Tian Shan: Difference between revisions

Tian Shan
Tian Shan
Tengri Tagh, Tengir-Too, 天山
	The Tian Shan range on the border of China, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan with Khan Tengri (7,010 m) visible at center
Highest point
Peak	Jengish Chokusu
Elevation	7,439 m (24,406 ft)
Coordinates	42°02′06″N 80°07′32″E / 42.03500°N 80.12556°E
Geography
	Tian Shan Tian Shan
Countries	China; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Uzbekistan; Tajikistan;
Range coordinates	42°N 80°E / 42°N 80°E
Geology
Rock age(s)	Mesozoic and Cenozoic
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Xinjiang Tianshan
Type	Natural
Criteria	vii, ix
Designated	2013 (37th session)
Reference no.	1414
Region	Asia
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Western Tien-Shan
Type	Natural
Criteria	x
Designated	2016 (40th session)
Reference no.	1490
Region	Asia

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The Tian Shan,^{[note 1]} also known as the Tengri Tagh^[1] or Tengir-Too,^[2] meaning the "Mountains of God/Heaven", is a large system of mountain ranges in Central Asia. The highest peak is Jengish Chokusu at 7,439 metres (24,406 ft) high. Its lowest point is at the Turpan Depression, which is 154 m (505 ft) below sea level.^[3]

The Tian Shan is sacred in Tengrism. Its second-highest peak is known as Khan Tengri, which can be translated as "Lord of the Spirits".^[4] At the 2013 Conference on World Heritage, the eastern portion of Tian Shan in western China's Xinjiang Region was listed as a World Heritage Site.^[5] The western portion in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan was then listed in 2016.^[6]

Geography

The Tian Shan range is located north and west of the Taklamakan Desert and directly north of the Tarim Basin. It straddles the border regions of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Xinjiang in Northwest China. To the south, it connects with the Pamir Mountains, while to north and east, it meets the Altai Mountains of Mongolia.

The Tian Shan range extends eastwards for approximately 2,900 kilometers from Tashkent, Uzbekistan.^[3] It forms part of the Himalayan orogenic belt, resulting from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates during the Cenozoic era. The range encompasses the Bogda Shan in the east, as defined by both Western and Chinese cartography.

The Tian Shan's highest peak is Jengish Chokusu (also known as Victory Peak) , shared by Kyrgyzstan and China. At 7,439 metres (24,406 ft) high, it is the highest point in Kyrgyzstan.^[3] The Tian Shan's second highest peak, Khan Tengri (King Heaven), straddles the Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-China tripoint and at 7,010 metres (23,000 ft), is the highest point of Kazakhstan. Mountaineers class these as the two northernmost peaks surpassing 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) in the world.

The Torugart Pass, at 3,752 metres (12,310 ft), marks the border between Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang. The lower-altitude, forested Alatau ranges in the northern Tian Shan is home to Turkic-speaking pastoral tribes.

The Tian Shan is separated from the Tibetan Plateau by the Taklimakan Desert and the Tarim Basin to the south. The Syr Darya, Ili River and Tarim River that originate in the Tian Shan. The Aksu Canyon is a prominent feature in the mountain range's northwestern section.

Continuous permafrost typically forms in the Tian Shan at elevations above 3,500-3,700 meters. Discontinuous permafrost can be found as low as 2,000 meters in specific locations influenced by unique topographical and climatic conditions, though it generally occurs between 2,700-3,300 meters altitude.^[7]

The Tian Shan's glaciers are rapidly receding, losing 27% or 5.4 billion tons of ice annually since 1961— nearly four times the global average of 7%. By 2050, half of the remaining ice is projected to disappear.^[8]

Russian explorer Peter Semenov was one of the first European to extensively document the Tian Shan in the 1850s.

