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{{short description|Problem or conflict in the function of a government that a political constitution or other fundamental governing law is perceived to be unable to resolve}}
{{Short description|Conflict a governing law is unable to resolve}}


In [[political science]], a '''constitutional crisis''' is a problem or conflict in the function of a government that the [[constitution|political constitution]] or other fundamental governing law is perceived to be unable to resolve. There are several variations to this definition. For instance, one describes it as the crisis that arises out of the failure, or at least a strong risk of failure, of a constitution to perform its central functions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Constitutions in the Global Financial Crisis: A Comparative Analysis|last=Contiades|first=Xenophon|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781409466314|location=Oxon|pages=53}}</ref> The crisis may arise from a variety of possible causes. For example, a government may want to pass a law contrary to its constitution; the constitution may fail to provide a clear answer for a specific situation; the constitution may be clear but it may be politically infeasible to follow it; the government institutions themselves may falter or fail to live up to what the law prescribes them to be; or officials in the government may justify avoiding dealing with a serious problem based on narrow interpretations of the law.<ref>{{cite web | title=The 4 Types of Constitutional Crises | author1=Azari, Julia | author2=Masket, Seth | date=February 9, 2017 | url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/constitutional-crisis/ | website=FiveThirtyEight}}</ref><ref name="Graber (2015), p. 244">{{cite book | title=A New Introduction to American Constitutionalism | author=Graber, Mark A. | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2015 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHYRDAAAQBAJ | page=244}}</ref> Specific examples include the South African [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis]] in the 1950s, the [[Secession in the United States|secession of the southern U.S. states]] in 1860 and 1861, the controversial [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis|dismissal of the Australian Federal government]] in 1975 and the [[2007 Ukrainian political crisis|2007 Ukrainian crisis]].
In [[political science]], a '''constitutional crisis''' is a problem or conflict in the function of a government that the [[constitution|political constitution]] or other fundamental governing law is perceived to be unable to resolve. There are several variations to this definition. For instance, one describes it as the crisis that arises out of the failure, or at least a strong risk of failure, of a constitution to perform its central functions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Constitutions in the Global Financial Crisis: A Comparative Analysis|last=Contiades|first=Xenophon|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781409466314|location=Oxon|pages=53}}</ref> The crisis may arise from a variety of possible causes. For example, a government may want to pass a law contrary to its constitution; the constitution may fail to provide a clear answer for a specific situation; the constitution may be clear but it may be politically infeasible to follow it; the government institutions themselves may falter or fail to live up to what the law prescribes them to be; or officials in the government may justify avoiding dealing with a serious problem based on narrow interpretations of the law.<ref>{{cite web | title=The 4 Types of Constitutional Crises | author1=Azari, Julia |author-link1=Julia Azari | author2=Masket, Seth | date=February 9, 2017 | url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/constitutional-crisis/ | website=FiveThirtyEight}}</ref><ref name="Graber (2015), p. 244">{{cite book | title=A New Introduction to American Constitutionalism | author=Graber, Mark A. | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2015 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHYRDAAAQBAJ | page=244| isbn=9780190245238 }}</ref> Specific examples include the South African [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis]] in the 1950s, the [[Secession in the United States|secession of the southern U.S. states]] in 1860 and 1861, the [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis|dismissal of the Australian federal government]] in 1975 and the [[2007 Ukrainian political crisis|2007 Ukrainian crisis]]. While the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] does not have a codified constitution, it is deemed to have [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|an uncodified one]], and issues and crises in the UK and its constituent countries are described as constitutional crises.


Constitutional crises may arise from conflicts between different branches of government, conflicts between central and local governments, or simply conflicts among various factions within society. In the course of government, the crisis results when one or more of the parties to a [[Controversy|political dispute]] willfully chooses to violate a law of the [[constitution]]; or to flout an unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]; or to dispute the correct, legal interpretation of the violated constitutional law or of the flouted political custom. This was demonstrated by the so-called [[XYZ Affair]], which involved the bribery of French officials by a contingent of American commissioners who were sent to preserve peace between [[France]] and the United States.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Many, One: Readings in American Political and Social Thought|last=Sinopoli|first=Richard|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=1996|isbn=0878406263|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=185}}</ref> The incident was published in the American press and created a foreign policy crisis, which precipitated the passage of the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]]. Opposition to these acts in the form of the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions|Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions]] cited that they violated freedom of speech and exhorted states to refuse their enforcement since they violated the Constitution.<ref name=":0" />
Constitutional crises may arise from conflicts between different branches of government, conflicts between central and local governments, or simply conflicts among various factions within society. In the course of government, the crisis results when one or more of the parties to a [[Controversy|political dispute]] willfully chooses to violate a law of the [[constitution]]; or to flout an unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]; or to dispute the correct, legal interpretation of the violated constitutional law or of the flouted political custom. This was demonstrated by the [[XYZ Affair]], which involved the bribery of French officials by a contingent of American commissioners who were sent to preserve peace between [[France]] and the United States.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Many, One: Readings in American Political and Social Thought|last=Sinopoli|first=Richard|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=1996|isbn=0878406263|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=185}}</ref> The incident was published in the American press and created a foreign policy crisis, which precipitated the passage of the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]]. Opposition to these acts in the form of the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions|Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions]] cited that they violated freedom of speech and exhorted states to refuse their enforcement since they violated the Constitution.<ref name=":0" />


Moreover, if the crisis arises because the constitution is legally ambiguous, the ultimate resolution usually establishes the legal precedent to resolve future crises of constitutional administration. Such was the case in the United States presidential succession of [[John Tyler]], which established that a successor to the presidency assumes the office without any limitation.
When the crisis arises because the constitution is legally ambiguous, the ultimate resolution usually establishes the legal precedent to resolve future crises of constitutional administration. Such was the case in the United States presidential succession of [[John Tyler]], which established that a successor to the presidency assumes the office without any limitation. Politically, a constitutional crisis can lead to administrative paralysis and eventual collapse of the government, the loss of [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]], or to [[civil war]]. A constitutional crisis is distinct from a [[rebellion]], which occurs when political factions ''outside'' a government challenge the government's sovereignty, as in a ''[[coup d'état]]'' or a [[revolution]] led by the military or by civilians.

Politically, a constitutional crisis can lead to administrative paralysis and eventual collapse of the government, the loss of [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]], or to [[civil war]]. A constitutional crisis is distinct from a [[rebellion]], which occurs when political factions ''outside'' a government challenge the government's sovereignty, as in a ''[[coup d'état]]'' or a [[revolution]] led by the military or by civilians.


