Battle of Tippecanoe: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|1811 battle of Tecumseh's War}} |
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{{Featured article}} |
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{{Infobox military conflict |
{{Infobox military conflict |
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| conflict = Battle of Tippecanoe |
| conflict = Battle of Tippecanoe |
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| partof = [[American Indian Wars]] and [[Tecumseh's War]] |
| partof = [[American Indian Wars]] and [[Tecumseh's War]] |
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| image = Tippecanoe.jpg |
| image = Battle of Tippecanoe LCCN2003656861.jpg |
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| image_size = 300px |
| image_size = 300px |
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| caption = 19th-century depiction by [[ |
| caption = 19th-century depiction by [[Kurz and Allison]], American troops under the leadership of General William Henry Harrison fighting the Indian forces of The Prophet, Tenskwatawa (the brother of Tecumseh) in a forest. |
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| date = November 7, 1811 |
| date = November 7, 1811 |
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| place = Near [[Battle Ground, Indiana|Battle Ground]], [[Tippecanoe County, Indiana]] |
| place = Near [[Battle Ground, Indiana|Battle Ground]], [[Tippecanoe County, Indiana]] |
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| map_type = USA Indiana#USA |
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| result = United States tactical victory<ref>Tunnell p.xvi</ref> |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|40|30|25|N|86|50|38|W|display=it}} |
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| map_relief = 1 |
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| result = United States victory |
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| combatant1 = [[Tecumseh's Confederacy]] |
| combatant1 = [[Tecumseh's Confederacy]] |
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| combatant2 = |
| combatant2 = [[United States]] |
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| commander1 = [[Tenskwatawa]] |
| commander1 = [[Tenskwatawa]] |
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| commander2 = |
| commander2 = [[William Henry Harrison]] |
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| strength1 = 500–700 [[warrior]]s |
| strength1 = 500–700 [[warrior]]s |
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| strength2 = 250 infantry,<br />90 cavalry,<br/>700 militia |
| strength2 = 250 infantry,<br />90 cavalry,<br />700 militia |
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| casualties1 = Unknown <br/> Estimated 50–65 killed and 70–80 wounded |
| casualties1 = Unknown <br />36 known dead (Estimated 50–65 killed and 70–80 wounded)+ 1 POW |
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| casualties2 = |
| casualties2 = 62 killed,<br />126 wounded |
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| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox War of 1812: Old Northwest}} |
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox War of 1812: Old Northwest}} |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''Battle of Tippecanoe''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɪ|p| |
The '''Battle of Tippecanoe''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɪ|p|ə|k|ə|ˈ|n|uː}} {{respell|TIP|ə|kə|NOO}}) was fought on November 7, 1811, in [[Battle Ground, Indiana]], between [[United States Armed Forces|American forces]] led by then Governor [[William Henry Harrison]] of the [[Indiana Territory]] and tribal forces associated with [[Shawnee]] leader [[Tecumseh]] and his brother [[Tenskwatawa]] (commonly known as "The Prophet"), leaders of a [[Tecumseh's Confederacy|confederacy of various tribes]] who opposed [[European Americans|European-American]] settlement of the [[American frontier]]. As tensions and violence increased, Governor Harrison marched with an army of about 1,000 men to attack the confederacy's headquarters at [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]], near the confluence of the [[Tippecanoe River]] and the [[Wabash River]]. |
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Tecumseh was not yet ready to oppose the United States by force and was away recruiting allies when Harrison's army arrived. Tenskwatawa was a spiritual leader but not a military man, and he was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day. Early the next morning |
Tecumseh was not yet ready to oppose the [[United States]] by force and was away recruiting allies when Harrison's army arrived. Tenskwatawa was a spiritual leader but not a military man, and he was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day. Early the next morning warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrison's army. They took the army by surprise, but Harrison and his men stood their ground for more than two hours. After the battle, Harrison's men burned Prophetstown to the ground, destroying the food supplies stored for the winter. The soldiers then returned to their homes. |
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Harrison accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown |
Harrison accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown. The win proved decisive and garnered Harrison the nickname of "Tippecanoe". Meanwhile, the defeat dealt a fatal blow for Tecumseh's confederacy and, though comeback attempts were made, it never fully recovered.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Blaine T. Brownell |author2=Robert C. Cottrell |title=Lives and Times: Individuals and Issues in American History: To 1877 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQW_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=130 |isbn=9781442205581}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Spencer C. Tucker |title=Battles That Changed American History: 100 of the Greatest Victories and Defeats |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMmUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |year=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=83 |isbn=9781440828621}}</ref> So popular was Harrison's nickname that the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]] turned "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too|Tippecanoe and Tyler too]]" into the slogan and a popular song for Harrison and his running mate [[John Tyler]]'s [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential campaign]]. |
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Americans blamed the violence on British interference in American affairs because they had supplied the Indians with financial support and ammunition. This led to a further deterioration of relations with Britain and was a catalyst of the [[War of 1812]], which began six months later. The US declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1812, and Tecumseh's confederacy was ready to launch its war against the United States in alliance with the British. In preparation, the Indians rebuilt Prophetstown. Frontier violence in the region continued until well after the War of 1812, although Tecumseh was killed in 1813 during the [[Battle of the Thames]]. |
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==Background== |
==Background== |
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{{Main|Tecumseh's War}} |
{{Main|Tecumseh's War}} |
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[[File:William Henry Harrison by Rembrandt Peale.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[William Henry Harrison]] as painted by [[Rembrandt Peale]] in 1814]] |
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[[William Henry Harrison]] was appointed governor of the newly formed [[Indiana Territory]] in 1800, and he sought to secure title to the area for settlement. In particular, he hoped that the Indiana Territory would attract enough settlers to qualify for statehood. He negotiated numerous land cession treaties with American Indians, including the [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)|Treaty of Fort Wayne]] on September 30, 1809 in which [[Miami people|Miami]], [[Pottawatomie]], [[Lenape]], and other tribal leaders sold 3,000,000 acres (approximately 12,000 km²) to the United States.<ref name = l164>Langguth, p. 164</ref><ref>Owens, p. 210</ref> |
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[[William Henry Harrison]] was appointed governor of the newly formed [[Indiana Territory]] in 1800, and he sought to secure title to the area for settlement.<ref>Tunnell, p. 13</ref> He negotiated land cession treaties with the [[Miami people|Miami]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Lenape]], and other tribes in which 3 million acres (approximately 12,000 km<sup>2</sup>) were acquired by the United States at the [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)|Treaty of Fort Wayne]],<ref>Owens, p. 206</ref> the second of such treaties after the earlier [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1803)|treaty of 1803]].<ref name = oxxiv>Owens, p. xxiv</ref> |
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[[Image:Tecumseh02.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tecumseh]] by Benson Lossing in 1848, based on an 1808 drawing]] |
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[[File:Shawnee Prophet, Tenskwatawa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tenskwatawa]] by [[Charles Bird King]], 1872]] |
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[[Tenskwatawa]] was known as the Prophet and had been leading a religious movement among the northwestern tribes, calling for a return to the ancestral ways. His brother [[Tecumseh]] was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, and he revived an idea advocated previously by [[Shawnee]] leader [[Blue Jacket]] and [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]], which stated that Indian land was owned in common by all tribes, and land could not be sold without agreement by all the tribes.<ref name = l164/><ref name = o211>Owens, p. 211</ref> |
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The leader of the Shawnee, [[Tecumseh]], opposed the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne.<ref name = oxxiv/> He believed that land was owned in common by all tribes; therefore specific parcels of lands could not be sold without full agreement from all the tribes.<ref name = o212>Owens, p. 212</ref> The previous generation [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]] advocated a similar philosophy and called for unification of tribes.<ref name = l164165>Langguth, pp. 164–165</ref> Tecumseh's younger brother [[Tenskwatawa]], known as the Prophet, was a spiritual leader among the northwestern tribes, advocating for a return to traditional ancestral ways.<ref name = l158ff>Langguth, pp. 158–159</ref><ref name = o211>Owens, p. 211</ref> Though Tecumseh resisted the 1809 treaty, he was reluctant to confront the United States directly. He traveled through tribal lands, urging warriors to abandon their chiefs to join his effort, threatening to kill chiefs and warriors who adhered to the terms of the treaty, building a resistance at [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]].<ref name = o212/><ref name = l164165>Langguth, pp. 164–165</ref> |