Ranges

The Tian Shan have a number of named ranges which are often mentioned separately (all distances are approximate):

Barkol Tagh (Barkol Shan),
Bei Shan,
Bogda Shan,
Borohoro Shan,
Irenchabirga,
Qarliq Tagh (Qarlik Shan, Karkik Tagh, Karlik Shan, Harlik Shan),
Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range (Kyrgyz Alatau, Kyrgyz Range, Alexander Range),
Kakshaal Too (Kokschaal Tau, Qaqşaal Too),
Küngöy Ala-Too Range (Kungej-Alatau, Kungey Alatau, Kungoy Ala-Too, Küngei Alataw. Kungey Alataw),
Ketmen Ridge
Kuruk Tagh (Quruq Tagh, Kuruktagh, Kuluketage, Kuruktage Shan),
Talas Alatau (Talas Alatow, Talas Ala-Too),
Suusamyr Too
Terskey Alatoo (Terskey Alatau, Terskej Alatau, Teskey Alatoo) and
Trans-Ili Alatau (Ile Alatau, Ile Alatauy, Zailiisky Alatau, Transili Alatau).

In China the Tian Shan starts from about 600 to 400 kilometres (370 to 250 mi) east of Ürümqi, north of Kumul City (Hami) with the Qarlik Tagh and the Barkol Mountains. Then the Bogda Shan (god mountains) run from 350 to 40 kilometres (217 to 25 mi) east of Ürümqi. Then there is a low area between Ürümqi and the Turfan Depression. The Borohoro Mountains start just south of Ürümqi and run west-northwest 450 kilometres (280 mi) separating Dzungaria from the Ili River basin. Their north end abuts on the 200 kilometres (120 mi) Dzungarian Alatau which runs east northeast along Sino-Kazakh border. They start 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of Taldykorgan in Kazakhstan and end at the Dzungarian Gate. The Dzungarian Alatau in the north, the Borohoro Mountains in the middle and the Ketmen Ridge in the south make a reversed Z or S, the northeast enclosing part of Dzungaria and the southwest enclosing the upper Ili valley.

Snow-capped peaks of the Tian Shan seen from an Issyk Kul Lake beach

In Kyrgyzstan the mainline of the Tian Shan continues as Narat Range from the base of the Borohoros west 570 kilometres (350 mi) to the point where China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan meet. Here is the highest part of the range – the Central Tian Shan, with Peak Pobeda (Kakshaal Too range) and Khan Tengri. West of this, the Tian Shan split into an 'eye', with Issyk Kul Lake in its center. The south side of the lake is the Terskey Alatau and the north side the Kyungey Ala-Too (shady and sunny Ala-Too). North of the Kyungey Ala-Too and parallel to it is the Trans-Ili Alatau in Kazakhstan just south of Almaty. West of the eye, the range continues 400 kilometres (250 mi) as the Kyrgyz Ala-Too, separating Chüy Region from Naryn Region and then Kazakhstan from the upper valley of the river Talas, the south side of which is the 200 kilometres (120 mi) Talas Ala-Too Range ('Ala-too' is a Kyrgyz spelling of Alatau). At the east end of the Talas Alatau the Suusamyr Too range runs southeast enclosing the Suusamyr Valley or plateau.

As for the area south of the Fergana Valley there is an 800 kilometres (500 mi) group of mountains that curves west-southwest from south of Issyk Kul Lake separating the Tarim Basin from the Fergana Valley. The Fergana Range runs northeast towards the Talas Ala-Too and separates the upper Naryn basin from Fergana proper. The southern side of these mountains merge into the Pamirs in Tajikistan (Alay Mountains and Trans-Alay Range). West of this is the Turkestan Range, which continues almost to Samarkand.

Ice Age

The Tian Shan plateau, stretching 100 to 120 km wide, is located on the northern margin of the Tarim basin between the Kokshaal-Tau mountain chain to the south and the Terskey Alatau mountain chain to the north. The Kokshaal-Tau extends for 570 km from Pik Dankowa in the west to Pik Pobeda in the east-northeast. This mountain chain, along with the parallel Terskey Alatau and the Tian Shan plateau in between, were covered by connected ice-stream-networks and a plateau glacier during glacial times. The only remaining interglacial remnant of this glaciation is the 61 km long South Inylschek glacier. The outlet glacier tongues of the plateau glacier flowed northward down to Lake Issyk Kul, calving in this 160 km long lake.

