rates were noted along with the citings of parasites which were found under the eyelid. The shocking results were that sea lions are affected by the parasites from the early ages of 3 weeks old up until the age of 4 to 8 months.<ref name="Web of Science" /> The parasites found in the eye fluke did serious damage to the eye. From the data collected, 21 of the 91 survived; with a total of 70 deaths in just a span of two years.<ref name="Web of Science" /> The parasites are attacking the pups at such young ages and causing the pups to not reach the age of reproduction. The death rates of the pups is surpassing the fertility rate by far. Since most pups are unable to reach the age of reproduction, the population is not growing fast enough to keep the species out of endangerment. Other parasites, like ''[[Anisakis]]'' and [[heartworm]], can also infect sea lions.
-Along with Galapagos islands, sea lions (''Zalophus wollebaeki'') being affected are the Australian sea lions (''Neophoca cinerea'').<ref name="ScienceDirect">{{cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Damien |last2=Marcus |first2=Alan |last3=Gray |first3=Rachael |title=Health assessment of free-ranging endangered Australian sea lion (''Neophoca cinerea'') pups: Effect of haematophagous parasites on haematological parameters |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology |date=2015 |volume=184 |pages=132–143 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.017 |pmid=25724096 }}</ref> The same method was used for the sea pups on the galapagos island, but in addition, the researchers in Australia took blood samples. The pups in Australia were being affected by hookworms, but they were also coming out in large numbers with warmer temperatures.<ref name="ScienceDirect"/> Sea pups in New Zealand (''Phocarctos hookeri'') were also affected really early ages by hookworms (Uncinaria). The difference is that in New Zealand researchers took the necessary steps and began treatment.<ref name="EffectsOfHookworms">{{cite journal |last1=Chilvers |first1=B. L. |last2=Duignan |first2=P. J. |last3=Robertson |first3=B. C. |last4=Castinel |first4=A. |last5=Wilkinson |first5=I. S. |title=Effects of hookworms (''Uncinaria'' sp.) on the early growth and survival of New Zealand sea lion (''Phocarctos hookeri'') pups |journal=Polar Biology |date=February 2009 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=295–302 |doi=10.1007/s00300-008-0559-0 }}</ref> The treatment seemed to be effective on the pups who have taken it. They found no traces of this infection afterwards. However, the percentage of pups who do have it is still relatively high at about 75%.<ref name="EffectsOfHookworms" /> Those pups who were treated had much better growth rates than those who did not. Overall parasites and hookworms are killing off enough pups to place them in endangerment. Parasites affect sea pups in various areas of the world. Reproductive success reduces immensely, survival methods, changes in health and growth have also been affected.
+Australian sea lions (''Neophoca cinerea'') are also being affected by more frequent parasitic infections.<ref name="ScienceDirect">{{cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Damien |last2=Marcus |first2=Alan |last3=Gray |first3=Rachael |title=Health assessment of free-ranging endangered Australian sea lion (''Neophoca cinerea'') pups: Effect of haematophagous parasites on haematological parameters |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology |date=2015 |volume=184 |pages=132–143 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.017 |pmid=25724096 }}</ref> The same method was used for the sea pups as on the Galapagos Islands, but in addition, the researchers in Australia took blood samples. The pups in Australia were being affected by hookworms, but they were also coming out in large numbers with warmer temperatures.<ref name="ScienceDirect"/> New Zealand sea lion pups (''Phocarctos hookeri'') were also affected in really early ages by hookworms (Uncinaria). The difference is that in New Zealand researchers took the necessary steps and began treatment.<ref name="EffectsOfHookworms">{{cite journal |last1=Chilvers |first1=B. L. |last2=Duignan |first2=P. J. |last3=Robertson |first3=B. C. |last4=Castinel |first4=A. |last5=Wilkinson |first5=I. S. |title=Effects of hookworms (''Uncinaria'' sp.) on the early growth and survival of New Zealand sea lion (''Phocarctos hookeri'') pups |journal=Polar Biology |date=February 2009 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=295–302 |doi=10.1007/s00300-008-0559-0 |bibcode=2009PoBio..32..295C |s2cid=10260797 }}</ref> The treatment seemed to be effective on the pups who have taken it. They found no traces of this infection afterwards. However, the percentage of pups who do have it is still relatively high at about 75%.<ref name="EffectsOfHookworms" /> Those pups who were treated had much better growth rates than those who did not. Overall parasites and hookworms are killing off enough pups to place them in endangerment. Parasites affect sea pups in various areas of the world. Reproductive success reduces immensely, survival methods, changes in health and growth have also been affected.