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Tecumseh was not ready to confront the United States directly, and he found that he was opposed by the Indian leaders who had signed the treaty. He threatened to kill anyone and their followers who carried out the terms of the treaty, and he traveled widely, urging warriors to abandon their chiefs and join his resistance at Prophetstown, insisting that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate.<ref name = l164165>Langguth, pp. 164–165</ref> He met with Governor Harrison in 1810 and demanded that Harrison nullify the treaty, and he warned that settlers should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Harrison rejected his demands and insisted that the tribes could have individual relations with the United States.<ref name = l165166>Langguth, pp. 165–166</ref> Tecumseh warned him that he would seek an alliance with the British if hostilities broke out.<ref>Langguth, p. 166</ref> |
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==Prelude== |
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Tensions had been high for several months between the United States and Britain as a result of British [[Origins of the War of 1812|interference in American commerce]] with France. As early as 1810, British agents had sought to secure an alliance with Indians to assist in the defense of Canada should hostilities break out, but the Indians had been reluctant to accept their offer, fearing that they had little to benefit from such an arrangement.<ref name = l164/> |
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In 1810, Tecumseh and Governor Harrison met at [[Grouseland]] (Harrison's Vincennes home). Tecumseh demanded nullification of the treaty and the lands returned to the tribes. Harrison insisted each tribe had individual and separate arrangements with the United States, ridiculing the idea of common ownership of lands.<ref name = l165166>Langguth, pp. 165–166</ref> Tecumseh stated his position clearly: he would serve the American loyally if the lands were returned; if not he would seek an alliance with the British.<ref>Langguth, p. 166</ref> As early as 1810, British agents had sought to secure an alliance with Tecumseh,<ref name = l164>Langguth, p. 164</ref> who was reluctant to ally with them because he recognized that they used the tribes to fight their wars on the frontier.<ref name = l165166/> Yet he travelled to Canada to meet with the British and Canadians in November 1810, after securing alliances with the [[Potawatomi]] and the [[Odawa]] as well as contacting the [[Iowa people|Iowa]].<ref>Jornter, p. 177</ref> |
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In August 1811, Tecumseh again met with Harrison at [[Vincennes, Indiana]], and he assured Harrison that the Shawnee brothers meant to remain at peace with the United States.<ref name = l165166/> Tecumseh then traveled to the Southeast on a mission to recruit allies among the "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]". Most of the southern tribes rejected his appeals, but a faction of the [[Creek people]] answered his call to arms and became known as the [[Red Sticks]]. They led the [[Creek War]], an internal war among factions that were divided over adoption of some American ways. This became a part of the War of 1812, as the Red Sticks opposed the United States.<ref name = l167>Langguth, p. 167</ref><ref>Owens, p. 212</ref> By contrast, the Creek of the Lower Towns were more integrated with American culture and supported the US against Britain. William Henry Harrison. |
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{{Multiple image|total_width=400 |
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|image1=Tecumseh02.jpg |
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|alt1= |
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|caption1=[[Tecumseh]] by Benson Lossing in 1848, based on an 1808 drawing |
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|image2=Shawnee Prophet, Tenskwatawa.jpg |
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|alt2= |
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|caption2=[[Tenskwatawa]] by [[Charles Bird King]], ca. 1820 |
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|image3=William Henry Harrison by Rembrandt Peale.jpg |
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|alt3= |
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|caption3= [[William Henry Harrison]] as painted by [[Rembrandt Peale]] in 1814 |
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}} |
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In the following year, Harrison blamed the Shawnee for the murder of a handful of men on the frontier and for the theft of a boatload of salt,<ref name = l167>Langguth, p. 167</ref> but more importantly sent a stream of letters to Washington requesting permission to move against them. He wrote, "In Indian warfare there is no security but in offensive measures."<ref name =j183/> He summoned Tecumseh to a meeting in the summer of 1811.<ref name = l167/> As before, Tecumseh presented himself as an eloquent speaker but the meeting proved unproductive.<ref name =j183>Jornter, p. 183</ref> Tecumseh informed Harrison he was leaving to recruit among the [[Muscogee]] and [[Choctaw]]s and asked to wait upon his return to commence settlement on the disputed lands.<ref>Jornter, p. 184</ref> He said he wanted "no mischief" during his absence, a plea he made to Harrison and Tenskwatawa.<ref name = o213/> |
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Harrison left the territory for business in Kentucky shortly after the meeting with Tecumseh, and secretary [[John Gibson (Indiana)|John Gibson]] was acting governor. Gibson had lived among the Miami tribe for many years and quickly learned of Tecumseh's plans for war. He immediately called out the territory's militia and sent emergency letters calling for the return of Harrison.<ref name = l167/> Most of the militia regiments had formed by mid-September and Harrison had returned, accompanied by a small force of army regulars, and he took command. He had already communicated with his superiors in Washington, D.C., and he was authorized to march against the confederacy in a show of force in the hopes that its members would accept peace.<ref name = l168>Langguth, p. 168</ref><ref name = o214>Owens, p. 214</ref> |
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Tenskwatawa stayed with the Shawnee who were camped at the [[Tippecanoe River|Tippecanoe]] in Prophetstown, a settlement that had grown to a few hundred structures and a sizable population.<ref name = o213>Owens, p. 213</ref> At the time of the battle, he had around 500 warriors available, although estimates range from 350 to 1,000.<ref>Winkler (2015), p. 34</ref> The [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]] under Mengoatowa, [[Potawatomi]] under [[Waubonsie]], and [[Ho-Chunk|Winnebago]] under Waweapakoosa were organized into large units of 125, with smaller units of [[Shawnee]], [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]] and other nations organized under [[Roundhead (Wyandot)|Roundhead]].<ref name=Winkler32>Winkler (2015), p. 32</ref> Harrison thought that Tecumseh's warriors were "the finest light infantry troops in the world,"<ref name=Winkler33>Winkler (2015), p. 33</ref> and later wrote to [[Charles Scott (governor)|Charles Scott]] that the confederation was better armed than most of his own force.<ref name=Winkler32 /> In addition to muskets, knives, tomahawks, and clubs, Tecumseh's forces were armed with spears in order to repel bayonet charges, which the U.S. used effectively at the 1794 [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]].<ref name=Winkler33 /> |
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Harrison gathered the scattered militia companies at Fort Knox<ref>"Fort Knox II", not [[Fort Knox]] in [[Kentucky]]</ref> near a settlement on Maria Creek north of Vincennes.<ref name="Funk 27">Funk, p. 27</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianamuseum.org/sites/vincfort.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818122110/http://indianamuseum.org/sites/vincfort.html|archivedate=2011-08-18|title=Fort Knox II|publisher=Indiana State Museum|year= 2009|accessdate= 2011-05-07}}</ref> He was joined by a 60-man company called the [[Yellow Jackets (Indiana)|Yellow Jackets]] from [[Corydon, Indiana]], named for their bright yellow coats, as well as the [[Indiana Rangers]].<ref group = note>The Indiana Rangers had been formed in the early days of the territory to protect the settlers from Indian raids, but they had seen little action in the previous five years.</ref> |
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Tenskwatawa's defenders had a communication barrier. Most nations spoke an [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] or [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]] language, and many could speak multiple languages within those groups. The large Winnebago force, however, spoke the [[Ho-Chunk language]] from the Siouan family, and required interpretation.<ref name=Winkler32 /> |
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The force of about 1,000 men set out north towards Prophetstown,<ref name="Funk 27"/> consisting of about 250 army regulars from the 4th US Infantry Regiment, 100 Kentucky volunteers, and nearly 600 Indiana militia, including two companies of the Indiana Rangers.<ref name = o214/> They reached [[Terre Haute, Indiana]] on October 3, where they camped and built [[Battle of Fort Harrison|Fort Harrison]] while waiting for supplies to be delivered. A scouting party of Yellow Jackets was ambushed by Indians on October 10, resulting in several casualties. The Americans stopped foraging, and supplies quickly began to run low. By October 19, officers cut the rations, and the men survived on low rations until October 28, when fresh supplies arrived via the [[Wabash River]] from Vincennes. With the army resupplied, Harrison resumed his advance to Prophetstown on October 29.<ref>Funk, p. 28</ref><ref>Owens, p. 216</ref> |
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Harrison believed military force the only solution towards militant tribes. Secretary of War [[William Eustis]] sent orders to preserve peace with the Native Americans, but went on to say, "but if the Prophet should commence, or seriously threaten, hostilities he ought to be attacked."<ref name =j183/> Harrison sent a series of letters to Tenskwatawa with a number of demands. He accused Tenskwatawa's followers of murdering whites in Illinois (almost certainly the work of [[Main Poc]] and his Potawatomi); ordered non-Shawnee residents banned from Prophetstown; and accused the Shawnee of horse theft. Tenskwatawa replied that the horses would be returned but failed to address the other demands.<ref>Cave, pp. 116–118</ref> Harrison started raising troops. About 400 militia came from Indiana and 120 cavalry volunteers from Kentucky, led by Kentucky's U.S. District Attorney Joseph Hamilton Daveiss. There were 300 Army regulars commanded by Col. [[John Parker Boyd]], and additional native scouts. All told he had about 1,000 troops.<ref>Owens, pp. 214–215</ref> |