==Africa==
==Africa==
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===Democratic Republic of the Congo===
===Democratic Republic of the Congo===
[[File:PatricelumumbaIISG.jpg|thumb|220px|Patrice Lumumba]]
[[File:PatricelumumbaIISG.jpg|thumb|220px|Patrice Lumumba]]
*President [[Joseph Kasavubu]] and Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] attempted to dismiss each other in September 1960. General [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] deposed both in a coup later that month, then restored Kasavubu as president.<ref>{{cite book|first=Catherine|last=Hoskyns|year=1968|title=The Congo since independence, January 1960-December, 1961}}</ref>
*The [[Congo Crisis]]. President [[Joseph Kasavubu]] and Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] attempted to dismiss each other in September 1960. General [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] deposed both in a [[1960 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état|coup]] later that month, then restored Kasavubu as president.<ref>{{cite book|first=Catherine|last=Hoskyns|year=1968|title=The Congo since independence, January 1960-December, 1961}}</ref>


===Egypt===
===Egypt===
*Egypt experienced a constitutional crisis when President Mubarak was removed and the country was left without a president until President Morsi was elected and then again when Morsi was arrested until President Al-Sisi took office.<ref name="Egypt's">{{cite news|title=Q&A: Egypt constitutional crisis|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-20554079|work=BBC|date=24 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="Professor Hillel Frisch on Egypt">{{cite web|last1=Frisch|first1=Hillel|title=Egypt's Constitutional Crisis|url=https://besacenter.org/perspectives-papers/egypts-constitutional-crisisthe-military-versus-the-islamists/#|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref>
*Egypt experienced a constitutional crisis when [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Hosni Mubarak]] was removed in the [[Egyptian revolution of 2011|Egyptian Revolution]]. The country was left without a president until President [[Mohamed Morsi]] was elected and then again when Morsi was arrested by the [[Egyptian Armed Forces]] in a [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|2013 coup d'etat]] until President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] took office.<ref name="Egypt's">{{cite news|title=Q&A: Egypt constitutional crisis|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-20554079|work=BBC|date=24 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="Professor Hillel Frisch on Egypt">{{cite web|last1=Frisch|first1=Hillel|title=Egypt's Constitutional Crisis|date=16 November 2011 |url=https://besacenter.org/perspectives-papers/egypts-constitutional-crisisthe-military-versus-the-islamists/#|access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref>


===Malawi===
===Malawi===
* A constitutional crisis occurred in Malawi in 2012 with regard to the succession of [[Bingu wa Mutharika]]. The President and Vice-President were from different parties which led to deliberations over who the rightful successor would be and the [[Malawian Constitutional Crisis 2012|constitutional crisis]]. Vice-President [[Joyce Banda]] eventually succeeded wa Mutharika.
* A constitutional crisis occurred in Malawi in 2012 with regard to the succession of [[Bingu wa Mutharika]]. The President and Vice-President were from different parties which led to deliberations over who the rightful successor would be and the [[Malawian Constitutional Crisis 2012|constitutional crisis]]. Vice-President [[Joyce Banda]] eventually succeeded wa Mutharika.


===Republic of The Gambia===
===Gambia===
* Following the victory of [[Adama Barrow]] in the [[2016 Gambian presidential election|2016 presidential election]], [[President of the Gambia|president]] [[Yahya Jammeh]] rejected the results and [[2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis|refused to step down]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/10/gambian-president-rejects-election-results-yahya-jammeh-adama-barrow|title=Gambian president Yahya Jammeh rejects election result |last= |first= |date=9 December 2016 |work= |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |agency=[[Reuters]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |access-date=19 January 2017 |via=}}</ref> On 17 January, Jammeh declared a 90-day state of emergency in an attempt to extend his term of office. [[Senegal]], [[Ghana]] and [[Nigeria]]n forces entered [[the Gambia]] on 19 January to enforce the election results.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38682184|publisher=BBC|date=January 19, 2017|accessdate=19 January 2017|title=Gambia crisis: Senegal troops 'enter' to back new president}}</ref> On 21 January, Jammeh stepped down and left the country.
* Following the victory of [[Adama Barrow]] in the [[2016 Gambian presidential election|2016 presidential election]], [[President of the Gambia|president]] [[Yahya Jammeh]] rejected the results and [[2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis|refused to step down]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/10/gambian-president-rejects-election-results-yahya-jammeh-adama-barrow|title=Gambian president Yahya Jammeh rejects election result |date=9 December 2016 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |agency=[[Reuters]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |access-date=19 January 2017 }}</ref> On 17 January, Jammeh declared a 90-day state of emergency in an attempt to extend his term of office. [[Senegal]]ese, [[Ghana]]ian and [[Nigeria]]n forces entered [[the Gambia]] on 19 January to enforce the election results.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38682184|publisher=BBC|date=January 19, 2017|access-date=19 January 2017|title=Gambia crisis: Senegal troops 'enter' to back new president}}</ref> On 21 January, Jammeh stepped down and left the country.


===Rhodesia===
===Rhodesia===
* Amid demands from [[United Kingdom]] politicians to enfranchise the black majority population, the white minority government [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] in 1965. The UK rejected the declaration and continued to claim sovereignty over Rhodesia until a framework for independence and black enfranchisement was negotiated in the 1979 [[Lancaster House Agreement]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Nick|last=Barber|year=2012|title=The Constitutional State}}</ref>
* Amid demands from [[United Kingdom|British]] politicians to [[No independence before majority rule|enfranchise the black majority population as a condition for independence]], the white minority government of [[Ian Smith]] [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] in 1965. The UK rejected the declaration and continued to claim sovereignty over Rhodesia until a framework for independence and black enfranchisement was negotiated in the 1979 [[Lancaster House Agreement]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Nick|last=Barber|year=2012|title=The Constitutional State}}</ref>

=== Somalia ===

* An [[Constitutional crisis in Somalia|ongoing constitutional crisis]] developed in [[Somalia]] when the [[President of Somalia|Somali President]], [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]], changed the [[Constitution of Somalia]] on April 30, 2024. The change was immediately opposed by the [[President of Puntland]], [[Said Abdullahi Deni]] followed by the [[List of presidents of Jubaland|President of Jubaland]], and resulted, Puntland withdrew its recognition of the [[Federal Government of Somalia]] and declared itself an independent state based on Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Puntland|Puntland Constitution]]. While [[Jubaland]] state cut its relations with the Somali government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-31 |title=Somalia's Puntland refuses to recognise federal government after disputed constitutional changes |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalias-puntland-refuses-recognise-federal-government-after-disputed-2024-03-31/ |website=Reuters}}</ref>


===South Africa===
===South Africa===
* The [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis]] (1951–55): The [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] government disputed a court decision overturning its act to disenfranchise Coloured voters. Its attempt to reverse the decision in an ''ad hoc'' court was also overturned, after which the party used reforms to the Senate to pass the measure legally.
* The [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis]] (1951–55): The [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] government disputed a [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Supreme Court]] decision overturning its [[Separate Representation of Voters Act, 1951|Separate Representation of Voters Act]] to disenfranchise [[Coloureds|Coloured]] voters in the [[Cape Province]]. Its attempt to reverse the decision in an ''ad hoc'' court was also overturned, after which the party used reforms to the [[Senate of South Africa|Senate]] to pass the measure legally.