+Similarly, climate change has resulted in increased toxic algae blooms in the oceans. These toxins are ingested by sardines and other fish which are then eaten by the sea lions, causing neurological damage and diseases such as epilepsy.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Richtel|first=Matt|date=2020-10-08|title=Brain Surgery for a 'Sweet Boy': Saving Cronutt the Sea Lion|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/08/science/sea-lion-epilepsy-surgery-cronutt.html|access-date=2020-10-13|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 === Gene expressions and diet ===
-Diet is an important factor in the well-being of any animal’s life. Gene expressions are being used more often to detect the physiological responses to nutrition, as well as other stressors. In a study done with four Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), three of the four sea lions underwent  a 70-day trial which consisted of unrestricted food intake, acute nutritional stress, and chronic nutritional stress.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = A nutrigenomic approach to detect nutritional stress from gene expression in blood samples drawn from Steller sea lions|last = Spitz|first = Jerome|date = September 2015|journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A|doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.006|last2 = Becquet|first2 = Vanessa|last3 = Rosen|first3 = David A.S|last4 = Trites|first4 = Andrew W.|volume=187|pages=214–223}}</ref>  The results of this study showed that the sea lions with nutritional stress down-regulated some cellular processes within their immune response and oxidative stress.<ref name=":2" /> Sea lions get affected greatly due to environmental changes because of the dependency they have on marine resources for feeding.<ref name=":2" /> A reduced food supply leads to population decline. Compared to many other factors that contribute to an endangered species, nutritional stress is the most proximate cause to population decline.<ref name=":2" />
+Gene expressions are being used more often to detect the physiological responses to nutrition, as well as other stressors. In a study done with four Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), three of the four sea lions underwent a 70-day trial which consisted of unrestricted food intake, acute nutritional stress, and chronic nutritional stress. Results showed that individuals under nutritional stress down-regulated some cellular processes within their immune response and oxidative stress. Nutritional stress was considered the most proximate cause of population decline in this species.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = A nutrigenomic approach to detect nutritional stress from gene expression in blood samples drawn from Steller sea lions|last1 = Spitz|first1 = Jerome|date = September 2015|journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A|doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.02.006|pmid = 25700740|last2 = Becquet|first2 = Vanessa|last3 = Rosen|first3 = David A.S|last4 = Trites|first4 = Andrew W.|volume=187|pages=214–223}}</ref> In New Zealand sea lions, north-to south gradients driven by temperature differences were shown to be key factors in the prey mix.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Diet of New Zealand sea lions (''Phocarctos hookeri'') at their southern breeding limits|last1 = Roberts|first1 = J.|date = June 2015|journal = Polar Biology|doi = 10.1007/s00300-015-1710-3|last2 = Lalas|first2 = C.|volume=38|issue = 9|pages=1483–1491| bibcode=2015PoBio..38.1483R |s2cid = 7836909}}</ref> Adult California sea lions eat about 5% to 8% of their body weight per day ({{cvt|15|-|40|lb}}).{{cn|date=October 2022}}
+California sea lions feed mainly offshore in coastal areas. They eat a variety of prey—such as squid, anchovies, mackerel, rockfish, and sardines—found in upwelling areas. They also may take fish from commercial fishing gear, sport fishing lines, and fish passage facilities at dams and rivers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=California Sea Lion |language=en-US|website=[[NOAA]]|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/california-sea-lion/overview|access-date=2024-01-06}}</ref>
-The New Zealand sea lion has the largest population, therefore no diet studies had ever been conducted. However, when a study was finally conducted the location and climate change effects it had on diet were discovered.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Diet of New Zealand sea lions (''Phocarctos hookeri'') at their southern breeding limits|last = Roberts|first = J.|date = June 2015|journal = Polar Biology|doi = 10.1007/s00300-015-1710-3|last2 = Lalas|first2 = C.|volume=38|issue = 9|pages=1483–1491}}</ref> North to south composition of a sea lion's diet showed that the temperature gradients were a key factor in the prey mix that was available for the NZ sea lions.<ref name=":3" />
 === Geographic variation ===
@@ Line 73: / Line 77: @@
  | footer=The [[Australian sea lion]] vs. the [[Steller sea lion]]
 }}