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==Battle== |
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{{further|Tippecanoe order of battle}} |
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Harrison's forces approached Prophetstown late on November 6 and were met by one of Tenskwatawa's followers waving a white flag. He carried a message from Tenskwatawa, requesting a ceasefire until the next day when the two sides could hold a peaceful meeting. Harrison agreed to a meeting but was wary of Tenskwatawa's overture, believing that the negotiations would be futile. He moved his army to a hill near the confluence of the upper Wabash and [[Tippecanoe River|Tippecanoe]] rivers where he camped his men in battle array, and he kept sentinels on duty during the night.<ref>Funk, p. 29</ref> |
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Harrison gathered the scattered militia companies at [[Forts of Vincennes, Indiana#Fort Knox II|Fort Knox]]{{efn|"Fort Knox II", not [[Fort Knox]] in [[Kentucky]]}} north of Vincennes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianamuseum.org/sites/vincfort.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818122110/http://indianamuseum.org/sites/vincfort.html |archive-date=2011-08-18 |title=Fort Knox II |publisher=Indiana State Museum |year=2009 |access-date= 2011-05-07}}</ref> They reached [[Terre Haute, Indiana]] where they camped and built [[Fort Harrison, Indiana|Fort Harrison]].<ref>Owens, p. 216</ref> The month of October was spent constructing the fort, resupplying and training the troops. The Shawnee captured a group of Delaware chiefs traveling to Harrison, who had asked them to act as negotiators; after their release they arrived at the end of October with accounts of various aggressive actions. When a guard was shot outside the fort, Harrison considered it an aggressive action and reason for military retaliation against Prophetstown. He wrote to Eustis: "Nothing now remains but to chastise him [Tenskwatawa] and he shall certainly get it.<ref>Tunnell, pp. 39–40</ref> |
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[[File:Battle of tippecanoe, battlefield map.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Layout of the battlefield]] |
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Burnett Creek was on the west side of the hill, and a very steep embankment was on the east side, so Harrison did not order temporary works to be created around the position, as was ordinarily done by encamped armies.<ref name = o219>Owens, p. 219</ref> The Yellow Jacket company was posted on the southern end of the camp perimeter, with Captain [[Spier Spencer]] in command, and the rest of the militia established a rectangular formation along the edges of the bluff surrounding the camp. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew commanded the Indiana militia units guarding the steep bluff on the eastern side of the formation, and the regulars and dragoons were kept in reserve behind the main line, commanded by Major Floyd, Maj. [[Joseph Hamilton Daveiss]], and former congressman Capt. [[Benjamin Parke]].<ref name = l168/><ref name = o217>Owen, p. 217</ref> |
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==Battle== |
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Tenskwatawa told Michigan Governor [[Lewis Cass]] in 1816 that he did not order his warriors to attack Harrison, and he blamed the [[Ho-Chunk]] (Winnebago) warriors in his camp for launching the attack. Other accounts also blame the Ho-Chunk for encouraging the attack and suggest that Tenskwatawa was unable to control his followers as panic set in.<ref name = c121>Cave, p. 121</ref> Tenskwatawa's followers were worried by the nearby army and feared an imminent attack. They had begun to fortify the town but had not completed their defenses. During the evening, Tenskwatawa decided that sending a party to murder Harrison in his tent was the best way to avoid a battle. He assured the warriors that he would cast spells that would prevent them from being harmed and would confuse Harrison's army so that they would not resist. The warriors began to surround Harrison's army, looking for a way to enter the camp undetected.<ref name = o217/> A man named Ben was a wagon driver traveling with Harrison's army, and he had deserted to the Shawnees during the expedition. He agreed to lead a group of warriors through the line to Harrison's tent during the late night hours, but he was captured by the camp sentries, taken back to camp, and bound. He was later convicted of treason, but Harrison pardoned him.<ref name = o219/> |
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{{Further|Tippecanoe order of battle}} |
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Harrison's forces approached Prophetstown on November 6. He was to meet the next day with Tenskwatawa but believed negotiation futile. They made camp on Burnett's Creek, (Battleground, Indiana); the troops bedded down fully dressed and armed, based on Harrison's [[Aide-de-camp]] Bartholomew's advice.<ref name = Tunnell61>Tunnell, p. 61</ref> |
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Accounts are unclear about how the battle began, but Harrison's sentinels encountered advancing warriors in the pre-dawn hours of November 7. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew was officer of the day, and he had ordered the troops to sleep with their weapons loaded. Around 4:30 a.m., the soldiers awoke to scattered gunshots and found that they were nearly encircled by Tenskwatawa's forces. Contact was first made on the northern end of the perimeter, but the movement was probably intended as a diversion. Shortly after the first shots, fierce fighting broke out on the opposite end as the warriors charged Harrison's line on the southern corner. The militia's small-caliber rifles had little effect on the warriors as they rushed the defenders. Spencer was among the first to be killed, shot in each thigh. Governor Harrison later recorded his death in a dispatch to Washington: |
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[[File:Joseph Bartholomew-122.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Joseph Bartholomew]] |
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<blockquote>Spencer was wounded in the head. He exhorted his men to fight valiantly. He was shot through both thighs and fell; still continuing to encourage them, he was raised up, and received a ball through his body, which put an immediate end to his existence.<ref>Dillon, p. 471</ref><ref group = note>[[Spencer County, Indiana]] was named in honor of Capt. Spencer.</ref></blockquote> |
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Positioned in [[Picket (military)|pickets]] according to battle lines, they kept blazing fires alight in the rain, which illuminated the camp. Harrison did not command fortifications erected.<ref name = o217>Owen, p. 217</ref> The perimeter was guarded by two companies of sentries.<ref name = Tunnell61/> Captain [[Spier Spencer]]'s [[Yellow Jackets (Indiana)|Indiana Yellow Jacket]] riflemen, (known for their light-colored [[buckskins]]),<ref name = Tunnell148ff>Tunnell, p. 148</ref> was posted on the southern end of the camp perimeter. The rest of the militia established an irregular rectangular formation along the edges of the bluff surrounding the camp.<ref name = Tunnell61>Tunnell, p. 61</ref> Lieutenant Colonel [[Joseph Bartholomew (major general)|Joseph Bartholomew]] commanded all infantry units guarding the front line.<ref name = Tunnell73>Tunnell, p. 73</ref> The regulars and [[dragoon]]s were kept in reserve behind the main line, commanded by Major Floyd, Major Daveiss,<ref name = Tunnell65/> and former congressman Captain [[Benjamin Parke]].<ref name="Tunnell148ff">Tunnell, p. 148</ref> |
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The remaining Yellow Jacket officers were Lieutenants Nuge and Klaus, but they were also shot and killed and the Yellow Jackets began to fall back from the main line, retreating with the sentinels. The Indians followed the retreating unit and entered the camp, but Colonel Bartholomew requested a detachment of 25 regular troops and led a bayonet charge which repulsed them. During that charge, Bartholomew was shot through the lower arm, breaking both bones, but he was still clutching his sword when he was treated hours later. He was later promoted to brigadier general in recognition of his leadership during the battle.<ref group = "note">The Indiana territorial legislature passed a resolution on December 4, 1811 stating "that the thanks of this house be presented to Col. Luke Decker and Col. Joseph Bartholomew, the officers, non-commissioned officers and men composing the militia corps under their command… for the distinguished valor, heroism and bravery displayed by them in the brilliant battle fought with the Shawnee Prophet and his confederates on the morning of the 7th of Nov, 1811 by the Army under the command of His Excellency William Henry Harrison." [[Bartholomew County, Indiana]] was also named in his honor.</ref> The soldiers regrouped under the command of ensign [[John Tipton]] with the help of two reserve companies under the command of Captain Robb, and they sealed the breach in the line.<ref name = l168/><ref name = f30>Funk, p. 30</ref><ref name = o218>Owen, p. 218</ref> |
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Tenskwatawa told Michigan Governor [[Lewis Cass]] in 1816 that he did not order his warriors to attack Harrison, and he blamed the [[Ho-Chunk]] (Winnebago) warriors in his camp for launching the attack. Not long after the battle a [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]] chief told British Indian agent [[Matthew Elliott (loyalist)|Matthew Elliot]], that the shooting of two Winnebago warriors by the sentries "aroused the indignation of the Indians and they determined to be revenged and accordingly commenced the attack."<ref name = c120ff>Cave, pp. 120–121</ref> Tenskwatawa's followers were worried by the nearby army and feared an imminent attack. They had begun to fortify the town but had not completed their defenses.<ref name = o219/> In council the night of November 6, Tenskwatawa seems to have agreed to a preemptive strike against the Americans, and to sending in a party under the cover of dark to murder Harrison in his tent.<ref name = c119>Cave, p. 119</ref> He assured the warriors that he would cast spells to prevent them from being harmed and to cause confusion among Harrison's army so that they would not resist. The warriors began to surround Harrison's army, looking for a way to enter the camp undetected.<ref name = o217/> A man named Ben was a wagon driver traveling with Harrison's army, and he had deserted to the Shawnees during the expedition. He agreed to lead a group of warriors through the line to Harrison's tent during the late night hours, but he was captured by the camp sentries, taken back to camp, and bound. He was later convicted of treason, but Harrison pardoned him.<ref name = o219>Owens, p. 219</ref> |