==Asia==
==Asia==


===Iran===
===Iran===
*[[Mohammed Reza Pahlavi]]'s 1953 dismissal of Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] and Mossadegh's subsequent refusal to quit the office
*[[Mohammed Reza Pahlavi]]'s 1953 dismissal of Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] and Mossadegh's subsequent refusal to quit the office, leading to the [[1953 Iranian coup d'état]].


===Malaysia===
===Malaysia===
* [[1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis]] started by a group of politicians who were dissatisfied towards [[Stephen Kalong Ningkan]]'s leadership as chief minister. Ningkan was later removed from the chief minister post by the Governor of Sarawak in June 1966.
* [[1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis]] started by a group of politicians who were dissatisfied towards [[Stephen Kalong Ningkan]]'s leadership as chief minister. Ningkan was later removed from the chief minister post by the Governor of Sarawak in June 1966.
* The [[1983 Malaysian constitutional crisis]] saw [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] [[Mahathir bin Mohamad|Mahathir]] pushing forward an amendment of Article 66 of the Federal Constitution, which set the time limit of the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong|Malaysian monarch]] to veto a law within 30 days. The proposals generated a great deal of controversy between the government and the monarchy, of which the former had to launch a public campaign to pressure the monarchy to assent to the amendments.{{clarify|date=November 2010}}
* The [[1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis]] was a series of events that began with the [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO) party elections in 1987 and ended with the suspension and the eventual removal of [[Lord President of the Supreme Court]] [[Malay titles#Tun|Tun]] [[Salleh Abas]] from his seat.
* The [[1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis]] was a series of events that began with the [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO) party elections in 1987 and ended with the suspension and the eventual removal of [[Lord President of the Supreme Court]] [[Malay titles#Tun|Tun]] [[Salleh Abas]] from his seat.
* The [[1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia]] (by some interpretations a constitutional crisis) involved the limitation of monarchs' [[sovereign immunity|legal immunity]] in Malaysia. Prime Minister [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]] successfully amended the constitution to make the monarchies more accountable to their actions.
* The [[1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia]] (by some interpretations a constitutional crisis) involved the limitation of monarchs' [[sovereign immunity|legal immunity]] in Malaysia. Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] successfully amended the constitution to make the monarchies more accountable to their actions.
* The [[2020 Malaysian constitutional crisis]] was a series of events that began when Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] and associates attempted to replace his coalition partners and form a unity government supported by opposition parties.
*The [[2009 Perak constitutional crisis]] occurred in the Malaysian state of [[Perak]] when [[party switching|party defections]] caused the state ruling coalition, [[Pakatan Rakyat]], to lose its majority in the [[Dewan Undangan Negeri|state assembly]]. The [[Sultan of Perak]] refused to dissolve the state assembly when requested and dismissed the [[Menteri Besar]] (Chief Minister) in the absence of a [[motion of no confidence|no confidence]] vote.{{clarify|date=November 2010}}

===South Korea===
* The [[2024 South Korean martial law]] started with the announcement from [[President of South Korea|President]] [[Yoon Suk Yeol]] to impose [[martial law]] during a televised adress on 3 December 2024. He accused the [[Democratic Party of Korea|Democratic Party]] (DPK), which has a majority in the [[National Assembly (Korea)|National Assembly]], of conducting "anti-state activities" and collaborating with "North Korean communists" to destroy the country. The short-lived move from the President sparked mass protest across the country and resignation of many members of Yoon's cabinet.


===Pakistan===
===Pakistan===
*Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Sajjad Ali Shah]] clashed repeatedly with Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] in late 1997, accusing him of undermining the court's independence. After Ali Shah suspended a constitutional amendment that prevented dismissal of the prime minister, Sharif ordered President [[Farooq Leghari]] to appoint a new chief justice. When Leghari refused, Sharif considered [[impeach]]ing him, but backed down after a warning from the armed forces. Faced with a choice of accepting Sharif's demands or dismissing him, Leghari resigned. Ali Shah resigned shortly afterward, establishing Sharif's dominance.
*Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Syed Sajjad Ali Shah|Sajjad Ali Shah]] clashed repeatedly with Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] in late 1997, accusing him of undermining the court's independence. After Ali Shah suspended a constitutional amendment that prevented dismissal of the prime minister, Sharif ordered President [[Farooq Leghari]] to appoint a new chief justice. When Leghari refused, Sharif considered [[impeach]]ing him, but backed down after a warning from the armed forces. Faced with a choice of accepting Sharif's demands or dismissing him, Leghari resigned. Ali Shah resigned shortly afterward, establishing Sharif's dominance.
*Following a [[No-confidence motion against Imran Khan|no-confidence motion]] against [[Imran Khan|Prime Minister Imran Khan]] on 8 March 2022, a [[2022 Pakistani constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis]] occurred when the deputy speaker of the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] rejected the no-confidence motion on the 3 April 2022. President [[Arif Alvi]] subsequently dissolved the national assembly, upon advice from the Prime Minister,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Dawn com {{!}} Sanaullah |date=2022-04-03 |title=President Alvi dissolves National Assembly on PM Imran's advice |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1683230 |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=President Arif Alvi approves dissolution of assembly on PM Imran Khan's advice |url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/409245-have-advised-president-to-dissolve-assemblies-says-pm-imran-khan |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=www.geo.tv |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-03 |title=President Arif Alvi dissolves NA on PM Imran's advice |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2350823/president-arif-alvi-dissolves-national-assembly-on-pm-imrans-advice |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref> which constitutionally could not be done by a Prime Minister who is facing a no-confidence motion.


===Thailand===
===Thailand===
*In March 2006, 60 seats of the [[National Assembly of Thailand]] could not be elected, and Prime Minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] refused to resign. The judicial system did not lead up to Supreme Court as the top arbitrator so there were inconsistent rulings from the civil, criminal, administrative, and constitutional Courts.{{clarify|date=July 2012}}
*The [[2005–2006 Thai political crisis]]. In March 2006, 60 seats of the [[National Assembly of Thailand]] could not be elected, and Prime Minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] refused to resign.
*The [[2008 Thai political crisis]].