Similarly, strong glaciation was present in the high mountain area of the Kungey Alatau, which stretches for 230 km north of Issyk Kul and connects to the mountain foreland near Alma Ata. The glacial glaciers from the Kungey Alatau also calved into Lake Issyk Kul, with the Ak-Sai valley glacier developing a mountain foreland glacier.^[9]^[10]^[11] The Chon-Kemin valley was glaciated up to its inflow into the Chu valley.^[9]^[12]^[11]

Altogether, the glacial Tian Shan glaciation occupied an area of approximately 118,000 square kilometers. The glacier snowline was about 1200m lower during the last ice age than it is today. This would result in a depression of the average annual temperature of 7.2 to 8.4 °C for the Last Glacial Maximum compared with today, assuming a comparable precipitation ratio.^[9]

Ecology

The Tian Shan holds important forests of Schrenk's spruce (Picea schrenkiana) at altitudes of over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft); the lower slopes have unique natural forests of wild walnuts and apples.^[13]

The Tian Shan in its immediate geological past was kept from glaciation due to the "protecting" warm influence of the Indian Ocean monsoon climate. This defined its ecological features which could sustain its distinctive ecosphere. The mountains were subjected to constant geological changes with constantly evolving drainage systems which affected the patterns of vegetation, as well as exposing fertile soil for newly emerging seedlings to thrive in.

Tulips originated in the Tian Shan Mountains. The plant then made its way to Turkey via the Silk Road and became a symbol of the Ottoman Empire.^[14]

Ancestors of important crop vegetation were established and thrived in the area, among them: apricots (Prunus armeniaca), pears (Pyrus spp.), pomegranates (Punica granatum), figs (Ficus), cherries (Prunus avium) and mulberries (Morus). The Tian Shan region also included important animals like bears, deer, and wild boar, which helped to spread seeds and expand ecological diversity.

Among the vegetation colonizing the Tian Shan came, likely via birds from the east, the ancestors of what we know as the "sweet" apple. The fruit probably then looked like a tiny, long-stalked, bitter apple something like Malus baccata, the Siberian crab. The pips may have been carried in a bird's crop or clotted onto feet or feathers.

What natural features of the unique Tian Shan might have contributed to this rigorous selection program? Time is, as we have seen, not a problem. The turnover of individual trees is likewise conducive to the rapid evolution of a tree species, as is the fact that sweet apples are now, at least for all practical purposes, self-incompatible—that is, they cannot pollinate themselves. Therefore each apple tree within the forest and even each pip, usually five, within each individual fruit will be different. There are many apples on a mature tree, so natural selection has a rich and diverse population upon which to work. Birds, of course, eat all manner of fruit. But most birds eat seeds—a dietary feature not conducive either to the selection or spread of a fruit tree. Sweet apples are often eviscerated by birds, but the seeds are frequently left in the empty shell of the pome. The reason is that apple (and pear and quince) seeds are rich in cyanoglycosides, which are highly repellent, particularly to birds... Moreover, the placenta of the apple fruit, the womb, contains inhibitory substances that prevent the germination of the apple seed in situ. This is a commonly observed phenomenon in fruits as Michael Evenari showed in 1949. So what then does, or did, distribute the original apple seed? The bear...
— Barrie E. Juniper^[15]

The strain of Y. pestis which caused the bubonic plague now know as the Black Death may have originated in the Tian Shan, spreading along the Silk Road and killing half of Europe's population in the mid 1300s.^[16]

Climate

Tian Shan has an alpine climate (Köppen climate classification ETH).