-Geographic variation for sea lions have been determined by the observations of skulls of several Otariidae species; a general change in size corresponds with a change in latitude and primary productivity. Skulls of Australian sea lions from Western Australia were generally smaller in length whereas the largest skulls are from cool temperate localities. Otariidae are in the process of species divergence, much of which may be driven by local factors, particularly latitude and resources.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|title = Geographic variation in skull characters of fur seals and sea lions (family Otariidae)|journal = Australian Journal of Zoology|volume = 50|issue = 4|pages = 415|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230822658_Geographic_variation_in_skull_characters_of_fur_seals_and_sea_lions_(family_Otariidae)|doi = 10.1071/ZO01056|year = 2002|last1 = Brunner|first1 = S.|last2 = Shaughnessy|first2 = P. D.|last3 = Bryden|first3 = M. M.}}</ref> Populations of a given species tend to be smaller in the tropics, increase in size with increasing latitude, and reach a maximum in sub-polar regions. In a cool climate and cold waters there should be a selective advantage in the relative reduction of body surface area resulting from increased size, since the metabolic rate is related more closely to body surface area than to body weight.<ref name=":1" />
+Geographic variation for sea lions have been determined by the observations of skulls of several Otariidae species; a general change in size corresponds with a change in latitude and primary productivity. Skulls of Australian sea lions from Western Australia were generally smaller in length whereas the largest skulls are from cool temperate localities. Otariidae are in the process of species divergence, much of which may be driven by local factors, particularly latitude and resources.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|title = Geographic variation in skull characters of fur seals and sea lions (family Otariidae)|journal = Australian Journal of Zoology|volume = 50|issue = 4|pages = 415|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230822658|doi = 10.1071/ZO01056|year = 2002|last1 = Brunner|first1 = S.|last2 = Shaughnessy|first2 = P. D.|last3 = Bryden|first3 = M. M.}}</ref> Populations of a given species tend to be smaller in the tropics, increase in size with increasing latitude, and reach a maximum in sub-polar regions. In a cool climate and cold waters there should be a selective advantage in the relative reduction of body surface area resulting from increased size, since the metabolic rate is related more closely to body surface area than to body weight.<ref name=":1" />
 == Breeding and population ==
@@ Line 79: / Line 83: @@
 === Breeding methods and habits ===
 [[File:Two sea lions on the beach of Otago Peninsula.jpg|thumb|Two sea lions on the beach of Otago Peninsula, New Zealand]]
-Sea lions, with three groups of pinnipeds, have multiple breeding methods and habits over their families but they remain relatively universal. Otariids, or eared sea lions, raise their young, mate, and rest in more earthly land or ice habitats. Their abundance and haul-out behavior have a direct effect on their on land breeding activity. Their seasonal abundance trend correlates with their breeding period between the austral summer of January to March. Their rookeries populate with newborn pups as well as male and female otariids that remain to defend their territories. At the end of the breeding period males disseminate for food and rest while females remain for nurturing. Other points in the year consist of a mix of ages and genders in the rookeries with haul-out patterns varying monthly.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.revbiolmar.cl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=888%3A205-220-&catid=972&lang=en|title = Annual, seasonal and daily variation in the abundance of the South American sea lion ''Otaria flavescens'' in two breeding colonies in northern Chile|last = Sepúlveda|first = Maritza|date = August 2015|journal = Revista De Biologia Marina Y Oceanografia|doi = 10.4067/S0718-19572015000300001|issue = 2|volume = 50|pages = 205–220}}</ref>
+Sea lions, with three groups of pinnipeds, have multiple breeding methods and habits over their families but they remain relatively universal. Otariids, or eared sea lions, raise their young, mate, and rest in more earthly land or ice habitats. Their abundance and haul-out behavior have a direct effect on their on land breeding activity. Their seasonal abundance trend correlates with their breeding period between the austral summer of January to March. Their rookeries populate with newborn pups as well as male and female otariids that remain to defend their territories. At the end of the breeding period males disseminate for food and rest while females remain for nurturing. Other points in the year consist of a mix of ages and genders in the rookeries with haul-out patterns varying monthly.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5232329.pdf|title = Annual, seasonal and daily variation in the abundance of the South American sea lion ''Otaria flavescens'' in two breeding colonies in northern Chile|last = Sepúlveda|first = Maritza|date = August 2015|journal = Revista de Biologia Marina y Oceanografia|doi = 10.4067/S0718-19572015000300001|issue = 2|volume = 50|pages = 205–220|doi-access = free}}</ref>
-Steller sea lions, living an average of 15 to 20 years, begin their breeding season when adult males establish territories along the rookeries in early May. Male sea lions reach sexual maturity from ages 5 to 7 and don’t become territorial until around 9 to 13 years of age. The females arrive in late May bringing in an increase of territorial defense through fighting and boundary displays. After a week births consist most usually of one pup with a perinatal period of 3 to 13 days.
+Steller sea lions, living an average of 15 to 20 years, begin their breeding season when adult males establish territories along the rookeries in early May. Male sea lions reach sexual maturity from ages 5 to 7 and do not become territorial until around 9 to 13 years of age. The females arrive in late May bringing in an increase of territorial defense through fighting and boundary displays. After a week births consist most usually of one pup with a perinatal period of 3 to 13 days.