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The second Indian charge was made against the north and south ends of the camp, with the far southern end the hardest hit. Over half of Harrison's casualties were suffered among the companies on the southern end, including Captain Spencer, five men in his company, and seven men in the adjoining company.<ref group = note>Captain [[Jacob Warrick]] of the adjoining company was also killed in the charge, and [[Warrick County, Indiana]] was named in his honor.</ref> The Americans held their position as the attacks continued, the regulars reinforcing that critical section of the line. On the northern end of the camp, Major Daveiss led the dragoons on a counter-charge which punched through the Indian line before being repulsed. Most of Daveiss' company retreated to Harrison's main line, but Daveiss was killed.<ref group = note>[[Daviess County, Indiana]] was named in honor of Maj. [[Joseph Hamilton Daveiss]].</ref> Throughout the next hour, Harrison's troops fought off several more charges. The Indians began to run low on ammunition, and the rising sun revealed the small size of Tenskwatawa's forces, so the Indians began to slowly withdraw;<ref name = l168/><ref name = f30/><ref name = o218/> a second charge by the dragoons forced the Indians to flee.<ref name = l169>Langguth, p. 169</ref> |
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[[File:Prophet's Rock Ridge near Tippecanoe battleground, Ind., 1902.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Prophet's Rock near the Tippecanoe battleground about 1902. [[Tenskwatawa]] is thought to have sung or chanted from this rock to exhort his warriors against Harrison's forces.<ref name = o786>Tucker, vol. 1, p. 786, col. 2.</ref>]] |
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Accounts are unclear about how the battle began, but Harrison's sentinels encountered advancing warriors in the pre-dawn hours of November 7. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew was officer of the day, and he had ordered the troops to sleep with their weapons loaded. Around 4:30 a.m., the soldiers awoke to scattered gunshots,<ref name = o218>Owen, p. 218</ref> and found that they were nearly encircled by Tenskwatawa's forces.<ref name = Tunnell65>Tunnell, p. 65</ref> Contact was first made on the left flank of the perimeter, then to the front of the camp, the right flank and the rear. Captain Robert Barton's regulars and Captain Frederick Geiger's Kentucky militia faced immediate fierce attacks and were unable to hold their line. Harrison replaced them with the Indiana militia, commanded by Lieutenant Peters – their commander Wentworth died in the first attack. Harrison found the front line under fire (facing Prophetstown), pressed by warriors with rifles situated in a grove of trees. The Americans held their position as the attacks continued, the regulars reinforcing that critical section of the line.<ref name = Tunnell65/> The militia's small-caliber rifles had little effect on the warriors as they rushed the defenders.<ref name = Tunnell73>Tunnell, p. 73</ref> |
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[[File:Prophet's Rock Ridge near Tippecanoe battleground, Ind., 1902.jpg|thumb|right|Prophet's Rock near the Tippecanoe battleground about 1902. Tenskwatawa is believed to have sung or chanted from this rock to exhort his warriors against Harrison's forces.<ref name = o786>Tucker, vol. 1, p. 786, col. 2.</ref>]] |
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[[White Loon]] and [[Stone Eater]] were Tenskwatawa's war chiefs. The Prophet situated himself on a small hill overlooking the battle. The element of surprise was lost at the start of the battle, forcing the warriors to attack in a disorganized and uncoordinated fashion, with numerous small assaults. They reorganized and rushed the Americans whenever Harrison's troops drove them off. Meanwhile, warriors with rifles crawled on their stomachs from the woods towards the line.<ref name = Tunnell67>Tunnell, p. 67</ref> |
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The battle lasted about two hours and Harrison lost 62 men, with 37 killed in action and 25 mortally wounded; about 126 were less seriously hurt.<ref name = o218/><ref name = l169/> The Yellow Jackets suffered the highest casualties of the battle, with 30-percent of their numbers killed or wounded. The number of Indian casualties is still the subject of debate, but it was certainly lower than that of the American forces. Historians estimate that as many as 50 were killed and about 70 to 80 were wounded.<ref name = f30>Funk, p. 30</ref><ref name = o218/><ref name = l169/> |
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[[File:Treaty Map of Prophetstown and Site of Battle of Tippecanoe, 1819.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A simple line drawing map|A map included in the Treaty of Prophetstown and Site of Battle of Tippecanoe, 1819]] |
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On the northern end of the camp, Major Daveiss led the dragoons on a counter-charge. Most of Daveiss' company subsequently retreated to Harrison's main line following the charge, but Daveiss was killed.<ref name = Tunnell65/> The grove was cleared by the 4th regiment regulars.<ref name = Tunnell65/> To the rear, the attack was the strongest. The Indiana Yellow Jackets were under heavy fire, unable to hold their line, their commander, Captain Spencer, dead.<ref name = Tunnell65/> His death is documented in Harrison's November 18, 1811 dispatch to Eustis: "Spencer was wounded in the head. He exhorted his men to fight valiantly. He was shot through both thighs and fell; still continuing to encourage them, he was raised up, and received a ball through his body, which put an immediate end to his existence."<ref>Dillon, p. 471.</ref> Harrison moved two reserve companies under the command of Captain Robb to join Spencer's only living officer, ensign [[John Tipton]], and they sealed the breach in the line.<ref name = Tunnell66>Tunnell, p. 66</ref> Throughout the next hour, Harrison's troops fought off several more charges. The warriors began to run low on ammunition; the rising sun revealed the dwindling size of Tenskwatawa's forces who quickly dispersed into the woods. Harrison's troops pursued. They discovered the bodies of 36 warriors in the woods, [[scalping]] them.<ref name = l169>Langguth, p. 169</ref> |
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The warriors retreated to Prophetstown where, according to one chief's account, the warriors confronted Tenskwatawa. They accused him of deceit because of the many deaths, which his spells were supposed to have prevented. He blamed his wife for desecrating his magic medicine and offered to cast a new spell; he insisted that the warriors launch a second attack, but they refused.<ref name = c121/> |
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The battle lasted about two hours and Harrison sustained 188 casualties: 37 died in action, 25 were mortally wounded. Another 126 sustained less serious wounds.<ref name = Tunnell134>Tunnell, p. 134</ref> The Yellow Jackets suffered the highest casualties of the battle, with all but one officer killed.<ref name = Tunnell99>Tunnell, p. 99</ref> The number of Native American casualties is still the subject of debate, but it was certainly lower than that of the American forces. Historians estimate that as many as 50 were killed and about 70 to 80 were wounded.<ref name = o218/><ref name = l169/> The warriors retreated to Prophetstown where, according to one chief's account, they confronted Tenskwatawa, accusing him of deceit because of the many deaths, which his spells were supposed to have prevented. He blamed his wife for desecrating his magic medicine and offered to cast a new spell; he insisted that the warriors launch a second attack, but they refused.<ref name = c120ff/> |
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Fearing Tecumseh's imminent return with reinforcements, Harrison ordered his men to fortify their camp with works for the rest of the day. As the sentries moved back out, they discovered and [[Scalping|scalped]] the bodies of 36 warriors.<ref name = l169/> The following day, November 8, Harrison sent a small group of men to inspect the Shawnee town and found it was deserted except for one elderly woman too sick to flee. The remainder of the defeated Natives had evacuated the village during the night. Harrison ordered his troops to spare the woman, but to burn down Prophetstown and destroy the Native Americans' cooking implements, without which the confederacy would be hard pressed to survive the winter. Everything of value was confiscated, including 5,000 bushels of corn and beans stored for winter.<ref name = l169/> Some of Harrison's soldiers dug up bodies from the graveyard in Prophetstown to scalp. |
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The following day, November 8, Harrison sent a small group of men to inspect the Shawnee town and found it was deserted except for one elderly woman too sick to flee. The remainder of the defeated villagers had evacuated during the night. Harrison ordered the village burned, including 5,000 bushels of corn and beans in the storehouse.<ref name = l169/> Furthermore, he had the village cemetery dug up, with corpses left strewn about.<ref name = Cave122>Cave, p. 122</ref> After Harrison's troops departed the area, the villagers returned, digging up many of the American corpses and scattering the bodies in retaliation.<ref name = J196>Jortner, p. 196</ref> |
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==Aftermath== |
==Aftermath== |
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{{See also|Indiana in the War of 1812}} |
{{See also|Indiana in the War of 1812}} |
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[[File:Wabash Indian Document.jpg|thumb|upright|Document released to the public featuring information on the hostile Indians of the Wabash after the battle]] |
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The day after the battle, the American wounded were loaded onto wagons and |
The day after the battle, the American wounded were loaded onto wagons and brought back to Vincennes.<ref name = Tunnell175>Tunnell, p. 175</ref> They arrived at Fort Harrison about six days later. They boarded boats for the return to Vincennes on the river, arriving on November 18, at which point the militia was released home.<ref name = p76ff>Pirtle, pp. 76–77</ref> Harrison informed Eustis of a battle near the Tippecanoe River, giving extensive details.<ref>Dillon, pp. 466–471</ref> Eustis replied with a note demanding to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp. Harrison replied that he had considered the position strong enough without fortification.<ref name = o219220>Owens, pp. 219–220</ref> |
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[[File:Wabash Indian Document.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Document released to the public after the battle, containing letters from Harrison.]] |
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At first, newspapers carried little information about the battle, as they were focused on the highlights of the on-going [[Napoleonic Wars]] in Europe. |