Climate data for Tian Shan (Urumqi Glacier No.1), (elevation 3,539 m (11,611 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	0.4 (32.7)	2.2 (36.0)	8.5 (47.3)	13.2 (55.8)	15.5 (59.9)	15.6 (60.1)	19.2 (66.6)	18.5 (65.3)	16.4 (61.5)	11.2 (52.2)	6.5 (43.7)	3.2 (37.8)	19.2 (66.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	−10.8 (12.6)	−8.6 (16.5)	−4.1 (24.6)	1.3 (34.3)	5.0 (41.0)	8.7 (47.7)	10.8 (51.4)	10.5 (50.9)	6.9 (44.4)	0.9 (33.6)	−4.8 (23.4)	−8.9 (16.0)	0.6 (33.0)
Daily mean °C (°F)	−15.3 (4.5)	−13.5 (7.7)	−9.5 (14.9)	−4.3 (24.3)	−0.2 (31.6)	3.7 (38.7)	5.9 (42.6)	5.3 (41.5)	1.5 (34.7)	−4.1 (24.6)	−9.5 (14.9)	−13.4 (7.9)	−4.4 (24.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	−19.1 (−2.4)	−17.6 (0.3)	−13.8 (7.2)	−8.4 (16.9)	−4.2 (24.4)	0.0 (32.0)	2.2 (36.0)	1.6 (34.9)	−2.2 (28.0)	−7.8 (18.0)	−13.2 (8.2)	−17.2 (1.0)	−8.3 (17.0)
Record low °C (°F)	−39.7 (−39.5)	−34.7 (−30.5)	−31.2 (−24.2)	−24.6 (−12.3)	−18.8 (−1.8)	−12.9 (8.8)	−6.9 (19.6)	−14.4 (6.1)	−17.5 (0.5)	−21.8 (−7.2)	−36.4 (−33.5)	−35.5 (−31.9)	−39.7 (−39.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	2.5 (0.10)	4.5 (0.18)	11.8 (0.46)	34.3 (1.35)	59.6 (2.35)	108.3 (4.26)	133.8 (5.27)	98.7 (3.89)	40.8 (1.61)	14.1 (0.56)	5.8 (0.23)	2.9 (0.11)	517.1 (20.37)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	3.6	5.5	9.0	14.4	18.4	21.6	23.1	19.4	13.7	8.5	4.7	3.6	145.5
Average snowy days	5.0	6.5	9.9	14.9	19.1	15.2	9.8	9.3	13.4	10.0	5.6	4.4	123.1
Average relative humidity (%)	48	50	52	59	63	70	71	67	61	54	50	48	58
Mean monthly sunshine hours	144.1	172.5	231.0	250.5	250.8	215.9	212.7	232.7	225.2	208.4	153.4	134.2	2,431.4
Percent possible sunshine	49	57	62	62	55	47	46	55	61	62	54	48	55
Source: China Meteorological Administration^[17]^[18]

Climate data for Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan weather station), 1991–2020 normals
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Daily mean °C (°F)	−19.4 (−2.9)	−16.8 (1.8)	−10.9 (12.4)	−4.5 (23.9)	−0.1 (31.8)	3.3 (37.9)	5.6 (42.1)	5.0 (41.0)	1.4 (34.5)	−5.1 (22.8)	−12.1 (10.2)	−17.3 (0.9)	−5.9 (21.4)
Source: NOAA^[19]

Religion

Tengrism

In Tengrism, Khan Tengri, is the lord of all spirits and the religion's supreme deity, and it is the name given to the second highest peak of Tian Shan.^[4]

Name

One of the earliest historical references to these mountains may be related to the Xiongnu word Qilian (traditional Chinese: 祁連; simplified Chinese: 祁连; pinyin: Qílián), which, according to Tang commentator Yan Shigu, is the Xiongnu word for "sky" or "heaven".^[20] Sima Qian, in the Records of the Grand Historian, mentioned Qilian in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi, and the term is believed to refer to the Tian Shan rather than the range 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) further east now known as the Qilian Mountains.^[21]^[22] The name of the Tannu-Ola mountains in Tuva has the same meaning. The Chinese name Tian Shan is most likely a direct translation of the traditional Kyrgyz name for the mountains, Teñir Too.^[1]

Notes

^
- Chinese: 天山; pinyin: Tiānshān; lit. 'Heaven Mountain'
- Dungan: Тянсан, Tiansan
- Old Turkic: 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, Tenğri tağ
- Turkish: Tanrı Dağı
- Mongolian: Тэнгэр уул, Tenger uul
- Uyghur: تەڭرىتاغ, Tengri tagh, Тәңри тағ
- Kazakh: Тәңіртауы / Алатау, Täñırtauy / Alatau, تٵ‬ڭٸرتاۋى / الاتاۋ
- Kyrgyz: Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, Tengir-Too / Ala-Too, تەڭىر-توو / الا-توو
- Uzbek: Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘, Тян-Шан / Тангритоғ, تيەن-شەن / تەڭرىتاغ