-Steller sea lions have exhibited multiple competitive strategies for reproductive success. Sea lion mating is often polygamous as males usually mate with different females to increase fitness and success, leaving some males to not find a mate at all. Polygamous males rarely provide parental care towards the pup. Strategies used to monopolize females include the resource-defense polygyny, or occupying important female resources. This involves occupying and defending a territory with resources or features attractive to females during sexually receptive periods. Some of these factors may include pupping habitat and access to water. Other techniques include potentially limiting access of other males to females.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1139/cjz-2013-0099|title = A long-term study reveals multiple reproductive behavior strategies among territorial adult male Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|last = Parker|first = Pamela|date = 20 March 2014|journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology|doi = 10.1139/cjz-2013-0099|issue = 5|volume = 92|pages = 405–415|last2 = Maniscalco|first2 = John, M.}}</ref>
+Steller sea lions have exhibited multiple competitive strategies for reproductive success. Sea lion mating is often polygamous as males usually mate with different females to increase fitness and success, leaving some males to not find a mate at all. Polygamous males rarely provide parental care towards the pup. Strategies used to monopolize females include the resource-defense polygyny, or occupying important female resources. This involves occupying and defending a territory with resources or features attractive to females during sexually receptive periods. Some of these factors may include pupping habitat and access to water. Other techniques include potentially limiting access of other males to females.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A long-term study reveals multiple reproductive behavior strategies among territorial adult male Steller sea lions (''Eumetopias jubatus'')|last1 = Parker|first1 = Pamela|date = 20 March 2014|journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology|doi = 10.1139/cjz-2013-0099|issue = 5|volume = 92|pages = 405–415|last2 = Maniscalco|first2 = John, M.}}</ref>
 === Population ===
-''Otaria flavescens'' (South American sea lion) lives along the Chilean coast with a population estimate of 165,000. According to the most recent surveys in northern and southern Chile the sealing period of the middle twentieth century that left a significant decline in sea lion population is recovering. The recovery is associated with less hunting, otariids rapid population growth, legislation on nature reserves, and new food resources. Haul-out patterns change the abundance of sea lions at particular times of the day, month, and year. Patterns in migration relate to temperature, solar radiation, and prey and water resources. Studies of South American sea lions and other otariids document maximum population on land during early afternoon, potentially due to haul-out during high air temperatures. Adult and subadult males do not show clear annual patterns, maximum abundance being found from October to January. Females and their pups hauled-out during austral winter months of June to September.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.revbiolmar.cl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=888%3A205-220-&catid=972&lang=en|title = Annual, seasonal and daily variation in the abundance of the South American sea lion ''Otaria flavescens'' in two breeding colonies in northern Chile|last = Sepulveda|first = Maritza|date = August 2015|journal = Revista De Biologia Marina Y Oceanografia|doi = 10.4067/S0718-19572015000300001|pmid = |access-date = 29 October 2015|volume = 50|issue = 2|pages = 205–220}}</ref>
+''Otaria flavescens'' (South American sea lion) lives along the Chilean coast with a population estimate of 165,000. According to the most recent surveys in northern and southern Chile the sealing period of the middle twentieth century that left a significant decline in sea lion population is recovering. The recovery is associated with less hunting, otariids rapid population growth, legislation on nature reserves, and new food resources. Haul-out patterns change the abundance of sea lions at particular times of the day, month, and year. Patterns in migration relate to temperature, solar radiation, and prey and water resources. Studies of South American sea lions and other otariids document maximum population on land during early afternoon, potentially due to haul-out during high air temperatures. Adult and subadult males do not show clear annual patterns, maximum abundance being found from October to January. Females and their pups hauled-out during austral winter months of June to September.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5232329.pdf|title = Annual, seasonal and daily variation in the abundance of the South American sea lion ''Otaria flavescens'' in two breeding colonies in northern Chile|last = Sepulveda|first = Maritza|date = August 2015|journal = Revista de Biologia Marina y Oceanografia|doi = 10.4067/S0718-19572015000300001|access-date = 29 October 2015|volume = 50|issue = 2|pages = 205–220|doi-access = free}}</ref>
 == Interactions with humans ==