At first, newspapers carried little information about the battle, as they were focused on the highlights of the on-going [[Napoleonic Wars]] in Europe. An Ohio newspaper printed a copy of dispatches from Kentucky and characterized the battle as a defeat for the United States.<ref>Owens, p. 220</ref> Shocked at the loss of Daveiss, well-known and liked, Kentucky papers criticized Harrison and one ran a front page lament for Daveiss. When the story was picked up in the east it was critical of Harrison, the ''Long Island Star'' writing, "Governor Harrison's account with the Indians, in general, is not very satisfying."<ref name = j199/> |
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Historians have long believed that Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa for losing the battle, and that Tecumseh had threatened to kill his brother for making the attack. Tenskwatawa lost prestige after the battle and no longer served as a leader of the confederacy. In their subsequent meetings with Harrison, several |
Historians have long believed that Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa for losing the battle, and that Tecumseh had threatened to kill his brother for making the attack. Tenskwatawa lost prestige after the battle and no longer served as a leader of the confederacy. In their subsequent meetings with Harrison, several Native Americans leaders claimed that Tenskwatawa's influence was destroyed; some accounts said that he was being persecuted by other leaders. The situation was more nuanced according to historians [[Alfred A. Cave]] and Robert Owens who explain the Native Americans were trying to mislead Harrison in an attempt to calm the situation, and that Tenskwatawa continued to play an important role in the confederacy.<ref name="Cave122"/><ref name = o222>Owens, p. 222</ref> |
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Harrison claimed that he had won a decisive victory, but some modern historians raise doubts. "In none of the [contemporaneous] reports from Indian agents, traders, and public officials on the aftermath of Tippecanoe can we find confirmation of the claim that Harrison had won a decisive victory", according to Alfred Cave.<ref>Cave, p. 127</ref> The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh's confederacy, although they rebuilt Prophetstown, and |
Harrison claimed that he had won a decisive victory, but some modern historians raise doubts. "In none of the [contemporaneous] reports from Indian agents, traders, and public officials on the aftermath of Tippecanoe can we find confirmation of the claim that Harrison had won a decisive victory", according to Alfred Cave.<ref>Cave, p. 127</ref> The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh's confederacy, although they rebuilt Prophetstown, and native violence increased on the frontier after the battle.<ref>Sugden, pp. 260–61</ref> Adam Jortner says that the battle was a disaster for both sides, except in strengthening Tenskwatawa's religious movement.<ref name = J196/> |
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[[File:Battle of Tippecanoe Plaque.jpg|thumb|upright|Historical marker at the site of the battle]] |
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On December 16, 1811, the first of the [[1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes|New Madrid earthquakes]] shook the South and the Midwest. |
On December 16, 1811, the first of the [[1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes|New Madrid earthquakes]] shook the South and the Midwest. Many tribes took the earthquake as a vindication of Tenskwatawa's powers, seeing it as a "call to action".<ref name = j199>Jortner, p. 199</ref> They increased their attacks against American settlers and against isolated outposts in Indiana and the [[Illinois Territory]], resulting in the deaths of many civilians.<ref>Cave, p. 130</ref> Tecumseh continued to play a major role in military operations on the frontier. By the time that the U.S. declared war on Great Britain in the [[War of 1812]], Tecumseh's confederacy was ready to launch its own war against the United States – this time with the British in open alliance.<ref name=Cave1346>Cave, pp. 134–136</ref> |
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The Shawnee partially rebuilt Prophetstown over the next year.<ref>Cave, p. 123</ref> Tecumseh continued to play a major role in military operations on the frontier.<ref name = j199/> His warriors were with British forces that captured [[Fort Lernoult|Fort Detroit]] from the United States in the War of 1812, and it was not until Tecumseh's death at the [[Battle of the Thames]] in 1813 that his confederacy ceased to threaten the Americans.<ref name= Cave1346/> |
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William Henry Harrison ran for President in 1840, and he used the slogan "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]" to remind people of his heroism during the battle.<ref>Carnes, p. 41</ref> |
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"[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too|Tippecanoe and Tyler too]]" became the slogan and a popular song for Harrison and his running mate [[John Tyler]] in the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential campaign]]. The [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]] leveraged Harrison's successes, using the song as a slogan and reminder of the battle.<ref>Carnes, p. 41</ref> |
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==Memorial== |
==Memorial== |
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[[File:Monumento Tippecanoe.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Monument at the battle site]] |
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{{Quote box |
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|quote = ''It shall be the duty of the General Assembly,<br> to provide for the permanent enclosure and<br> preservation of the Tippecanoe Battle Ground.'' |
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|source = — Indiana Constitution, Article 15, Section 10 |
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|quoted = 1 |
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}} |
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The participants in the battle received the Thanks of Congress. |
The white participants in the battle received the [[Thanks of Congress]]. The resolution originally included William Henry Harrison by name, but his name was removed before passage. Harrison considered this to be an insult, thinking that Congress implied that he was the one person in the campaign not worthy of accolades, and he suggested that it held him up to obloquy and disrespect.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqIEAAAAYAAJ&dq=William+Henry+Harrison+Thanks+of+Congress&pg=PA237 |title=Burr, Samuel Jones (1840)'' The life and times of William Henry Harrison'', p. 237 |access-date=2015-11-17 |archive-date=2022-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111175128/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237&lpg=PA237&dq=William+Henry+Harrison+Thanks+of+Congress&source=bl&ots=psAKE04JgA&sig=5L1hGyLY2mUWWu37y8_H8i2Je8c&hl=en&ei=SyjrSpW0BoX-Me3dpYMM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William%20Henry%20Harrison%20Thanks%20of%20Congress&f=false |url-status=live |last1=Burr |first1=S. J. |last2=Burr |first2=Samuel Jones |year=1840 }}</ref> After Tippecanoe, Boyd's vocal criticism caused controversy. He said without the presence of the regulars, the militia would have been routed, and he questioned Harrison's fitness as commander.<ref>Tunnell, p. 146</ref><ref>Owens, pp. 220–221</ref> Harrison was, however, awarded the Thanks of Congress and a [[Congressional Gold Medal]] in 1818 for victory at the Battle of the Thames.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL30076_20080715.pdf |title=Congressional Gold Medals, 1776–2008 |last=Stathis |first=Stephen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403000402/http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL30076_20080715.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A number of counties in Indiana were named for American soldiers at the battle: [[Bartholomew County, Indiana|Bartholomew]], [[Daviess County, Indiana|Daviess]], [[Spencer County, Indiana|Spencer]], [[Tipton County, Indiana|Tipton]] and [[Warrick County, Indiana|Warrick]].<ref name = p78>Pirtle, p. 78</ref> |
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{{Quote box |quote = It shall be the duty of the General Assembly,<br> to provide for the permanent enclosure and<br> preservation of the Tippecanoe Battle-ground.<ref>Resa, p. 110</ref> |quoted = 1 }} |
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Harrison returned to the battlefield in 1835 to give speeches during his first presidential campaign, and he called for the creation of a memorial to preserve the battle site. John Tipton later purchased the land to preserve it |
Harrison returned to the battlefield in 1835 to give speeches during his first presidential campaign, and he called for the creation of a memorial to preserve the battle site. John Tipton later purchased the land to preserve it and deeded it to the state on November 7, 1836, which was the twenty-fifth anniversary of the battle.<ref>Resa, pp. 7, 117</ref> |
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[[File:Monumento Tippecanoe.jpg|thumb|upright|Monument near the battle site]] |
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In 1908, the Indiana General Assembly commissioned an {{convert|80|ft|m|adj=on}} high obelisk memorial at the battleground. On October 9, 1960, the [[Tippecanoe Battlefield Park|Tippecanoe Battlefield]] was named a national historic landmark.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=15&ResourceType=Site|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402104853/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=15&ResourceType=Site|archivedate=2015-04-02|title=Tippecanoe Battlefield|work=National Historic Landmarks program|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2009-06-05}}</ref> In 1961, some 10,000 people attended the 150th anniversary of the battle.<ref name="Tipsite"/> |
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In |
In 1908, the Indiana General Assembly commissioned an obelisk memorial at the battleground that was {{convert|85|ft|m|adj=on}} high. On October 9, 1960, the [[Tippecanoe Battlefield Park|Tippecanoe Battlefield]] was named a national historic landmark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |title=Battlefield History |publisher=Tippecanoe County Historical Association |access-date=2009-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224152817/http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |archive-date=2009-02-24 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1961, some 10,000 people attended the 150th anniversary of the battle.<ref name="Tipsite"/> |
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{{clear}} |