===Sri Lanka===
===Sri Lanka===
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==Europe==
==Europe==

=== Austria ===

* The [[self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament]] in 1933, when all three speakers of the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]] resigned. [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] stated the parliament had eliminated itself and could rule by decree. This was a step towards the one-party fascist state, the [[Federal State of Austria]].


===Belgium===
===Belgium===
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===England===
===England===
{{hatnote|For events after the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, see {{section link|#United Kingdom}} below.}}
{{hatnote|For events after the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, see {{section link||United Kingdom}} below.}}


[[Image:Joao sem terra assina carta Magna.jpg|thumb|220px|right|''John of England signs Magna Carta''. Illustration from ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]
[[Image:King John signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) by English School.png|thumb|220px|right|''John of England signs Magna Carta''. Illustration from ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]
*The 1215 Barons' revolt against the rule of [[John of England|King John]], which led to the [[Magna Carta]]. Immediately, John repudiated Magna Carta, leading to the [[First Barons' War]].
*The 1215 Barons' revolt against the rule of [[John of England|King John]], which led to the [[Magna Carta]]. Immediately, John repudiated Magna Carta, leading to the [[First Barons' War]].
*The [[History of the Church of England#Separation from Papal authority|Break with Rome]]: [[Pope Clement VII]]'s refusal to annul King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s first marriage impeded the king's efforts to produce a male heir. Henry repudiated the Pope's ecclesiastical authority within England and required all officials to recognize him as [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]].
*The [[English Reformation]]: [[Pope Clement VII]]'s refusal to [[Annulment|annul]] King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s first marriage with [[Catherine of Aragon]] impeded the king's efforts to produce a male heir. Henry repudiated the Pope's ecclesiastical authority within [[Kingdom of England|England]] and required all officials to recognize him as [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]], allowing him to divorce Catherine and marry [[Anne Boleyn]].
*[[Charles I of England|King Charles I]]'s insistence on the [[Divine Right of Kings]], manifest in his [[Personal Rule]] from 1629 to 1640, and leading directly to the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]].
*[[Charles I of England|King Charles I]]'s insistence on the [[Divine Right of Kings]], manifest in his [[Personal Rule]] from 1629 to 1640, and leading directly to the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]].
*The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688–89: The flight of [[James II of England|King James II/VII]] from the country left no king in his place to rule England or Scotland or to summon a [[Parliament]]. When [[William III of England|King William]] and [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary]] jointly replaced him there was therefore no legally recognised Parliament to legitimise their irregular succession to the throne. This led to the [[Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689]].
*The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688–89: The flight of [[James II of England|King James II/VII]] from the country left no king in his place to rule England or Scotland or to summon a [[Parliament]]. When [[William III of England|King William]] and [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary]] jointly replaced him there was therefore no legally recognised Parliament to legitimise their irregular succession to the throne. This led to the [[Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689]].
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===France===
===France===
*The Brittany Affair of 1765: The king's court in Brittany forbade collection of taxes to which the provincial [[The Estates|Estates]] did not consent. After King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] annulled the court's decree, most of its members resigned. The chief prosecutor, [[Louis-René de Caradeuc de La Chalotais]], was accused of writing letters denouncing the king's action and charged with treason. A court convened to try La Chalotais reached no conclusion due to questions of jurisdiction and the weakness of the evidence. The king then transferred the case to his own council, further inflaming fears of absolutism to the point that he was obligated to release La Chalotais and yield to the provincial authorities.
*The Brittany Affair of 1765: The king's court in [[Brittany]] forbade collection of taxes to which the provincial [[The Estates|Estates]] did not consent. After King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] annulled the court's decree, most of its members resigned. The chief prosecutor, [[Louis-René de Caradeuc de La Chalotais]], was accused of writing letters denouncing the king's action and charged with treason. A court convened to try La Chalotais reached no conclusion due to questions of jurisdiction and the weakness of the evidence. The king then transferred the case to his own council, further inflaming fears of absolutism to the point that he was obligated to release La Chalotais and yield to the provincial authorities.
*The [[16 May 1877 crisis]]: President [[Patrice de Mac-Mahon]] dismissed Prime Minister [[Jules Simon]] and named [[Albert de Broglie]] to replace him. The [[National Assembly]] refused to recognize the new government and a crisis, which ended with the dissolution of the Assembly and new elections, ensued.
*The [[16 May 1877 crisis]]: President [[Patrice de Mac-Mahon]] dismissed Prime Minister [[Jules Simon]] and named [[Albert de Broglie]] to replace him. The [[National Assembly]] refused to recognize the new government and a crisis, which ended with the dissolution of the Assembly and [[1877 French legislative election|new elections]], ensued.


===Germany===
===Germany===
* Crisis of the [[Weimar Republic]] (1930–1933): A series of conservative chancellors appointed by President [[Paul von Hindenburg]] were unable to secure legislation from the [[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]], dominated first by the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] and later the [[Nazi Party|Nazi]] and [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist]] parties. These chancellors increasingly turned to legislation by emergency presidential decrees, thereby laying the constitutional foundation of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s dictatorship.<ref>{{cite book|last=Paulson|first=Stanley L.|chapter=Chapter 19: Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt: Growing Discord, Culminating in the "Guardian" Controversy of 1931|title=[[The Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt]]|editor-last1=Meierhenrich|editor-first1=Jens|editor-last2=Simons|editor-first2=Oliver|year=2016}}</ref>
* In the [[Weimar Republic]], for several years the country was governed with the help of [[enabling act]]s and emergency decrees. The crisis became dramatic in 1932, when the [[Nazi Party]] and [[Communist Party of Germany]] had together a majority in the parliament. Any government, installed by the [[President of Germany (1919–1945)|Reich President]], was likely to be dismissed by the parliament. The crisis ended in a Nazi and conservative coalition government and then Nazi dictatorship. The [[Weimar Constitution]] was not abolished, but weakened to the point of irrelevance.
* In 1962 [[Spiegel affair]], [[Franz Josef Strauss]], federal minister of defense, tried to repress media freedom with governmental resources and accused Spiegel employees of treason after an article of [[Der Spiegel|Spiegel]] had exposed the incompetence of German ministry of defense confronting the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1966, [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]] issued a groundbreaking ruling concerning freedom of the press. The incident caused the first mass demonstrations and public protests and helped Germany remove many authoritarian features still retained following the end of World War II, marking a turning point in Germany values as ordinary people rejected authoritarian outlook in favor of democratic values.{{citation needed|date=September 2019|reason=Please provide sources that discuss this event as a constitutional crisis.}}