+[[File:Sea lions entertaining crowd in Central Park Zoo, New York City 2.jpg|thumb|Sea lions entertain a crowd in [[Central Park Zoo]]]]South American sea lions have been greatly impacted by human exploitation. During the late [[Holocene]] period to the middle of the twentieth century, [[hunter-gatherers]] along the [[Beagle Channel]] and northern [[Patagonia]] had greatly reduced the number of sea lions due to their hunting of the species and exploitation of the species' environment.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = Shifting niches of marine predators due to human exploitation: the diet of the South American sea lion (''Otaria flavescens'') since the late Holocene as a case study|journal = Paleobiology|date = 1 June 2015|issn = 1938-5331|pages = 387–401|volume = 41|issue = 3|doi = 10.1017/pab.2015.9|first1 = Lisette|last1 = Zenteno|first2 = Florencia|last2 = Borella|first3 = Julieta Gómez|last3 = Otero|first4 = Ernesto|last4 = Piana|first5 = Juan Bautista|last5 = Belardi|first6 = Luis Alberto|last6 = Borrero|first7 = Fabiana|last7 = Saporiti|first8 = Luis|last8 = Cardona|first9 = Enrique|last9 = Crespo| bibcode=2015Pbio...41..387Z |s2cid = 86469393}}</ref> Although [[seal hunting|sealing]] has been put to a halt, in many countries, such as [[Uruguay]], the sea lion population continues to decline because of the drastic effects humans have on their ecosystems.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, South American sea lions have been foraging at higher tropical latitudes than they did prior to human exploitation.<ref name=":4" /> Fishermen play a key role in the endangerment of sea lions. Sea lions rely on fish, like pollock, as a food source and have to compete with fishermen for it.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title = Why do People Care about Sea Lions? A Fishing Game to Study the Value of Endangered Species|journal = Environmental and Resource Economics|date = 12 December 2013|issn = 0924-6460|pages = 503–523|volume = 59|issue = 4|doi = 10.1007/s10640-013-9746-8|first1 = Min|last1 = Gong|first2 = Geoffrey|last2 = Heal|s2cid = 154083833}}</ref> When fishermen are successful at their job, they greatly reduce the sea lion's food source, which in turn endangers the species.<ref name=":5" /> Also, human presence and human recreational activities can cause sea lions to engage in violent and aggressive actions.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|title = Human impacts on Australian sea lions, Neophoca cinerea, hauled out on Carnac Island (Perth, Western Australia): implications for wildlife and tourism management|url = http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/238/|website = researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au|date = 1 January 2004|access-date = 30 October 2015|first = Orsini|last = Jean-Paul}}</ref> When humans come closer than 15 meters of a sea lion, the sea lions' vigilance increases because of the disturbance of humans.<ref name=":6" /> These disturbances can potentially cause sea lions to have psychological stress responses that cause the sea lions to retreat, sometimes even abandon their locations, and decreases the amount of time sea lions spend hauling out.<ref name=":6" /> [[File:Cal Sea Lions on Pier 39.JPG|thumb|Hundreds of [[California sea lion]]s congregating at [[Pier 39]], [[San Francisco]]]]
-[[File:California sea lion ZOO Antwerp.jpg|thumb|left|California sea lion at ZOO Antwerp]]
-[[File:Sea lions entertaining crowd in Central Park Zoo, New York City 2.jpg|thumb|Sea lions entertaining a crowd in [[Central Park Zoo]].]]South American sea lions have been greatly impacted by human exploitation. During the late Holocene period to the middle of the twentieth century, hunter gatherers along the Beagle Channel and northern Patagonia had greatly reduced the number of sea lions due to their exploiting and hunting of the species and of the species’ environment.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = Shifting niches of marine predators due to human exploitation: the diet of the South American sea lion (''Otaria flavescens'') since the late Holocene as a case study|journal = Paleobiology|date = 1 June 2015|issn = 1938-5331|pages = 387–401|volume = 41|issue = 3|doi = 10.1017/pab.2015.9|first = Lisette|last = Zenteno|first2 = Florencia|last2 = Borella|first3 = Julieta Gómez|last3 = Otero|first4 = Ernesto|last4 = Piana|first5 = Juan Bautista|last5 = Belardi|first6 = Luis Alberto|last6 = Borrero|first7 = Fabiana|last7 = Saporiti|first8 = Luis|last8 = Cardona|first9 = Enrique|last9 = Crespo}}</ref>  Although sealing has been put to a halt in many countries, such as Uruguay, the sea lion population continues to decline because of the drastic effects humans have on their ecosystems.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, South American sea lions have been foraging at higher tropical latitudes than they did prior to human exploitation.<ref name=":4" />
+New Zealand sea lions were also exploited from hunting and sealing, and as a result were [[Local extinction|extirpated]] from New Zealand's mainland for over 150 years, with their population being restricted to the subantarctic.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Childerhouse|first1=Simon|last2=Gales|first2=Nick|date=1998-01-01|title=Historical and modern distribution and abundance of the New Zealand sea lion Phocarctos hookeri|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03014223.1998.9518131|journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1080/03014223.1998.9518131|issn=0301-4223|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 1993, a female New Zealand sea lion gave birth on the mainland for the first time, and since then, they have slowly been recolonizing.<ref name=":11" /> These sea lions are the only pinnipeds that regularly move up to {{Convert|2|km|mi}} inland into forests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Augé|first1=Amélie|last2=Chilvers|last3=Moore|last4=Mathieu|last5=Robertson|date=2009-01-01|title=Aggregation and dispersion of female New Zealand sea lions at the Sandy Bay breeding colony, Auckland Islands: How unusual is their spatial behaviour?