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{{Short description|Ancient combat helmet of Greek origin}}
[[File:Boeotian helmet, 4th century BC.jpg|thumb|right|215px|Boeotian bronze helmet found in the [[Tigris|Tigris river]] in [[Iraq]], the front of the helmet is to the right (held at the [[Ashmolean Museum]] in [[Oxford]])]]
The '''Boeotian helmet''' was a type of military helmet used in [[Ancient Greece]] during the [[Classical Greece|classical]] and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] periods, as well as in [[Ancient Rome]]; it possibly originated in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]].
[[File:Boeotian helmet, 4th century BC.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Boeotian bronze helmet found in the [[Tigris|Tigris River]] in [[Iraq]]; the front of the helmet is to the right. Displayed at the [[Ashmolean Museum]], [[Oxford]].]]
The '''Boeotian helmet''' was a type of [[combat helmet]] used in [[Ancient Greece]] and Greek-influenced regions during the [[Classical Greece|classical]] and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] periods, as well as in [[Ancient Rome]]; it possibly originated in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]].


==Characteristics==
==Characteristics==
[[File:Macedonian Army Thessalian.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Thessaly|Thessalian]] cavalryman from the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]] wearing a Boeotian helmet.]]
[[File:Macedonian Army Thessalian.jpg|thumb|left|220x220px|[[Thessaly|Thessalian]] cavalryman from the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]] wearing a Boeotian helmet.]]


The Boeotian helmet was an open helmet, allowing good peripheral vision and unimpaired hearing. It had a domed skull surrounded by a wide, flaring, down-sloping brim. The brim came down at the rear to protect the back of the neck, projected forward over the forehead and was worked into a complex shape at the sides, with downward pointing folds affording some lateral protection to the face. A long falling plume was sometimes attached to this type of helmet. The need for unimpeded vision and good hearing was particularly acute for cavalrymen, therefore this type of helmet was used primarily by mounted troops.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1961|pp=147–148}}.</ref> It was modelled on the shape of a folded-down Boeotian variant of the ''[[petasos]]'', a type of Greek sun hat, usually made of felt.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2002|p=69}}.</ref>
The Boeotian helmet was modelled on the shape of a folded-down Boeotian variant of the ''[[petasos]]'', a type of Greek sun hat, usually made of [[felt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2002|p=69}}.</ref> As an open helmet, it allowed good peripheral vision and unimpaired hearing. It had a domed skull surrounded by a wide, flaring, down-sloping brim. The brim came down at the rear to protect the back of the neck, projected forward over the forehead and was worked into a complex shape at the sides, with downward pointing folds affording some lateral protection to the face. A long falling plume was sometimes attached to this type of helmet. The need for unimpeded vision and good hearing was particularly acute for [[cavalry]]men, therefore this type of helmet was used primarily by mounted troops.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1961|pp=147–148}}.</ref>


This type of helmet was beaten from a single sheet of bronze using a helmet-shaped "former," one of which, made of limestone, is extant. An excellently preserved example of this type of helmet, now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], was recovered from the [[Tigris River]] in [[Iraq]]. It may have belonged to one of Alexander the Great's cavalrymen. In Late Hellenistic times, the Boeotian helmet evolved into a type with a taller, more conical skull and often a reduced brim.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=73}}.</ref>
This type of helmet was beaten from a single sheet of bronze using a helmet-shaped "former," one of which, made of limestone, is extant. An excellently-preserved example of a Boeotian helmet, which may have belonged to one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s cavalrymen, was recovered from the [[Tigris River]] in [[Iraq]], and is now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]]. In the late Hellenistic period, the helmet evolved into a type with a taller, more conical skull and often a reduced brim.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=73}}.</ref>
{{clear}}