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b Prichard, James (1844). History of the Asiatic Nations. Vol. IV (3rd ed.). p. 281.
^ "Ensemble Tengir-Too". Aga Khan Trust for Culture. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). Natural Wonders of the World. USA: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.
^ ^a ^b Wilkinson, Philip (2 October 2003). Myths and Legends. Stacey International. p. 163. ISBN 978-1900988612. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
^ "新疆天山成功申遗". Archived from the original on 2013-06-27. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
^ "Western Tien-Shan". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
^ Gorbunov, A.P. (1993), "Geocryology in Mt. Tianshan", PERMAFROST: Sixth International Conference. Proceedings. July 5–9, Beijing, China, vol. 2, South China University of Technology Press, pp. 1105–1107, ISBN 978-7-5623-0484-5
^ Naik, Gautam (August 17, 2015). "Central Asia Mountain Range Has Lost a Quarter of Ice Mass in 50 Years, Study Says". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on August 18, 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kuhle, M. (1994). "New Findings on the Ice-cover between Issyk-Kul and K2 (Tian Shan, Karakorum) during the Last Glaciation". In Zheng Du; Zhang Qingsong; Pan Yusheng (eds.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains (ISKKM), Kashi, China, June 1992. Beijing: China Meteorological Press. pp. 185–197. ISBN 7-5029-1800-0.
^ Kuhle, M.; Schröder, N. (2000). "New Investigations and Results on the Maximum Glaciation of the Kirgisen Shan and Tian Shan Plateau between Kokshaal Tau and Terskey Alatau". In Zech, W. (ed.). Pamir and Tian Shan. Contribution of the Quaternary History. International Workshop at the University of Bayreuth. Bayreuth, University Bayreuth. p. 8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ ^a ^b Kuhle, M. (2004). "The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) glacier cover in High- and Central Asia. Accompanying text to the mapwork in hand with detailed references to the literature of the underlying empirical investigations". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P. L. (eds.). Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 175–199. ISBN 0-444-51462-7.
^ Grosswald, M. G.; Kuhle, M.; Fastook, J. L. (1994). "Würm Glaciation of Lake Issyk-Kul Area, Tian Shan Mts.: A Case Study in Glacial History of Central Asia". GeoJournal. 33 (2/3): 273–310. Bibcode:1994GeoJo..33..273G. doi:10.1007/BF00812878. S2CID 140639502.
^ Janik, Erika (October 25, 2011). "How the apple took over the planet". Salon. Archived from the original on August 9, 2020. Retrieved March 15, 2020.
^ Great Courses: 'The Botanist's Eye'(DVD 2 chapter 7) by Catherine Kleier, PhD from California Polytechnic State University.
^ Juniper, Barrie E. (2007). "The Mysterious Origin of the Sweet Apple: On its way to a grocery counter near you, this delicious fruit traversed continents and mastered coevolution". American Scientist. 95 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1511/2007.63.44. JSTOR 27858899.
^ Hunt, Katie (June 15, 2022). "DNA analysis reveals source of Black Death". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
^ 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
^ "Experience Template" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
^ "Tian Shan Climate Normals 1991-2020". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2024-04-14. Retrieved April 14, 2024.
^ 班固 (2015-08-20). 漢書: 顏師古註 Hanshu: Yan Shigu Commentary. Archived from the original on 2023-01-14. Retrieved 2016-09-10. 祁連山即天山也，匈奴呼天為祁連 (translation: Qilian Mountain is the Tian Shan, the Xiongnu called the sky qilian)
^ Liu, Xinru (Fall 2001), "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies", Journal of World History, 12 (2): 261–291, doi:10.1353/jwh.2001.0034, S2CID 162211306
^ Mallory, J. P. & Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6.

Sources

The Contemporary Atlas of China. 1988. London: Marshall Editions Ltd. Reprint 1989. Sydney, NSW: Collins Publishers Australia.
The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World. Eleventh Edition. 2003. London, England: Times Books Group Ltd.