|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/146/9/article-p1287_7.xml|journal=Behaviour|language=en|volume=146|issue=9|pages=1287–1311|doi=10.1163/15683909X427687|issn=0005-7959|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Augé|first1=Amélie A.|last2=Chilvers|first2=B. Louise|last3=Mathieu|first3=Renaud|last4=Moore|first4=Antoni B.|date=2012|title=On-land habitat preferences of female New Zealand sea lions at Sandy Bay, Auckland Islands|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2011.00515.x|journal=Marine Mammal Science|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=620–637|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2011.00515.x|bibcode=2012MMamS..28..620A |issn=1748-7692|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frans|first1=Veronica F.|last2=Augé|first2=Amélie A.|last3=Edelhoff|first3=Hendrik|last4=Erasmi|first4=Stefan|last5=Balkenhol|first5=Niko|last6=Engler|first6=Jan O.|date=2018|title=Quantifying apart what belongs together: A multi-state species distribution modelling framework for species using distinct habitats|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=98–108|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12847|s2cid=91050320|issn=2041-210X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018MEcEv...9...98F }}</ref> As consequence, they have been hit by cars on roads, deliberately killed, and been disturbed by dogs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jim|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/conservation/native-animals/marine-mammals/nz-sea-lion-tmp/reivew-sea-lion-threats-2015.pdf|title=Review of threats to the recovery of NZ sea lions and other otariid species|publisher=National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd|year=2015|location=Wellington|pages=11–14}}</ref> Females need to move inland as a way to protect their pups, so roads, fences, residential areas, and private lands can inhibit their dispersal and breeding success.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Frans|first1=Veronica F.|last2=Augé|first2=Amélie A.|last3=Fyfe|first3=Jim|last4=Zhang|first4=Yuqian|last5=McNally|first5=Nathan|last6=Edelhoff|first6=Hendrik|last7=Balkenhol|first7=Niko|last8=Engler|first8=Jan O.|title=Integrated SDM database: Enhancing the relevance and utility of species distribution models in conservation management|url=https://publications.goettingen-research-online.de/bitstream/2/94362/1/Methods%20Ecol%20Evol%20-%202021%20-%20Frans%20-%20Integrated%20SDM%20database%20Enhancing%20the%20relevance%20and%20utility%20of%20species%20distribution.pdf|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|year=2022|volume=13|issue=1 |pages=243–261|language=en|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.13736|bibcode=2022MEcEv..13..243F |s2cid=243893898|issn=2041-210X}}</ref> They have also adapted to commercial pine forests,<ref name=":12" /> and have given birth or nursed pups in residents' backyards and on golf courses.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-14|title=New Zealand city closes busy road for weeks to protect sea lion mother and pup|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/14/new-zealand-city-closes-busy-road-to-protect-sea-lion-mother-and-pup|access-date=2021-11-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> As one of the world's rarest sea lions, and an endangered and endemic species, efforts are being made to facilitate coexistence between them and humans.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Graham-McLay|first=Charlotte|date=2021-11-09|title=New Zealand's Sea Lions Are Back, and Crashing Golf Courses and Soccer Matches|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/09/science/new-zealand-sea-lions.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/09/science/new-zealand-sea-lions.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|access-date=2021-11-22|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title='Cheeky' sea lions are returning to New Zealand's shores — and locals are learning to share the coast|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/11/13/new-zealand-sealions-return-study/|access-date=2021-11-22|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
-Fishermen play a key role in the endangerment of sea lions. Sea lions rely on fish, like pollock, as a food source and have to compete with fishermen  for it.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title = Why do People Care about Sea Lions? A Fishing Game to Study the Value of Endangered Species|journal = Environmental and Resource Economics|date = 12 December 2013|issn = 0924-6460|pages = 503–523|volume = 59|issue = 4|doi = 10.1007/s10640-013-9746-8|first = Min|last = Gong|first2 = Geoffrey|last2 = Heal}}</ref> When fishermen are successful at their job, they greatly reduce the sea lion’s food source, which in turn endangers the species.<ref name=":5" /> Also, human presence and human recreational activities can cause sea lions to engage in violent and aggressive actions.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|title = Human impacts on Australian sea lions, Neophoca cinerea, hauled out on Carnac Island (Perth, Western Australia): implications for wildlife and tourism management|url = http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/238/|website = researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au|date = 1 January 2004|accessdate = 30 October 2015|first = Orsini,|last = Jean-Paul}}</ref> When humans come closer than 15 meters of a sea lion, the sea lions' vigilance increases because of the disturbance of humans.<ref name=":6" /> These disturbances can potentially cause sea lions to have psychological stress responses that cause the sea lions to retreat, sometimes even abandon their locations, and decreases the amount of time sea lions spend hauling out.<ref name=":6" /> [[File:Cal Sea Lions on Pier 39.JPG|thumb|Hundreds of [[California sea lion]]s congregating at [[Pier 39]], [[San Francisco]]]]