==Use==
== Use ==
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3bis.jpg|thumb|right|Roman altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (late 2nd century BC); the soldier holding his horse at the right wears a plumed Boeotian helmet.]]
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3bis.jpg|thumb|Roman altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (late 2nd century BC); the soldier holding his horse at the right wears a plumed Boeotian helmet.|275x275px]]
The Athenian military expert and author [[Xenophon]] particularly recommended the Boeotian helmet for cavalry, saying "...the Boeotian type [of helmet]. For this not only gives the greatest protection to all the parts above the cuirass, but allows free vision."<ref>Xenophon. ''Hippike'', XII.3; {{harvnb|Fraser|1922|p=99}}.</ref> This piece of advice was taken up by [[Alexander the Great]], who equipped his cavalry with this helmet.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1961|p=147}}.</ref> Both the [[Alexander sarcophagus]] and [[Alexander mosaic]] show cavalrymen of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]] wearing Boeotian helmets.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=72}}.</ref> As a specialised cavalry helmet, its use was not as widespread as some other ancient helmets such as the [[Corinthian helmet|Corinthian]] or [[Phrygian type helmet|Phrygian]] types. The helmet was used by Roman citizen cavalry in the [[Roman Republic|Republican]] period. On the [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|altar of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] (a [[Roman consul|consul]] in 122 BC), a Roman cavalryman is depicted wearing it with the later more conical skull and furnished with a falling horsehair plume.
The Athenian military expert and author [[Xenophon]] particularly recommended the Boeotian helmet for cavalry, saying "...the Boeotian type [of helmet]. For this not only gives the greatest protection to all the parts above the cuirass, but allows free vision."<ref>Xenophon. ''Hippike'', XII.3; {{harvnb|Fraser|1922|p=99}}.</ref> This piece of advice was taken up by [[Alexander the Great]], who equipped his cavalry with this helmet.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1961|p=147}}.</ref> Both the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]] and the ''[[Alexander Mosaic]]'' show cavalrymen of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]] wearing Boeotian helmets.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=72}}.</ref> As a specialised cavalry helmet, its use was not as widespread as some other ancient helmets such as the [[Corinthian helmet|Corinthian]] or [[Phrygian helmet|Phrygian]] types.

This helmet continued to be used by the successors of Alexander the Great, likely throughout the Hellenistic world, but is especially evident in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek kingdoms]] whose rulers often wore a variant of the helmet on coin depictions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eucratides {{!}} King of Bactria & Greco-Bactrian Empire {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eucratides |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> This was a very unusual and rare practice as most Hellenistic kings were shown wearing only the royal [[Diadem|diadems]] on their coins.

The helmet was also used by Roman citizen cavalry in the [[Roman Republic|Republican]] period. On the [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|altar of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] (a [[Roman consul|consul]] in 122 BC), a Roman cavalryman is depicted wearing it with the later more conical skull and furnished with a falling horsehair plume.


The naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are largely of modern origin and do not reflect contemporary usage.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|loc=p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin.")}}</ref> The term "Boeotian helmet", however, is an exception since it was employed by Xenophon and is therefore of contemporary usage. Another piece of martial equipment linked to the region of Boeotia is the [[Boeotian shield]]; however, no surviving examples have been found, and its association with the region is largely through depictions on local coinage.
The naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are largely of modern origin and do not reflect contemporary usage.<ref>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|loc=p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin.")}}</ref> The term "Boeotian helmet", however, is an exception since it was employed by Xenophon and is therefore of contemporary usage. Another piece of martial equipment linked to the region of Boeotia is the [[Boeotian shield]]; however, no surviving examples have been found, and its association with the region is largely through depictions on local coinage.

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="190" heights="190">
File:Tetradrachm Eukratides I obverse NMAT RN474-1 (cropped).jpg|Coin of [[Eucratides I]] wearing a crested Boeotian helmet, decorated with bull's horn and ear; c. 171–145 BC.
File:Hermaeus profile.jpg|Indo-Greek king [[Hermaeus]] wearing a similar helmet, depicted on one of his silver coins; c. 90–70 BC.
File:Boeotian helmet.jpg|A Boeotian helmet found in the Tigris river, seen from a different angle showing damage.
</gallery>



==References==
==References==
Line 19: Line 33:


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=John Kinloch|year=1961|title=Ancient Greek Horsemanship|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.ch/books?id=XJ7wnnaaMMoC|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=John Kinloch |author-link=John Kinloch Anderson |year=1961|title=Ancient Greek Horsemanship|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XJ7wnnaaMMoC}}
*{{cite book|last=Connolly|first=Peter|title=Greece and Rome at War|location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books|year=1998|isbn=978-1-85367-303-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_LbAAAAMAAJ|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Connolly|first=Peter |author-link=Peter Connolly (classical scholar) |title=Greece and Rome at War|location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books|year=1998|isbn=978-1-85367-303-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_LbAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite journal|last=Fraser|first=A.D.|title=Xenophon and the Boeotian Helmet|journal=The Art Bulletin|volume=4|number=3|year=1922|pages=99–108|doi=10.2307/3046411|ref=harv|jstor=3046411}}
*{{cite journal|last=Fraser|first=A.D.|title=Xenophon and the Boeotian Helmet|journal=The Art Bulletin|volume=4|number=3|year=1922|pages=99–108|doi=10.2307/3046411|jstor=3046411}}
*{{cite book|last=Sekunda|first=Nick|year=2002|title=Marathon 490 BC: The First Persian Invasion Of Greece|location=Oxford|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-0-27-598836-4|url=https://books.google.ch/books?id=4zNoAAAAMAAJ|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Sekunda|first=Nick |author-link=Nicholas Sekunda |year=2002|title=Marathon 490 BC: The First Persian Invasion Of Greece|location=Oxford|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-0-27-598836-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4zNoAAAAMAAJ}}