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In the following years, the battle site attracted fewer visitors and fell into disrepair. The Tippecanoe County Historical Association now maintains the battleground and a museum about the battle.<ref name="Tipsite">{{Cite web |url=http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |title=Tippecanoe Battlefield History |publisher=Tippecanoe County Historical Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417020339/http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |archive-date=2009-04-17 |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-03-27}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Indiana}} |
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* [[Battle of Wild Cat Creek]] |
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* [[Curse of Tippecanoe]] |
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* [[List of battles fought in Indiana]] |
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* [[:Category:People from Indiana in the War of 1812]] |
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* {{USS|Tippecanoe}} name of several United States Navy ships |
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* {{USNS|Tippecanoe|T-AO-199}} |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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{{Notelist}} |
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{{Reflist|group=note}} |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} |
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} |
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==Sources== |
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* |
*{{cite book |last1=Carnes |first1=Mark C. |last2=Mieczkowski |first2=Yanek |title=The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jK8w5ekxUKgC |publisher=Routledge |place=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-92139-8}} |
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* |
*{{cite book |title=Prophets of the Great Spirit |last=Cave |first=Alfred A. |location=Lincoln |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8032-1555-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/prophetsofgreats00cave_0}} |
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* |
*{{cite book |title=A History of Indiana |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryindiana00dillgoog |author=Dillon, John Brown |publisher=Bingham & Doughty |chapter=Letters of William Henry Harrison |year=1859 |isbn=978-0-253-20305-2}} |
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*Jortner, Adam. (2011). ''The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0199765294}} |
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* {{cite book|author=Funk, Arville|title=A Sketchbook of Indiana History|origyear=1969|edition=revised|year=1983|publisher=Christian Book Press|location=Rochester, Indiana}} |
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*{{cite book |title=Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence |author=Langguth, A. J. |author-link=A.J. Langguth |isbn=978-0-7432-2618-9 |year=2006 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/union181200ajla}} |
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* Jortner, Adam. (2011). ''The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780199765294}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Owens |first=Robert M. |title=Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKWrfrjrLEUC&q=Mr.+Jefferson%27s+Hammer: |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |place=Norman |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8061-3842-8}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence|author=Langguth, A. J.|authorlink=A.J. Langguth|isbn=978-0-7432-2618-9|year=2006|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Pirtle, Alfred. |publisher=John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints |year=1900 |location=Louisville |title=The Battle of Tippecanoe |page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&q=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe&pg=PR1}} as read to the [[Filson Club]]. |
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* {{cite book|last=Owens |first=Robert M.|title=Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bKWrfrjrLEUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mr.+Jefferson%27s+Hammer:|publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]]|place=Norman, Oklahoma|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8061-3842-8}} |
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* |
*{{cite book |author=Resa, Alva |title=The Tippecanoe Battle-field Monument |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehErAAAAYAAJ |publisher=State of Indiana |place=New York |year=1909 |isbn=}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Sugden, John |title=Tecumseh: A Life |location=New York |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8050-6121-5}} |
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* {{cite book|editor=Tucker, Spencer C.|title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |location= Santa Barbara|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year= 2011|url= https://books.google.com/?id=lyNakUZmQ9IC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Encyclopedia+of+North+American+Indian+Wars,#v=onepage&q=p%20786&f=false|ref=Tucker |isbn=978-1-8510-9603-9}} |
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*{{cite book |editor=Tucker, Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyNakUZmQ9IC&q=Encyclopedia+of+North+American+Indian+Wars, |ref=Tucker |isbn=978-1-8510-9603-9}} |
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* {{cite book |title=To Compel with Armed Force: A Staff Ride Handbook for the Battle of Tippecanoe |last=Tunnell, IV |first=H.D. |authorlink= |year=1998 |publisher=Combat Studies Institute, [[U.S. Army Command and General Staff College]] |location=Fort Leavenworth, KS |url=http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/tunnell/tunnell.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20031105180859/http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/tunnell/tunnell.asp |archivedate=2003-11-05}} |
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*{{cite book |title=To Compel with Armed Force: A Staff Ride Handbook for the Battle of Tippecanoe |last=Tunnell, IV |first=H.D. |year=1998 |publisher=Combat Studies Institute, [[U.S. Army Command and General Staff College]] |location=Fort Leavenworth, KS |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T492AAAAMAAJ}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Winkler |first=John F |title=Tippecanoe 1811. The Prophet's Battle |publisher=Osprey |location=Oxford |year=2015 |isbn=9781472808844}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* {{cite book|author= Edmunds, David R|title=The Shawnee Prophet|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|publisher= [[University of Nebraska Press]]|year=1983|isbn=978-0-8032-1850-5}} |
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* {{cite book|author=Feldman, Jay|title=When the Mississippi Ran Backwards|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Dc0JB715MccC|isbn=978-0-7432-4278-3|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=2005}} |
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* {{cite book|author=Pirtle, Alfred.|publisher=John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe| page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1&dq=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe}} as read to the [[Filson Club]]. |
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* J. Wesley Whickar, "Shabonee's Account of Tippecanoe," ''Indiana Magazine of History,'' vol. 17, no. 4 (Dec. 1921), pp. 353–363. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27786003 In JSTOR] |
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==External links== |
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |title=Battlefield History |publisher=Tippecanoe County Historical Association |accessdate=2009-02-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224152817/http://www.tcha.mus.in.us/battlehistory.htm |archivedate=2009-02-24 |deadurl=yes |df= }} |
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{{Battles of the War of 1812}} |
{{Battles of the War of 1812}} |
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{{Indiana in the War of 1812}} |
{{Indiana in the War of 1812}} |
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{{William Henry Harrison}} |
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[[Category:William Henry Harrison]] |
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Latest revision as of 01:15, 19 December 2024
| Battle of Tippecanoe | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of American Indian Wars and Tecumseh's War | |||||||
 19th-century depiction by Kurz and Allison, American troops under the leadership of General William Henry Harrison fighting the Indian forces of The Prophet, Tenskwatawa (the brother of Tecumseh) in a forest. | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
| Tecumseh's Confederacy | United States | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Tenskwatawa | William Henry Harrison | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 500–700 warriors |
250 infantry, 90 cavalry, 700 militia | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
|
Unknown 36 known dead (Estimated 50–65 killed and 70–80 wounded)+ 1 POW |
62 killed, 126 wounded | ||||||
  Location within Indiana  Battle of Tippecanoe (the United States) | |||||||
The Battle of Tippecanoe (/ˌtɪpəkəˈnuː/ TIP-ə-kə-NOO) was fought on November 7, 1811, in Battle Ground, Indiana, between American forces led by then Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and tribal forces associated with Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (commonly known as "The Prophet"), leaders of a confederacy of various tribes who opposed European-American settlement of the American frontier. As tensions and violence increased, Governor Harrison marched with an army of about 1,000 men to attack the confederacy's headquarters at Prophetstown, near the confluence of the Tippecanoe River and the Wabash River.
Tecumseh was not yet ready to oppose the United States by force and was away recruiting allies when Harrison's army arrived. Tenskwatawa was a spiritual leader but not a military man, and he was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day. Early the next morning warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrison's army. They took the army by surprise, but Harrison and his men stood their ground for more than two hours. After the battle, Harrison's men burned Prophetstown to the ground, destroying the food supplies stored for the winter. The soldiers then returned to their homes.
Harrison accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown. The win proved decisive and garnered Harrison the nickname of "Tippecanoe". Meanwhile, the defeat dealt a fatal blow for Tecumseh's confederacy and, though comeback attempts were made, it never fully recovered.[1][2] So popular was Harrison's nickname that the Whigs turned "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" into the slogan and a popular song for Harrison and his running mate John Tyler's 1840 presidential campaign.