External links

Russian mountaineering site Archived 2013-04-24 at the Wayback Machine
Tien Shan
Bealby, John Thomas (1911). "Tian-shan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 909–911.
United Nations University (2009) digital video "Finding a place to feed: Kyrgyz shepherds & pasture loss": Shepherd shares family's observations and adaptation to the changing climate in highland pastures of Kyrgyzstan's Tian Shan mountains Accessed 1 December 2009

[1] 
Chinese: 天山; pinyin: Tiānshān; lit. 'Heaven Mountain'
Dungan: Тянсан, Tiansan
Old Turkic: 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, Tenğri tağ
Turkish: Tanrı Dağı
Mongolian: Тэнгэр уул, Tenger uul
Uyghur: تەڭرىتاغ, Tengri tagh, Тәңри тағ
Kazakh: Тәңіртауы / Алатау, Täñırtauy / Alatau, تٵ‬ڭٸرتاۋى / الاتاۋ
Kyrgyz: Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, Tengir-Too / Ala-Too, تەڭىر-توو / الا-توو
Uzbek: Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘, Тян-Шан / Тангритоғ, تيەن-شەن / تەڭرىتاغ

[2] Chinese: 天山; pinyin: Tiānshān; lit. 'Heaven Mountain'

[3] Dungan: Тянсан, Tiansan

[4] Old Turkic: 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, Tenğri tağ

[5] Turkish: Tanrı Dağı

[6] Mongolian: Тэнгэр уул, Tenger uul

[7] Uyghur: تەڭرىتاغ, Tengri tagh, Тәңри тағ

[8] Kazakh: Тәңіртауы / Алатау, Täñırtauy / Alatau, تٵ‬ڭٸرتاۋى / الاتاۋ

[9] Kyrgyz: Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, Tengir-Too / Ala-Too, تەڭىر-توو / الا-توو

[10] Uzbek: Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘, Тян-Шан / Тангритоғ, تيەن-شەن / تەڭرىتاغ

[Prichard281-2] Prichard, James (1844). History of the Asiatic Nations. Vol. IV (3rd ed.). p. 281.

[3] "Ensemble Tengir-Too". Aga Khan Trust for Culture. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.

[readersnatural-4] Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). Natural Wonders of the World. USA: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.

[myths-5] Wilkinson, Philip (2 October 2003). Myths and Legends. Stacey International. p. 163. ISBN 978-1900988612. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2016.

[6] "新疆天山成功申遗". Archived from the original on 2013-06-27. Retrieved 2013-06-22.

[7] "Western Tien-Shan". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2016.

[8] Gorbunov, A.P. (1993), "Geocryology in Mt. Tianshan", PERMAFROST: Sixth International Conference. Proceedings. July 5–9, Beijing, China, vol. 2, South China University of Technology Press, pp. 1105–1107, ISBN 978-7-5623-0484-5

[9] Naik, Gautam (August 17, 2015). "Central Asia Mountain Range Has Lost a Quarter of Ice Mass in 50 Years, Study Says". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on August 18, 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015.

[meteorological1994-10] Kuhle, M. (1994). "New Findings on the Ice-cover between Issyk-Kul and K2 (Tian Shan, Karakorum) during the Last Glaciation". In Zheng Du; Zhang Qingsong; Pan Yusheng (eds.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains (ISKKM), Kashi, China, June 1992. Beijing: China Meteorological Press. pp. 185–197. ISBN 7-5029-1800-0.

[11] Kuhle, M.; Schröder, N. (2000). "New Investigations and Results on the Maximum Glaciation of the Kirgisen Shan and Tian Shan Plateau between Kokshaal Tau and Terskey Alatau". In Zech, W. (ed.). Pamir and Tian Shan. Contribution of the Quaternary History. International Workshop at the University of Bayreuth. Bayreuth, University Bayreuth. p. 8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[autogenerated175-12] Kuhle, M. (2004). "The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) glacier cover in High- and Central Asia. Accompanying text to the mapwork in hand with detailed references to the literature of the underlying empirical investigations". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P. L. (eds.). Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 175–199. ISBN 0-444-51462-7.

[13] Grosswald, M. G.; Kuhle, M.; Fastook, J. L. (1994). "Würm Glaciation of Lake Issyk-Kul Area, Tian Shan Mts.: A Case Study in Glacial History of Central Asia". GeoJournal. 33 (2/3): 273–310. Bibcode:1994GeoJo..33..273G. doi:10.1007/BF00812878. S2CID 140639502.