-Sea lion attacks on humans are rare, but when humans come within approximately 2.5 meters, it can be very unsafe.<ref name=":6" /> In a highly unusual attack in 2007 in [[Western Australia]], a sea lion leapt from the water and seriously mauled a 13-year-old girl surfing behind a speedboat. The sea lion appeared to be preparing for a second attack when the girl was rescued. An Australian marine biologist suggested that the sea lion may have viewed the girl "like a rag doll toy" to be played with.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6556895.stm Sea lion attacks Australian girl]. BBC News (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2016-05-09.</ref><ref>Hayward, Andrea (15 April 2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070519221540/http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21560487-2,00.html Monster sea lion likely to be 'playing' with teen]. news.com.au</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071030001559/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,21557673-953,00.html Sea lion mauls girl]. News.com.au (15 April 2007).</ref> In [[San Francisco]], where an increasingly large population of [[California sea lion]]s crowds docks along San Francisco Bay, incidents have been reported in recent years of swimmers being bitten on the legs by large, aggressive males, possibly as [[territory (animal)|territorial acts]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/16/MNGMFMDVGC1.DTL&hw=sea+lion&sn=011&sc=518 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | first=Jane | last=Kay | title=Rogue sea lion in S.F. menaces swimmers / Marauding mammal bites at least 14, chases 10 from Aquatic Park Lagoon | date=24 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Harrell, Ashley |url=http://www.sfweekly.com/2009-10-07/news/too-cute-to-shoot/ |title=Too Cute to Shoot? – Page 1 – News – San Francisco |publisher=SF Weekly |date=7 October 2009 |accessdate=28 June 2012}}</ref> In April 2015, a sea lion attacked a 62-year-old man who was boating with his wife in [[San Diego]]. The attack left the man with a punctured bone.<ref>{{cite web|title = Sea lion attacks San Diego man posing for photo, yanks him overboard|url = http://www.cbsnews.com/news/sea-lion-attacks-san-diego-man-posing-for-photo-yanks-him-overboard/|website = www.cbsnews.com|date = 30 April 2015}}</ref> In May 2017, a sea lion dragged a small girl into the water by her dress. She was sitting on a pier side in [[British Columbia]] while tourists were illegally feeding the sea lions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2017/05/21/video-shows-the-terrifying-moment-a-sea-lion-yanks-a-girl-into-the-water/|title=Video shows the terrifying moment a sea lion yanks a girl into the water|website=Washington Post|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref> She was pulled out of the water with minor injuries and received antibiotic prophylactic treatment for [[seal finger]] infection from the superficial bite injury.<ref>{{cite news |title=Steveston Sea Lion Video: Girl Grabbed By Animal Treated For Superficial Wound |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/05/23/residents-blame-sea-lion-incident-on-people-not-the-animal-or-harbour-authority_n_16775688.html |accessdate=20 September 2018 |work=HuffPost Canada |date=23 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40056576|title=Sea lion attack: Girl treated over 'seal finger' risk|date=2017-05-26|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-05-26|language=en-GB}}</ref>
+Sea lion attacks on humans are rare, but when humans come within approximately {{convert|2.5| meters|ft|0}}, it can be very unsafe.<ref name=":6" /> In a highly unusual attack in 2007 in [[Western Australia]], a sea lion leapt from the water and seriously mauled a 13-year-old girl surfing behind a speedboat. The sea lion appeared to be preparing for a second attack when the girl was rescued. An Australian marine biologist suggested that the sea lion may have viewed the girl "like a rag doll toy" to be played with.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6556895.stm Sea lion attacks Australian girl]. BBC News (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2016-05-09.</ref><ref>Hayward, Andrea (15 April 2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070519221540/http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21560487-2,00.html Monster sea lion likely to be 'playing' with teen]. news.com.au</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071030001559/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,21557673-953,00.html Sea lion mauls girl]. News.com.au (15 April 2007).</ref> In [[San Francisco]], where an increasingly large population of [[California sea lion]]s crowds docks along San Francisco Bay, incidents have been reported in recent years of swimmers being bitten on the legs by large, aggressive males, possibly as [[territory (animal)|territorial acts]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/16/MNGMFMDVGC1.DTL&hw=sea+lion&sn=011&sc=518 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | first=Jane | last=Kay | title=Rogue sea lion in S.F. menaces swimmers / Marauding mammal bites at least 14, chases 10 from Aquatic Park Lagoon | date=24 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Harrell, Ashley |url=http://www.sfweekly.com/2009-10-07/news/too-cute-to-shoot/ |title=Too Cute to Shoot? – Page 1 – News – San Francisco |newspaper=SF Weekly |date=7 October 2009 |access-date=28 June 2012 |archive-date=10 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810041018/http://www.sfweekly.com/2009-10-07/news/too-cute-to-shoot/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In April 2015, a sea lion attacked a 62-year-old man who was boating with his wife in [[San Diego]]. The attack left the man with a punctured bone.