Background
[edit]William Henry Harrison was appointed governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory in 1800, and he sought to secure title to the area for settlement.[3] He negotiated land cession treaties with the Miami, Potawatomi, Lenape, and other tribes in which 3 million acres (approximately 12,000 km2) were acquired by the United States at the Treaty of Fort Wayne,[4] the second of such treaties after the earlier treaty of 1803.[5]
The leader of the Shawnee, Tecumseh, opposed the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne.[5] He believed that land was owned in common by all tribes; therefore specific parcels of lands could not be sold without full agreement from all the tribes.[6] The previous generation Mohawk leader Joseph Brant advocated a similar philosophy and called for unification of tribes.[7] Tecumseh's younger brother Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, was a spiritual leader among the northwestern tribes, advocating for a return to traditional ancestral ways.[8][9] Though Tecumseh resisted the 1809 treaty, he was reluctant to confront the United States directly. He traveled through tribal lands, urging warriors to abandon their chiefs to join his effort, threatening to kill chiefs and warriors who adhered to the terms of the treaty, building a resistance at Prophetstown.[6][7]
Prelude
[edit]In 1810, Tecumseh and Governor Harrison met at Grouseland (Harrison's Vincennes home). Tecumseh demanded nullification of the treaty and the lands returned to the tribes. Harrison insisted each tribe had individual and separate arrangements with the United States, ridiculing the idea of common ownership of lands.[10] Tecumseh stated his position clearly: he would serve the American loyally if the lands were returned; if not he would seek an alliance with the British.[11] As early as 1810, British agents had sought to secure an alliance with Tecumseh,[12] who was reluctant to ally with them because he recognized that they used the tribes to fight their wars on the frontier.[10] Yet he travelled to Canada to meet with the British and Canadians in November 1810, after securing alliances with the Potawatomi and the Odawa as well as contacting the Iowa.[13]
In the following year, Harrison blamed the Shawnee for the murder of a handful of men on the frontier and for the theft of a boatload of salt,[14] but more importantly sent a stream of letters to Washington requesting permission to move against them. He wrote, "In Indian warfare there is no security but in offensive measures."[15] He summoned Tecumseh to a meeting in the summer of 1811.[14] As before, Tecumseh presented himself as an eloquent speaker but the meeting proved unproductive.[15] Tecumseh informed Harrison he was leaving to recruit among the Muscogee and Choctaws and asked to wait upon his return to commence settlement on the disputed lands.[16] He said he wanted "no mischief" during his absence, a plea he made to Harrison and Tenskwatawa.[17]
Tenskwatawa stayed with the Shawnee who were camped at the Tippecanoe in Prophetstown, a settlement that had grown to a few hundred structures and a sizable population.[17] At the time of the battle, he had around 500 warriors available, although estimates range from 350 to 1,000.[18] The Kickapoo under Mengoatowa, Potawatomi under Waubonsie, and Winnebago under Waweapakoosa were organized into large units of 125, with smaller units of Shawnee, Wyandot and other nations organized under Roundhead.[19] Harrison thought that Tecumseh's warriors were "the finest light infantry troops in the world,"[20] and later wrote to Charles Scott that the confederation was better armed than most of his own force.[19] In addition to muskets, knives, tomahawks, and clubs, Tecumseh's forces were armed with spears in order to repel bayonet charges, which the U.S. used effectively at the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers.[20]
Tenskwatawa's defenders had a communication barrier. Most nations spoke an Iroquoian or Algonquin language, and many could speak multiple languages within those groups. The large Winnebago force, however, spoke the Ho-Chunk language from the Siouan family, and required interpretation.[19]
Harrison believed military force the only solution towards militant tribes. Secretary of War William Eustis sent orders to preserve peace with the Native Americans, but went on to say, "but if the Prophet should commence, or seriously threaten, hostilities he ought to be attacked."[15] Harrison sent a series of letters to Tenskwatawa with a number of demands. He accused Tenskwatawa's followers of murdering whites in Illinois (almost certainly the work of Main Poc and his Potawatomi); ordered non-Shawnee residents banned from Prophetstown; and accused the Shawnee of horse theft. Tenskwatawa replied that the horses would be returned but failed to address the other demands.[21] Harrison started raising troops. About 400 militia came from Indiana and 120 cavalry volunteers from Kentucky, led by Kentucky's U.S. District Attorney Joseph Hamilton Daveiss. There were 300 Army regulars commanded by Col. John Parker Boyd, and additional native scouts. All told he had about 1,000 troops.[22]
Harrison gathered the scattered militia companies at Fort Knox[a] north of Vincennes.[23] They reached Terre Haute, Indiana where they camped and built Fort Harrison.[24] The month of October was spent constructing the fort, resupplying and training the troops. The Shawnee captured a group of Delaware chiefs traveling to Harrison, who had asked them to act as negotiators; after their release they arrived at the end of October with accounts of various aggressive actions. When a guard was shot outside the fort, Harrison considered it an aggressive action and reason for military retaliation against Prophetstown. He wrote to Eustis: "Nothing now remains but to chastise him [Tenskwatawa] and he shall certainly get it.[25]
Battle
[edit]Harrison's forces approached Prophetstown on November 6. He was to meet the next day with Tenskwatawa but believed negotiation futile. They made camp on Burnett's Creek, (Battleground, Indiana); the troops bedded down fully dressed and armed, based on Harrison's Aide-de-camp Bartholomew's advice.[26]
Positioned in pickets according to battle lines, they kept blazing fires alight in the rain, which illuminated the camp. Harrison did not command fortifications erected.[27] The perimeter was guarded by two companies of sentries.[26] Captain Spier Spencer's Indiana Yellow Jacket riflemen, (known for their light-colored buckskins),[28] was posted on the southern end of the camp perimeter. The rest of the militia established an irregular rectangular formation along the edges of the bluff surrounding the camp.[26] Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew commanded all infantry units guarding the front line.[29] The regulars and dragoons were kept in reserve behind the main line, commanded by Major Floyd, Major Daveiss,[30] and former congressman Captain Benjamin Parke.[28]
Tenskwatawa told Michigan Governor Lewis Cass in 1816 that he did not order his warriors to attack Harrison, and he blamed the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) warriors in his camp for launching the attack. Not long after the battle a Kickapoo chief told British Indian agent Matthew Elliot, that the shooting of two Winnebago warriors by the sentries "aroused the indignation of the Indians and they determined to be revenged and accordingly commenced the attack."[31] Tenskwatawa's followers were worried by the nearby army and feared an imminent attack. They had begun to fortify the town but had not completed their defenses.[32] In council the night of November 6, Tenskwatawa seems to have agreed to a preemptive strike against the Americans, and to sending in a party under the cover of dark to murder Harrison in his tent.[33] He assured the warriors that he would cast spells to prevent them from being harmed and to cause confusion among Harrison's army so that they would not resist. The warriors began to surround Harrison's army, looking for a way to enter the camp undetected.[27] A man named Ben was a wagon driver traveling with Harrison's army, and he had deserted to the Shawnees during the expedition. He agreed to lead a group of warriors through the line to Harrison's tent during the late night hours, but he was captured by the camp sentries, taken back to camp, and bound. He was later convicted of treason, but Harrison pardoned him.[32]
Accounts are unclear about how the battle began, but Harrison's sentinels encountered advancing warriors in the pre-dawn hours of November 7. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew was officer of the day, and he had ordered the troops to sleep with their weapons loaded. Around 4:30 a.m., the soldiers awoke to scattered gunshots,[35] and found that they were nearly encircled by Tenskwatawa's forces.[30] Contact was first made on the left flank of the perimeter, then to the front of the camp, the right flank and the rear. Captain Robert Barton's regulars and Captain Frederick Geiger's Kentucky militia faced immediate fierce attacks and were unable to hold their line. Harrison replaced them with the Indiana militia, commanded by Lieutenant Peters – their commander Wentworth died in the first attack. Harrison found the front line under fire (facing Prophetstown), pressed by warriors with rifles situated in a grove of trees. The Americans held their position as the attacks continued, the regulars reinforcing that critical section of the line.[30] The militia's small-caliber rifles had little effect on the warriors as they rushed the defenders.[29]
White Loon and Stone Eater were Tenskwatawa's war chiefs. The Prophet situated himself on a small hill overlooking the battle. The element of surprise was lost at the start of the battle, forcing the warriors to attack in a disorganized and uncoordinated fashion, with numerous small assaults. They reorganized and rushed the Americans whenever Harrison's troops drove them off. Meanwhile, warriors with rifles crawled on their stomachs from the woods towards the line.[36]
On the northern end of the camp, Major Daveiss led the dragoons on a counter-charge. Most of Daveiss' company subsequently retreated to Harrison's main line following the charge, but Daveiss was killed.[30] The grove was cleared by the 4th regiment regulars.[30] To the rear, the attack was the strongest. The Indiana Yellow Jackets were under heavy fire, unable to hold their line, their commander, Captain Spencer, dead.[30] His death is documented in Harrison's November 18, 1811 dispatch to Eustis: "Spencer was wounded in the head. He exhorted his men to fight valiantly. He was shot through both thighs and fell; still continuing to encourage them, he was raised up, and received a ball through his body, which put an immediate end to his existence."[37] Harrison moved two reserve companies under the command of Captain Robb to join Spencer's only living officer, ensign John Tipton, and they sealed the breach in the line.[38] Throughout the next hour, Harrison's troops fought off several more charges. The warriors began to run low on ammunition; the rising sun revealed the dwindling size of Tenskwatawa's forces who quickly dispersed into the woods. Harrison's troops pursued. They discovered the bodies of 36 warriors in the woods, scalping them.[39]