[14] Janik, Erika (October 25, 2011). "How the apple took over the planet". Salon. Archived from the original on August 9, 2020. Retrieved March 15, 2020.

[15] Great Courses: 'The Botanist's Eye'(DVD 2 chapter 7) by Catherine Kleier, PhD from California Polytechnic State University.

[16] Juniper, Barrie E. (2007). "The Mysterious Origin of the Sweet Apple: On its way to a grocery counter near you, this delicious fruit traversed continents and mastered coevolution". American Scientist. 95 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1511/2007.63.44. JSTOR 27858899.

[17] Hunt, Katie (June 15, 2022). "DNA analysis reveals source of Black Death". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.

[cma_graphical-18] 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 10 October 2023.

[19] "Experience Template" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 10 October 2023.

[NOAA9120-20] "Tian Shan Climate Normals 1991-2020". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2024-04-14. Retrieved April 14, 2024.

[21] 班固 (2015-08-20). 漢書: 顏師古註 Hanshu: Yan Shigu Commentary. Archived from the original on 2023-01-14. Retrieved 2016-09-10. 祁連山即天山也，匈奴呼天為祁連 (translation: Qilian Mountain is the Tian Shan, the Xiongnu called the sky qilian)

[22] Liu, Xinru (Fall 2001), "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies", Journal of World History, 12 (2): 261–291, doi:10.1353/jwh.2001.0034, S2CID 162211306

[23] Mallory, J. P. & Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6.

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[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

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[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

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[17]

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[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

v t e Mountain ranges of China
Geography of China
Northwestern	Altai Mountains Dzungarian Alatau Tian Shan Borohoro Mountains Tarbagatai Mountains Kunlun Mountains Altyn-Tagh Qilian Mountains Helan Mountains Liupan Mountains
Qinghai-Tibet and Southwestern	Himalayas Transhimalaya Pamir Mountains Karakoram Argu Tagh Yengisogat Kunlun Mountains Hoh Xil Bayan Har Mountains Amne Machin Tanggula Mountains Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains Hengduan Mountains Gaoligong Mountains Yunling Mountains Ailao Mountains Qionglai Mountains Daxue Mountains Min Mountains
Northeast	Greater Khingan Lesser Khingan Changbai Mountains Wanda Mountains Qian Mountains
North and East	Yin Mountains Lang Mountains Lüliang Mountains Taihang Mountains Zhongtiao Mountains Mount Tai Tianmu Mountain Yandang Mountains Wuyi Mountains
Central	Qinling Daba Mountains Dabie Mountains Wudang Mountains Jingshan Mountains Luoxiao Mountains Jiuling Mountains Mufu Mountains Wugong Mountains Huangshan Wuling Mountains Xuefeng Mountains
South	Cang Mountain Daliang Mountains Dalou Mountains Nanling Mountains Jiuyi Mountains Yuecheng Mountains Longmen Mountains Western Mountains
Landforms of China

v t e World Heritage Sites in China
East	Archaeological Ruins of Liangzhu City Classical Gardens of Suzhou Fujian tulou Lushan Huangshan Migratory Bird Sanctuaries along the Coast of Yellow Sea–Bohai Sea of China (Phase I) Mount Sanqing Mount Tai Wuyi Mountains Temple and Cemetery of Confucius and Kong Family Mansion in Qufu Xidi, and Hongcun West Lake Kulangsu
South Central	Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains Historic Centre of Macau Shennongjia Kaiping Diaolou and Villages Longmen Grottoes Historic Monuments of Dengfeng, including the Shaolin Monastery and Gaocheng Observatory Zuojiang Huashan Rock Art Wulingyuan Yinxu
Southwestern	Chengjiang Fossil Site Dazu Rock Carvings Fanjingshan Honghe Hani Rice Terraces Huanglong Jiuzhaigou Lijiang Mount Emei and Leshan Giant Buddha Mount Qingcheng and Dujiangyan Potala Palace, including the Jokhang and Norbulingka Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries Three Parallel Rivers
North	Mount Wutai Chengde Mountain Resort, including Putuo Zongcheng Temple, Xumi Fushou Temple and Puning Temple Forbidden City Zhoukoudian Ancient City of Pingyao Summer Palace Temple of Heaven Xanadu Yungang Grottoes Beijing Central Axis
Northeast	Koguryo sites Mukden Palace
Northwestern	Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor Mogao Caves Xinjiang Tianshan Qinghai Hoh Xil
Multiple regions	Great Wall China Danxia Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties South China Karst Grand Canal Silk Roads Tusi Sites Migratory Bird Sanctuaries along the Coast of Yellow Sea–Bohai Sea of China (Phase II) Badain Jaran Desert