==External links==
==External links==

Latest revision as of 18:11, 26 December 2024

Boeotian bronze helmet found in the Tigris River in Iraq; the front of the helmet is to the right. Displayed at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

The Boeotian helmet was a type of combat helmet used in Ancient Greece and Greek-influenced regions during the classical and Hellenistic periods, as well as in Ancient Rome; it possibly originated in the Greek region of Boeotia.

Characteristics

[edit]
Thessalian cavalryman from the Alexander Sarcophagus wearing a Boeotian helmet.

The Boeotian helmet was modelled on the shape of a folded-down Boeotian variant of the petasos, a type of Greek sun hat, usually made of felt.[1] As an open helmet, it allowed good peripheral vision and unimpaired hearing. It had a domed skull surrounded by a wide, flaring, down-sloping brim. The brim came down at the rear to protect the back of the neck, projected forward over the forehead and was worked into a complex shape at the sides, with downward pointing folds affording some lateral protection to the face. A long falling plume was sometimes attached to this type of helmet. The need for unimpeded vision and good hearing was particularly acute for cavalrymen, therefore this type of helmet was used primarily by mounted troops.[2]

This type of helmet was beaten from a single sheet of bronze using a helmet-shaped "former," one of which, made of limestone, is extant. An excellently-preserved example of a Boeotian helmet, which may have belonged to one of Alexander the Great's cavalrymen, was recovered from the Tigris River in Iraq, and is now in the Ashmolean Museum. In the late Hellenistic period, the helmet evolved into a type with a taller, more conical skull and often a reduced brim.[3]

Use

[edit]
Roman altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (late 2nd century BC); the soldier holding his horse at the right wears a plumed Boeotian helmet.

The Athenian military expert and author Xenophon particularly recommended the Boeotian helmet for cavalry, saying "...the Boeotian type [of helmet]. For this not only gives the greatest protection to all the parts above the cuirass, but allows free vision."[4] This piece of advice was taken up by Alexander the Great, who equipped his cavalry with this helmet.[5] Both the Alexander Sarcophagus and the Alexander Mosaic show cavalrymen of the Ancient Macedonian army wearing Boeotian helmets.[6] As a specialised cavalry helmet, its use was not as widespread as some other ancient helmets such as the Corinthian or Phrygian types.

This helmet continued to be used by the successors of Alexander the Great, likely throughout the Hellenistic world, but is especially evident in the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms whose rulers often wore a variant of the helmet on coin depictions.[7] This was a very unusual and rare practice as most Hellenistic kings were shown wearing only the royal diadems on their coins.

The helmet was also used by Roman citizen cavalry in the Republican period. On the altar of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (a consul in 122 BC), a Roman cavalryman is depicted wearing it with the later more conical skull and furnished with a falling horsehair plume.

The naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are largely of modern origin and do not reflect contemporary usage.[8] The term "Boeotian helmet", however, is an exception since it was employed by Xenophon and is therefore of contemporary usage. Another piece of martial equipment linked to the region of Boeotia is the Boeotian shield; however, no surviving examples have been found, and its association with the region is largely through depictions on local coinage.

[edit]
  • Coin of Eucratides I wearing a crested Boeotian helmet, decorated with bull's horn and ear; c. 171–145 BC.
    Coin of Eucratides I wearing a crested Boeotian helmet, decorated with bull's horn and ear; c. 171–145 BC.
  • Indo-Greek king Hermaeus wearing a similar helmet, depicted on one of his silver coins; c. 90–70 BC.
    Indo-Greek king Hermaeus wearing a similar helmet, depicted on one of his silver coins; c. 90–70 BC.
  • A Boeotian helmet found in the Tigris river, seen from a different angle showing damage.
    A Boeotian helmet found in the Tigris river, seen from a different angle showing damage.


References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sekunda 2002, p. 69.
  2. ^ Anderson 1961, pp. 147–148.
  3. ^ Connolly 1998, p. 73.
  4. ^ Xenophon. Hippike, XII.3; Fraser 1922, p. 99.
  5. ^ Anderson 1961, p. 147.
  6. ^ Connolly 1998, p. 72.
  7. ^ "Eucratides | King of Bactria & Greco-Bactrian Empire | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  8. ^ Connolly 1998, p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin.")

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
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