The battle lasted about two hours and Harrison sustained 188 casualties: 37 died in action, 25 were mortally wounded. Another 126 sustained less serious wounds.[40] The Yellow Jackets suffered the highest casualties of the battle, with all but one officer killed.[41] The number of Native American casualties is still the subject of debate, but it was certainly lower than that of the American forces. Historians estimate that as many as 50 were killed and about 70 to 80 were wounded.[35][39] The warriors retreated to Prophetstown where, according to one chief's account, they confronted Tenskwatawa, accusing him of deceit because of the many deaths, which his spells were supposed to have prevented. He blamed his wife for desecrating his magic medicine and offered to cast a new spell; he insisted that the warriors launch a second attack, but they refused.[31]
The following day, November 8, Harrison sent a small group of men to inspect the Shawnee town and found it was deserted except for one elderly woman too sick to flee. The remainder of the defeated villagers had evacuated during the night. Harrison ordered the village burned, including 5,000 bushels of corn and beans in the storehouse.[39] Furthermore, he had the village cemetery dug up, with corpses left strewn about.[42] After Harrison's troops departed the area, the villagers returned, digging up many of the American corpses and scattering the bodies in retaliation.[43]
Aftermath
[edit]The day after the battle, the American wounded were loaded onto wagons and brought back to Vincennes.[44] They arrived at Fort Harrison about six days later. They boarded boats for the return to Vincennes on the river, arriving on November 18, at which point the militia was released home.[45] Harrison informed Eustis of a battle near the Tippecanoe River, giving extensive details.[46] Eustis replied with a note demanding to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp. Harrison replied that he had considered the position strong enough without fortification.[47]
At first, newspapers carried little information about the battle, as they were focused on the highlights of the on-going Napoleonic Wars in Europe. An Ohio newspaper printed a copy of dispatches from Kentucky and characterized the battle as a defeat for the United States.[48] Shocked at the loss of Daveiss, well-known and liked, Kentucky papers criticized Harrison and one ran a front page lament for Daveiss. When the story was picked up in the east it was critical of Harrison, the Long Island Star writing, "Governor Harrison's account with the Indians, in general, is not very satisfying."[49]
Historians have long believed that Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa for losing the battle, and that Tecumseh had threatened to kill his brother for making the attack. Tenskwatawa lost prestige after the battle and no longer served as a leader of the confederacy. In their subsequent meetings with Harrison, several Native Americans leaders claimed that Tenskwatawa's influence was destroyed; some accounts said that he was being persecuted by other leaders. The situation was more nuanced according to historians Alfred A. Cave and Robert Owens who explain the Native Americans were trying to mislead Harrison in an attempt to calm the situation, and that Tenskwatawa continued to play an important role in the confederacy.[42][50]
Harrison claimed that he had won a decisive victory, but some modern historians raise doubts. "In none of the [contemporaneous] reports from Indian agents, traders, and public officials on the aftermath of Tippecanoe can we find confirmation of the claim that Harrison had won a decisive victory", according to Alfred Cave.[51] The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh's confederacy, although they rebuilt Prophetstown, and native violence increased on the frontier after the battle.[52] Adam Jortner says that the battle was a disaster for both sides, except in strengthening Tenskwatawa's religious movement.[43]
On December 16, 1811, the first of the New Madrid earthquakes shook the South and the Midwest. Many tribes took the earthquake as a vindication of Tenskwatawa's powers, seeing it as a "call to action".[49] They increased their attacks against American settlers and against isolated outposts in Indiana and the Illinois Territory, resulting in the deaths of many civilians.[53] Tecumseh continued to play a major role in military operations on the frontier. By the time that the U.S. declared war on Great Britain in the War of 1812, Tecumseh's confederacy was ready to launch its own war against the United States – this time with the British in open alliance.[54]
The Shawnee partially rebuilt Prophetstown over the next year.[55] Tecumseh continued to play a major role in military operations on the frontier.[49] His warriors were with British forces that captured Fort Detroit from the United States in the War of 1812, and it was not until Tecumseh's death at the Battle of the Thames in 1813 that his confederacy ceased to threaten the Americans.[54]
"Tippecanoe and Tyler too" became the slogan and a popular song for Harrison and his running mate John Tyler in the 1840 presidential campaign. The Whigs leveraged Harrison's successes, using the song as a slogan and reminder of the battle.[56]
Memorial
[edit]
The white participants in the battle received the Thanks of Congress. The resolution originally included William Henry Harrison by name, but his name was removed before passage. Harrison considered this to be an insult, thinking that Congress implied that he was the one person in the campaign not worthy of accolades, and he suggested that it held him up to obloquy and disrespect.[57] After Tippecanoe, Boyd's vocal criticism caused controversy. He said without the presence of the regulars, the militia would have been routed, and he questioned Harrison's fitness as commander.[58][59] Harrison was, however, awarded the Thanks of Congress and a Congressional Gold Medal in 1818 for victory at the Battle of the Thames.[60] A number of counties in Indiana were named for American soldiers at the battle: Bartholomew, Daviess, Spencer, Tipton and Warrick.[61]
It shall be the duty of the General Assembly,
to provide for the permanent enclosure and
preservation of the Tippecanoe Battle-ground.[62]
Harrison returned to the battlefield in 1835 to give speeches during his first presidential campaign, and he called for the creation of a memorial to preserve the battle site. John Tipton later purchased the land to preserve it and deeded it to the state on November 7, 1836, which was the twenty-fifth anniversary of the battle.[63]
In 1908, the Indiana General Assembly commissioned an obelisk memorial at the battleground that was 85-foot (26 m) high. On October 9, 1960, the Tippecanoe Battlefield was named a national historic landmark.[64] In 1961, some 10,000 people attended the 150th anniversary of the battle.[65]
In the following years, the battle site attracted fewer visitors and fell into disrepair. The Tippecanoe County Historical Association now maintains the battleground and a museum about the battle.[65]
Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Blaine T. Brownell; Robert C. Cottrell (2010). Lives and Times: Individuals and Issues in American History: To 1877. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 130. ISBN 9781442205581.
- ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2014). Battles That Changed American History: 100 of the Greatest Victories and Defeats. ABC-CLIO. p. 83. ISBN 9781440828621.
- ^ Tunnell, p. 13
- ^ Owens, p. 206
- ^ a b Owens, p. xxiv
- ^ a b Owens, p. 212
- ^ a b Langguth, pp. 164–165
- ^ Langguth, pp. 158–159
- ^ Owens, p. 211
- ^ a b Langguth, pp. 165–166
- ^ Langguth, p. 166
- ^ Langguth, p. 164
- ^ Jornter, p. 177
- ^ a b Langguth, p. 167
- ^ a b c Jornter, p. 183
- ^ Jornter, p. 184
- ^ a b Owens, p. 213
- ^ Winkler (2015), p. 34
- ^ a b c Winkler (2015), p. 32
- ^ a b Winkler (2015), p. 33
- ^ Cave, pp. 116–118
- ^ Owens, pp. 214–215
- ^ "Fort Knox II". Indiana State Museum. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-08-18. Retrieved 2011-05-07.
- ^ Owens, p. 216
- ^ Tunnell, pp. 39–40
- ^ a b c Tunnell, p. 61
- ^ a b Owen, p. 217
- ^ a b Tunnell, p. 148
- ^ a b Tunnell, p. 73
- ^ a b c d e f Tunnell, p. 65
- ^ a b Cave, pp. 120–121
- ^ a b Owens, p. 219
- ^ Cave, p. 119
- ^ Tucker, vol. 1, p. 786, col. 2.
- ^ a b Owen, p. 218
- ^ Tunnell, p. 67
- ^ Dillon, p. 471.
- ^ Tunnell, p. 66
- ^ a b c Langguth, p. 169
- ^ Tunnell, p. 134
- ^ Tunnell, p. 99
- ^ a b Cave, p. 122
- ^ a b Jortner, p. 196
- ^ Tunnell, p. 175
- ^ Pirtle, pp. 76–77
- ^ Dillon, pp. 466–471
- ^ Owens, pp. 219–220
- ^ Owens, p. 220
- ^ a b c Jortner, p. 199
- ^ Owens, p. 222
- ^ Cave, p. 127
- ^ Sugden, pp. 260–61
- ^ Cave, p. 130
- ^ a b Cave, pp. 134–136
- ^ Cave, p. 123
- ^ Carnes, p. 41
- ^ Burr, S. J.; Burr, Samuel Jones (1840). "Burr, Samuel Jones (1840) The life and times of William Henry Harrison, p. 237". Archived from the original on 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ Tunnell, p. 146
- ^ Owens, pp. 220–221
- ^ Stathis, Stephen. "Congressional Gold Medals, 1776–2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-03.
- ^ Pirtle, p. 78
- ^ Resa, p. 110
- ^ Resa, pp. 7, 117
- ^ "Battlefield History". Tippecanoe County Historical Association. Archived from the original on 2009-02-24. Retrieved 2009-02-24.
- ^ a b "Tippecanoe Battlefield History". Tippecanoe County Historical Association. Archived from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
Sources
[edit]- Carnes, Mark C.; Mieczkowski, Yanek (2001). The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92139-8.
- Cave, Alfred A. (2006). Prophets of the Great Spirit. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1555-9.
- Dillon, John Brown (1859). "Letters of William Henry Harrison". A History of Indiana. Bingham & Doughty. ISBN 978-0-253-20305-2.
- Jortner, Adam. (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199765294
- Langguth, A. J. (2006). Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2618-9.
- Owens, Robert M. (2007). Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3842-8.
- Pirtle, Alfred. (1900). The Battle of Tippecanoe. Louisville: John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-7222-6509-3. as read to the Filson Club.
- Resa, Alva (1909). The Tippecanoe Battle-field Monument. New York: State of Indiana.
- Sugden, John (1999). Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-6121-5.
- Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9603-9.
- Tunnell, IV, H.D. (1998). To Compel with Armed Force: A Staff Ride Handbook for the Battle of Tippecanoe. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College.
- Winkler, John F (2015). Tippecanoe 1811. The Prophet's Battle. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 9781472808844.
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