===Malta===
===Malta===
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===Norway===
===Norway===
*[[Impeachment (Norway)|Impeachment]] of prime minister Selmer's cabinet in 1883/1884 regarding the king's right to veto changes to the constitution, and establishment of an ad-hoc parliamentary practice until amended to the constitution in 2007.<ref>[[Monarchy of Norway#Council of State]]{{Better source|reason=self-ref|date=August 2016}}</ref><ref>[[Storting]]{{Better source|reason=self-ref|date=August 2016}}</ref><ref>http://www.liberaleren.no/2007/02/20/parlamentarismen-inn-i-grunnloven/</ref>
*[[Impeachment (Norway)|Impeachment]] of prime minister [[Christian August Selmer]]'s cabinet in 1883/1884 regarding the king's right to veto changes to the constitution, and establishment of an ad-hoc parliamentary practice until amended to the constitution in 2007.<ref>[[Monarchy of Norway#Council of State]]</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=self-ref|date=August 2016}}<ref>[[Storting]]</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=self-ref|date=August 2016}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liberaleren.no/2007/02/20/parlamentarismen-inn-i-grunnloven/|title=Parlamentarismen inn i Grunnloven|date=February 20, 2007}}</ref>
*[[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905]]{{Elucidate|date=November 2018}}
*[[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905]]{{Explain|date=November 2018}}


===Rome===
===Roman Republic===
* [[Caesar's Civil War]]: In 50 BC the [[Roman Senate]] ordered [[Julius Caesar]], a popular military general and territorial governor, to disband his army and return to Rome. Rather than comply, Caesar [[Crossing the Rubicon|crossed the boundary of his territory]] with a legion of his army intending to confront the government. The Senate retreated before his advance, allowing him to establish a dictatorship that set the template for the [[Roman Empire]].
* [[Caesar's Civil War]]: In 50 BC the [[Roman Senate]] ordered [[Julius Caesar]], a popular military general and territorial governor, to disband his army and return to [[Rome]] after he [[Gallic Wars|invaded Gaul]] and [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|Britain]]. Rather than comply, Caesar [[Crossing the Rubicon|crossed the boundary of his territory]] with a legion of his army intending to confront the government. The Senate retreated before his advance, allowing him to establish a dictatorship that set the template for the [[Roman Empire]].


===Russia===
===Russia===
*The [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993|constitutional crisis of 1993]]: [[President of Russia|President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] ordered the dissolution of the [[Supreme Soviet of Russia|Supreme Soviet]] when it refused constitutional reforms that would allow him to implement his privatization program. After the Constitutional Court struck down Yeltsin's order, parliament impeached him and recognized a rival government of dissenting officials. Yeltsin used military force to disperse parliament, established a government by presidential decree, and pushed through a new constitution that increased the power of the presidency.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Presidential Power in Russia|last=Huskey|first=Eugene|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781315482194|location=London}}</ref>
*The [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993|constitutional crisis of 1993]]: a conflict between [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] and the Russian parliament led by [[Ruslan Khasbulatov]]. It emerged due to disagreements regarding the demarcation of political authority. Russian leaders agreed to hold a referendum in April 1993 that would determine whether the presidency or the parliament would be the dominant institution in the Russian political system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Presidential Power in Russia|last=Huskey|first=Eugene|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781315482194|location=London|pages=}}</ref> The parliament temporarily reneged on its commitment to a referendum and it prompted Yeltsin to issue a decree giving the president more authority. This was met with resistance even from among figures within the executive department such as Yurii Shokov, chair of the president's Security Council and [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]], Yeltsin's Vice President.<ref name=":1" /> Anticipating impeachment, Yeltsin dissolved the parliament in September 21, 1993 and called for fresh elections.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Politics and the Russian Army: Civil-Military Relations, 1689–2000|last=Taylor|first=Brian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=0521816742|location=Cambridge|pages=282}}</ref> The president did not have the constitutional authority to do this and the Constitutional Court promptly ruled that the decree was unconstitutional.<ref name=":2" /> This resulted to ten days of street fighting between the police, pro-parliamentary demonstrators, and groups loyal to the president.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation|last=Saunders|first=Robert|last2=Strukov|first2=Vlad|publisher=The Scarecrow Press, Inc.|year=2010|isbn=|location=Lanham, MD|pages=132}}</ref> Aleksandr Rutskoy was sworn as the acting President of Russia for a few days. The crisis ended after a military siege of the parliament building, which claimed 187 lives.


===Scotland===
===Scotland===
This covers the [[Kingdom of Scotland]], which became part of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] after 1707. For constitutional crises since then, see [[Constitutional crisis#Constitutional Crises in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] below.
This covers the [[Kingdom of Scotland]], which became part of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] after 1707. For constitutional crises since then, see [[#United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] below.
* The death of three-year-old [[Margaret of Scotland (Maid of Norway)|Queen Margaret]] in 1290 prompted a succession dispute involving [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|thirteen claimants]]. The interim [[Guardians of Scotland]] asked King [[Edward I of England]] to arbitrate the dispute. Edward pursued his own interest in establishing lordship over Scotland by selecting claimant [[John Balliol]] in return for an [[oath of fealty]]. Scottish nobles rejected Edward's control, leading to the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] and a 10-year vacancy of the throne.
* The death of seven-year-old [[Margaret of Scotland (Maid of Norway)|Queen Margaret]] in 1290 prompted a succession dispute involving [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|thirteen claimants]]. The interim [[Guardians of Scotland]] asked King [[Edward I of England]] to arbitrate the dispute. Edward pursued his own interest in establishing lordship over Scotland by selecting claimant [[John Balliol]] in return for an [[oath of fealty]]. Scottish nobles rejected Edward's control, leading to the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] and a 10-year vacancy of the throne.