<ref>{{cite web|title = Sea lion attacks San Diego man posing for photo, yanks him overboard|url = http://www.cbsnews.com/news/sea-lion-attacks-san-diego-man-posing-for-photo-yanks-him-overboard/|website = www.cbsnews.com|date = 30 April 2015}}</ref> In May 2017, a sea lion grabbed and pulled a girl into the water by her dress before retreating.  The child was sitting on a pier side in [[British Columbia]] while tourists were illegally feeding the sea lions when the incident took place.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2017/05/21/video-shows-the-terrifying-moment-a-sea-lion-yanks-a-girl-into-the-water/|title=Video shows the terrifying moment a sea lion yanks a girl into the water|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref> She was pulled out of the water with minor injuries and received antibiotic prophylactic treatment for [[seal finger]] infection from the superficial bite injury.<ref>{{cite news |title=Steveston Sea Lion Video: Girl Grabbed By Animal Treated For Superficial Wound |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/05/23/residents-blame-sea-lion-incident-on-people-not-the-animal-or-harbour-authority_n_16775688.html |access-date=20 September 2018 |work=HuffPost Canada |date=23 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40056576|title=Sea lion attack: Girl treated over 'seal finger' risk|date=2017-05-26|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-05-26|language=en-GB}}</ref>
+There have also been documented events of sea lions assisting humans. One such notable instance of this is when [[Kevin Hines]] jumped off the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] in a suicide attempt and was helped to stay afloat by a sea lion until he was rescued by the [[Coast guard|Coast Guard]].<ref name="sealion">{{cite news |last=Bergeron |first=Ryan |date=2019-08-12 |title=He jumped off the Golden Gate Bridge and survived. Now, he's seeing his wish for a safety net come true |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/09/health/turning-points-kevin-hines-golden-gate-bridge-suicide-survivor/ |accessdate=2019-08-17}}</ref>
-Sea lions have also been the main focus of tourism in Australia and New Zealand.<ref name=":6" /> One of the main sites to view sea lions is in the [[Carnac Island]] Nature Reserve near [[Perth]] in Western Australia. This tourist site receives over 100,000 visitors, many of whom are recreational boaters and tourists, who can watch the male sea lions haul out on to the shore.<ref name=":6" /> They have sometimes been called "the unofficial welcoming committee of the [[Galápagos Islands]]".<ref name="Bret Love">"In the Galapagos Islands they’re so ubiquitous that they run the risk of being taken for granted. Here, you can find this unofficial welcoming committee almost everywhere"</ref>
+Sea lions have also been a focus of tourism in Australia and New Zealand.<ref name=":6" /> One of the main sites to view sea lions is in the [[Carnac Island]] Nature Reserve near [[Perth]] in Western Australia. This tourist site receives over 100,000 visitors, many of whom are recreational boaters and tourists, who can watch the male sea lions haul out on to the shore.<ref name=":6" /> They have sometimes been called "the unofficial welcoming committee of the [[Galápagos Islands]]".<ref name="Bret Love">"In the Galapagos Islands they’re so ubiquitous that they run the risk of being taken for granted. Here, you can find this unofficial welcoming committee almost everywhere"</ref>
-==In popular culture==
-*The 1994 film ''[[Andre (film)|Andre]]'' features a sea lion named Andre.
-*The 2016 film ''[[Finding Dory]]'' features Fluke, Rudder and Gerald who are sea lions.
-*A 2014 comic by ''[[Wondermark]]'' featured a talking sea lion confronting a human he overheard saying she hated sea lions. The sea lion follows her and her companion home, continually asking for an explanation. The comic went viral and spawned the term "sea lioning"- repeatedly asking for an explanation (assumedly in bad faith) of previous comments.<ref>{{cite web | last=Malki | first=David | title=Wondermark #1062 | accessdate=2016-10-31 | url=http://wondermark.com/1k62/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://simplikation.com/why-sealioning-is-bad/|title= Why Sealioning Is Bad|author=Tegiminis|date= 2014-11-20 |website= Simplikation.com |access-date= 2016-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Malki | first=David | title="Sea Lion" Has Been Verbed | accessdate=2016-10-31 | url=http://wondermark.com/sea-lion-verb/}}</ref>
 ==Gallery==
@@ Line 129: / Line 128: @@
 ==See also==
-*[[California sea lion]]
-*[[Marine mammal]]
 *[[List of carnivorans by population]]
-*[[Otariids]]
-*[[Phocids]]
-*[[Pinniped]]
 ==References==
@@ Line 141: / Line 135: @@
 ==Further reading==
 {{Commons|Otariidae}}
-{{Wikinews|Sea lion walks from beach into Pantai Inn in California}}
 {{Wikispecies|Otariidae}}
 * Healy, Jack (March 2015). [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/us/starving-sea-lions-washing-ashore-by-the-hundreds-in-california.html?_r=0 Starving Sea Lions Washing Ashore by the Hundreds in California].  ''The New York Times''
 {{Carnivora|C1.}}
+{{Pan-Pinnipedia|O.|state=autocollapse}}
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q3887135}}
 {{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Otariinae| Sea lion]]
+[[Category:Paraphyletic groups]]
+[[Category:Mammal common names]]
+[[Category:Fur trade]]