v t e Xinjiang topics
Ürümqi (capital)
History	Tocharians Western Regions Loulan Shule Yuezhi Kucha Karasahr Xiongnu Gaochang Khotan Han dynasty Protectorate of the Western Regions Chief Official of the Western Regions Kingdom of Khotan Sixteen Kingdoms Gaochang Göktürks: First, Western, Eastern and Second Tang dynasty Protectorate General to Pacify the West Four Garrisons of Anxi Beiting Protectorate Tibetan Empire Uyghur Khaganate Qocho Kara-Khanid Khanate Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin Qara Khitai Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty Chagatai Khanate Moghulistan Kara Del Turpan Khanate Yarkent Khanate Dzungar Khanate Dzungar conquest of Altishahr Dzungar–Qing Wars Dzungar genocide Kumul Khanate Qing dynasty Qing rule Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas Afaqi Khoja revolts Holy War of the Seven Khojas General of Ili Reconquest of Xinjiang Republic of China Xinjiang Wars First East Turkestan Republic Second East Turkestan Republic Ili Rebellion People's Republic of China PRC incorporation
Geography	Cities Tian Shan Junggar Basin (Dzungaria) Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang) Gurbantünggüt Desert Kumtag Desert Taklamakan Desert Turpan Depression Karakoram Mountains Altai Mountains Kunlun Mountains Pamir Mountains Hexi Corridor Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway
Education	Xinjiang University Xinjiang Agricultural University Xinjiang Medical University Xinjiang University of Finance and Economics
Culture	Doppa Festival Music Meshrep gathering Muqam Tocharian clothing
Cuisine	Dapanji Nan Sangza Samsa Youtazi Pamirdin Xurpa Tunurkawab Chinese Islamic cuisine
Economy	Silk Road China Western Development Cotton industry National Cotton and Cotton Yarn Trading Center Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps Xinjiang Free-Trade Zone
Visitor attractions	Apak Khoja and Xiang Fei Tomb Flaming Mountains Jiaohe ruins Gaochang Grand Bazaar, Ürümqi Id Kah Mosque Karakul Lake Kizil Caves Niya ruins
People	Amursana Mingrui Jahangir Khoja Yaqub Beg Zuo Zongtang Yang Zengxin Jin Shuren Sabit Damolla Sheng Shicai Ehmetjan Qasim Wang Zhen Saifuddin Azizi Rebiya Kadeer Nur Bekri Li Zhi Wang Lequan Zhang Chunxian Ilham Tohti Salih Hudayar Sattar Sawut Shirzat Bawudun Ghulam Osman Yaghma Rahile Dawut
Related	Uyghur people Xinjiang conflict Migration to Xinjiang Altishahr Chinese Turkestan East Turkestan East Turkistan Government in Exile East Turkistan National Awakening Movement Independence movement World Uyghur Congress China–Kazakhstan relations China–Kyrgyzstan relations China–Pakistan relations China–Turkey relations
Category Commons

v t e Sacred Mountains of China
Five Great Mountains	Tai Hua Heng (Hunan) Heng (Shanxi) Song
Four Sacred Chinese Buddhist Mountains	Emei Jiuhua Putuo Wutai
Four Sacred Tibetan Buddhist Mountains	Kawagarbo Amne Machin Rinpoche (Kailash) Ghado Jobo
Four Sacred Taoist Mountains	Wudang Longhu Qiyun Qingcheng
Three Sacred Mountains	Tian Shan Changbai Kunlun
Three Famous Mountains	Huang Lushan Yandang
Five Garrison Mountains	Yi Wu Kuaiji Yiwulü Huo
Other Sacred Mountains	Lao Zhongnan Gongga Qomolangma (Everest) Three Holy Peaks of Nyidên, Dabba (Yading)

Authority control databases
International	VIAF
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