===Spain===
===Spain===
[[File:President_Puigdemont,_"Ciutadans_de_Catalunya,_vénen_hores_en_què_a_tots_ens_pertocarà_de_mantenir_el_pols_del_nostre_país"_02.jpg|thumb|[[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia|Catalan president]], [[Carles Puigdemont]], addresses the crowd following the unilateral declaration of independence on 27 October]]
[[File:President_Puigdemont,_"Ciutadans_de_Catalunya,_vénen_hores_en_què_a_tots_ens_pertocarà_de_mantenir_el_pols_del_nostre_país"_02.jpg|thumb|[[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia|Catalan president]], [[Carles Puigdemont]], addresses the crowd following the unilateral declaration of independence on 27 October]]
*[[2017–18 Spanish constitutional crisis]]: The government of [[Catalonia]] under [[Carles Puigdemont]] held an [[2017 Catalan independence referendum|independence referendum]] against instructions of the Spanish courts. The referendum passed by an overwhelming margin, albeit with limited voter participation, whereupon the Catalonian government [[Catalan declaration of independence|declared independence]]. The Spanish government dissolved the Catalonian government, arrested pro-independence politicians and imposed direct rule from Madrid for more than half a year.
*The [[2017–18 Spanish constitutional crisis]] saw the [[Government of Spain]] and the [[Generalitat of Catalonia]] clashing over the latter's planning of an [[2017 Catalan independence referendum|independence referendum]] on 1 October 2017, leading to the Catalan government openly defying instructions from the [[Spanish Constitutional Court]] and in state prosecutors filling criminal charges on Catalan leading officials for rebellion, disobedience, misusing public funds and making deliberately unlawful decisions. General strikes and tense demonstrations took place during these weeks. On 27 October, the [[Parliament of Catalonia]] tried to found a Catalan republic with a [[Catalan declaration of independence|unilateral declaration of independence]]. At the same time, the [[Senate of Spain|Senate]] approved the application of [[Constitution of Spain#Article 155|Article 155]] of the [[Constitution of Spain|Constitution]], which led to the cessation of the Catalan Government, the dissolution of parliament, the call for [[2017 Catalan regional election|elections]] for 21 December and the direct rule over Catalonia. The [[Supreme Court of Spain|Supreme Court]] imprisoned a large part of the Puigdemont executive, the [[Carme Forcadell|Speaker of the Parliament]] and the two leaders of the two major independentists civil associations, as well as the flight to Belgium, Switzerland, Germany and Scotland of President [[Puigdemont]], four regional ex-regional ministers and two political leaders. For July 2018, the direct rule ended and the prisoners are still in preventive jail in Catalan prisons.

===Turkey===
*[[2023 Turkish constitutional crisis]]

===Ukraine===

* [[2020–2021 Ukrainian constitutional crisis|2020-2021 Ukrainian constitutional crisis]]: The [[Constitutional Court of Ukraine]] ruled much of Ukraine's 2014 anti-[[Corruption in Ukraine|corruption]] reform unconstitutional, placing the country's foreign relations at risk.


===United Kingdom===
===United Kingdom===
While the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] does not have a written constitution, it is deemed to have [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|an unwritten one]], and issues and crises in the UK and its constituent countries are described as constitutional crises.
*The regency crisis of 1788: A new Parliament convened while [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] was unable, due to illness, to charge it with its responsibilities or assent to any bills. Parliament nonetheless submitted an irregular bill that provided for the Prince of Wales to act as regent, and the [[Lord Chancellor]] affixed the royal seal to it without the king's signature. This precedent was repeated in 1811 after the king again fell ill.
*The regency crisis of 1788: A new [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] convened while [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] was unable, due to illness, to charge it with its responsibilities or assent to any bills. Parliament nonetheless submitted an irregular bill that provided for [[George IV|George, Prince of Wales]], to act as regent, and the [[Lord Chancellor]] [[Edward Thurlow, 1st Baron Thurlow|Lord Thurlow]] affixed the royal seal to it without the king's signature. This precedent was repeated in 1811 after the king again fell ill.
*The rejection of the 1909 [[People's Budget]] by the [[House of Lords]]. This caused a two-year impasse, leading to the [[Parliament Act 1911]].<ref name="bogdanor">{{cite book|first=Vernon|last=Bogdanor|year=1997|title=The Monarchy and the Constitution}}</ref>
*The [[House of Lords]]' rejection of the 1909 [[People's Budget]], a proposal by [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[David Lloyd George]] and [[President of the Board of Trade]] [[Winston Churchill]] entailing [[Liberal welfare reforms|welfare reforms]] funded by taxes on [[Land ownership in the United Kingdom|landowners]]. This caused a two-year impasse, which ended after the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] won the [[January 1910 United Kingdom general election|January 1910 general election]] and the House of Lords ratified the law. However, the impasse resumed when Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]] introduced the [[Parliament Act 1911|Parliament Act]] permanently removing the House of Lords' veto over [[money bill]]s and sharply limiting its veto over [[Public and private bills|public bills]], which the House of Lords blocked after the [[December 1910 United Kingdom general election|December 1910 general election]] ended in a [[hung parliament]]. [[George V|King George V]] finally forced the House to ratify the law by threatening to end its Conservative majority by appointing hundreds of new [[Peerages in the United Kingdom|peerages]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-08-30|title=Timeline: Constitutional crises in English and British history|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-constitution-timeline-idUSKCN1VJ24E|access-date=2021-01-29}}</ref><ref name="bogdanor">{{cite book|first=Vernon|last=Bogdanor|year=1997|title=The Monarchy and the Constitution}}</ref>
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers. This was unacceptable to the leaders of the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dominion]]s because Simpson was twice divorced and the [[Church of England]], of which Edward nominally served as the head, forbade [[remarriage]] of divorcees if their spouses were still alive. Rather than ending their relationship the King chose to abdicate and his brother assumed the throne as [[George VI|King George VI]].
*The [[2019 British prorogation controversy]] in October 2019, where the [[Government of the United Kingdom|Government]] advised [[Queen Elizabeth II]] to prorogue Parliament (see also: Canada, 2008), an act found unlawful by the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] as preventing the ability of Parliament to carry out its constitutional functions without reasonable justification.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49810261|title=Suspending Parliament was unlawful, court rules|date=2019-09-24|access-date=2019-12-10|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-11/how-brexit-could-unleash-a-u-k-constitutional-crisis-quicktake|title=Analysis {{!}} How Brexit Could Unleash a U.K. Constitutional Crisis|last=Bloomberg|first=Edward Evans and Jonathan Browning {{!}}|date=2019-09-24|work=Washington Post|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/constitutional-crisis-this-looks-like-lights-out-for-boris-and-brexit-q2tnxhc83|title=Constitutional crisis: this looks like lights out for Boris and Brexit|last=Sandbach|first=Antoinette|date=2019-09-25|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en|issn=0140-0460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/politics/david-allen-green-brexit-constitutional-crisis|title=The UK has not yet had a constitutional crisis over Brexit—but it could do soon|last=Green|first=David Allen|date=September 2, 2019|website=|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-constitution-timeline-idUKKCN1VJ24F|title=From Magna Carta to Brexit: 800 years of constitutional crises in Britain|date=2019-08-30|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en}}</ref>
*The [[2019 British prorogation controversy]] in October 2019, where the [[Government of the United Kingdom|Government]] of Conservative Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]] advised [[Queen Elizabeth II]] to prorogue the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] for five weeks. The decision was taken during contentious parliamentary debate over the [[Brexit|United Kingdom's impending withdrawal]] from the [[European Union]]. In the unanimous [[R (Miller) v The Prime Minister and Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland|''R (Miller) v The Prime Minister'' and ''Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland'']] decisions, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] unanimously found the prorogation to be unlawful as preventing the ability of Parliament to carry out its constitutional functions without reasonable justification.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-49810261|title=Suspending Parliament was unlawful, court rules|date=2019-09-24|access-date=2019-12-10|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-11/how-brexit-could-unleash-a-u-k-constitutional-crisis-quicktake|title=Analysis {{!}} How Brexit Could Unleash a U.K. Constitutional Crisis|last=Bloomberg|first=Edward Evans and Jonathan Browning {{!}}|date=2019-09-24|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/constitutional-crisis-this-looks-like-lights-out-for-boris-and-brexit-q2tnxhc83|title=Constitutional crisis: this looks like lights out for Boris and Brexit|last=Sandbach|first=Antoinette|newspaper=[[The Times]]|date=2019-09-25|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en|issn=0140-0460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/politics/david-allen-green-brexit-constitutional-crisis|title=The UK has not yet had a constitutional crisis over Brexit—but it could do soon|last=Green|first=David Allen|date=September 2, 2019|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-constitution-timeline-idUKKCN1VJ24F|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830230800/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-constitution-timeline-idUKKCN1VJ24F|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 30, 2019|title=From Magna Carta to Brexit: 800 years of constitutional crises in Britain|date=2019-08-30|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en}}</ref>


==North America==
==North America==


===Canada===
===Canada===
*In the [[King–Byng Affair]] of 1926, [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Viscount Byng of Vimy]] refused the request of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] to [[dissolution of parliament|dissolve Parliament]] and call new elections after King had, months before, refused to resign. Instead, Byng dismissed King and appointed [[Arthur Meighen]] as Prime Minister, after which Meighen found himself unable to retain [[confidence (politics)|confidence]], triggering his own resignation and an election. Reaction to the affair was reflected in the [[Balfour Declaration of 1926]], the resulting separation of [[British Dominions|Dominion]] [[Governors General]] from the British government, and the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] that made each realm of the Crown independent.
* In the [[King–Byng Affair]] of 1926, [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] the [[Viscount Byng of Vimy]] refused the request of his [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], to [[dissolution of parliament|dissolve Parliament]] and call new elections after King had, months before, refused to resign. Instead, Byng dismissed King and appointed [[Arthur Meighen]] as Prime Minister, after which Meighen found himself unable to obtain the [[confidence (politics)|confidence]] of the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]], triggering his own resignation and the [[1926 Canadian federal election|1926 federal election]]. Reaction to the affair was reflected in the [[Balfour Declaration of 1926]], the resulting separation of [[British Dominions|dominion]] [[Governor-General|governors-general]] from the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]], and the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster, 1931]], that made each realm of the Crown independent.
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
* The 1936 [[Abdication of Edward VIII|abdication crisis]], when King [[Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The 1982 [[patriation]] of the [[British North America Act]] was contentious, as there were conflicting opinions from the federal government, provincial governments, and [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] over what exactly the procedure was whereby Canada could request a [[constitutional amendment]] from [[the United Kingdom]]. The Supreme Court's decision in the [[Quebec Veto Reference]] found that [[Quebec]] did not have a veto on patriation, and the process was legitimate and binding. The [[National Assembly of Quebec]] symbolically refuses to ratify the Constitution Act in its current form.<!-- Is this a crisis? The government seems to have continued operating since 1982. -->{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
* The 1982 [[patriation]] of the [[Canadian constitution|constitution]] was contentious, as there were conflicting opinions from the [[Government of Canada|federal government]], provincial governments, and [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] over what exactly the procedure was for Canada to request a [[constitutional amendment]] from the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. The Supreme Court's decision in the [[Quebec Veto Reference]] found that [[Quebec]] did not have a veto on patriation and the process for amendment used was legitimate and binding. The [[National Assembly of Quebec]] symbolically refuses to ratify the [[Constitution Act, 1982]], in its current form.<!-- Is this a crisis? The government seems to have continued operating since 1982. -->{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
*The [[2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute]], in which [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]], [[New Democratic Party|NDP]], and [[Bloc Québécois]] Members of Parliament attempted to have a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of non-confidence]] against the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] government and replace it with a coalition government, was unprecedented in the Canadian constitutional system, as formal party-based co-operation was rare. [[Stephen Harper|Prime Minister Stephen Harper]] controversially advised the Governor General to [[Prorogation in Canada|prorogue]] Parliament. The coalition effort subsequently fell apart, leaving the key questions around the dispute unanswered.
* The [[2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute]], in which [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]], [[New Democratic Party|New Democratic]], and [[Bloc Québécois]] members of Parliament attempted to [[Motion of no confidence|vote non-confidence]] against the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] ministry and replace it with a coalition government, was unprecedented in the Canadian constitutional system. Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]] controversially advised Governor General [[Michaëlle Jean]] to [[Prorogation in Canada|prorogue]] Parliament to avoid the vote. The coalition effort subsequently fell apart, leaving the key questions around the dispute unanswered.


===Honduras===
===Honduras===
*The [[2009 Honduran constitutional crisis]] saw President [[Manuel Zelaya]] attempting to hold a non-binding referendum which [[National Congress of Honduras|Congress]] and the [[Supreme Court of Honduras|Supreme Court]] deemed unconstitutional. The military, following orders from the Supreme Court, arrested President Zelaya.
*The [[2009 Honduran constitutional crisis]] saw President [[Manuel Zelaya]] attempting to hold a non-binding referendum which [[National Congress of Honduras|Congress]] and the [[Supreme Court of Honduras|Supreme Court]] deemed unconstitutional. The [[Armed Forces of Honduras|Honduran Armed Forces]], following orders from the Supreme Court, arrested President Zelaya.


===United States===
===United States===
[[File:Electoral Commission (United States).jpg|right|thumb|220px|The Electoral Commission was a panel that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876.]]
[[File:Electoral Commission (United States).jpg|right|thumb|220px|The Electoral Commission was a panel that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876.]]


*The [[Stamp Act 1765]], by which the British Parliament sought to tax the [[Thirteen Colonies]], set off protests from colonial politicians against [[taxation without representation]]. Parliament continued to assert its authority in subsequent acts, throwing colonial governments into chaos and eventually leading the colonists to [[United States Declaration of Independence|declare total independence from Britain]].<ref>{{cite book|first=H. T.|last=Dickinson|year=2014|title=Britain and the American Revolution}}</ref>
*The [[Nullification Crisis]] of 1832: [[South Carolina]] proposed to [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|nullify]] the federally enacted [[Tariff of Abominations|Tariffs of 1828]] and [[Tariff of 1832|1832]]. President [[Andrew Jackson]] responded by signing the [[Force Bill]] to assert federal authority, and South Carolina agreed to the compromise [[Tariff of 1833]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard E.|last=Ellis|year=1989|title=The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights and the Nullification Crisis}}</ref>
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*In 1841 presidential duties passed to Vice President [[John Tyler]] upon the death of President [[William Henry Harrison]]. The Constitution was unclear as to whether Tyler should assume the office of [[President of the United States|President]] or merely execute the duties of the vacant office. Tyler insisted that politicians recognize him as President and returned, unopened, all mail addressed otherwise. Despite opposition from some [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] members of Congress, including [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]], both houses passed a resolution confirming Tyler's position. This precedent was later codified in the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]].<ref name="Abbott2008">{{cite book|author=Philip Abbott|author-link=Philip Abbott (academic)|title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NdzGAAAAQBAJ|date=23 June 2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61303-4}}</ref>
*The [[Nullification Crisis]] of 1832, in which [[South Carolina]] declared that it would not permit collection of a federal tariff. The United States Congress eventually passed a law to authorize the President to use military force in South Carolina to enforce federal laws, as well as a revised tariff law with lower rates.<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard E.|last=Ellis|year=1989|title=The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights and the Nullification Crisis}}</ref>
*The secession crisis (1860–1861): Sectional divisions in the Democratic Party resulted in the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Alarmed by Lincoln's intention to prohibit slavery in western territories, eleven southern slaveholding states withdrew from the federal union and formed a [[Confederate States of America|confederacy]]. Lincoln refused to recognize the secessions and restored the states to the union by force in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Conlin|first=Michael F.|title=The Constitutional Origins of the American Civil War|year=2019}}</ref>
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*In 1841 presidential duties passed to Vice President [[John Tyler]] upon the death of President [[William Henry Harrison]]. The Constitution was unclear as to whether Tyler should assume the office of President or merely execute the duties of the vacant office. Tyler insisted that politicians recognize him as President and returned, unopened, all mail addressed to the "Vice President" or "Acting President." Despite opposition from some Whig members of Congress, including [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]], both houses passed a resolution confirming Tyler's position. This precedent governed succession until it was codified in the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]].<ref name="Abbott2008">{{cite book|author=Philip Abbott|title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NdzGAAAAQBAJ|date=23 June 2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61303-4}}</ref>
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*[[1876 United States presidential election|1876 presidential election]]: [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] disputed voting results in three states. An ''ad hoc'' [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]], created by [[United States Congress|Congress]], voted along party lines in favor of Republican candidate [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], in exchange for withdrawing federal troops from the South and ending [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]].
*The [[Secession in the United States|secession]] of seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[U.S. state|states]] in 1861, which the federal government did not recognize, leading to the [[American Civil War]].
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*The [[1952 steel strike]]: President [[Harry S. Truman]] nationalized the country's steel industry on the basis of his [[Inherent powers (United States)|inherent powers]] in order to prevent a strike by the [[United Steelworkers]] that would impede the [[Korean War]]. This action reopened the "Great Debate" of 1950–51 regarding the extent of Truman's authority to counter the spread of [[communism]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] annulled Truman's order in ''[[Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer]]'', holding that presidential actions must proceed from constitutional or legislative authority. Truman used the threat of a second nationalization to push steel workers and management to an agreement.<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=McCullough|year=2003|title=Truman|page=1069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Maeva|last=Marcus|year=1994|title=Truman and the Steel Seizure Case}}</ref>
⚫
*[[1876 United States presidential election|1876 presidential election]]: [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] disputed voting results in three states. An ''ad hoc'' [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]], created by [[United States Congress|Congress]], voted along party lines in favor of Republican candidate [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], who damped Southern fury by withdrawing federal troops from the South, ending [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]].
⚫
*In the [[Watergate scandal]] (1972–1974), President [[Richard Nixon]] and his staff [[Obstruction of justice|obstructed]] investigations into their political activities. Nixon resigned, under threat of [[Impeachment process against Richard Nixon|impeachment]], after the release of an [[Nixon tapes|audio tape]] showing that he had personally approved the obstruction. Congressional moves to restrain presidential authority continued for years afterward.<ref>{{cite book|first=Harry|last=Pohlman|year=2005|title=Constitutional Debate in Action: Governmental Powers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Schudson|year=1992|title=Watergate in American Memory}}</ref>
⚫
*The [[1952 steel strike]]: President [[Harry S. Truman]] nationalized the country's steel industry on the basis of his [[Inherent powers (United States)|inherent powers]] in order to prevent a strike that would impede the [[Korean War]]. This action reopened the "Great Debate" of 1950–51 regarding the extent of Truman's authority to counter the spread of [[communism]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] enjoined Truman's order in ''[[Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer]]'', holding that presidential actions must proceed from constitutional or legislative authority. Truman used the threat of a second nationalization to push steel workers and management to an agreement.<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=McCullough|year=2003|title=Truman|page=1069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Maeva|last=Marcus|year=1994|title=Truman and the Steel Seizure Case}}</ref>
⚫
*In the [[Watergate scandal]] (1972–1974), President [[Richard Nixon]] and his staff [[Obstruction of justice|obstructed]] investigations into their political activities. Nixon resigned, under threat of impeachment, after the release of an [[Nixon tapes|audio tape]] showing that he had personally approved the obstruction. Congressional moves to restrain presidential authority continued for years afterward.<ref>{{cite book|first=Harry|last=Pohlman|year=2005|title=Constitutional Debate in Action: Governmental Powers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Schudson|year=1992|title=Watergate in American Memory}}</ref>
*During the [[Impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump|impeachment hearings]] of President [[Donald Trump|Donald J. Trump]] in [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] (2019), the White House issued a letter to the House of Representatives saying that it would not cooperate with the inquiry. This sparked a debate among legal scholars and historians as to whether this marked the start of a constitutional crisis.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/constitutional-crisis-us-impeachment-trump-for-against-1.5318651|title=Is the U.S. in a constitutional crisis? Current standoff is unlike anything in American history|last=D'Souza|first=Steven|date=Oct 12, 2019|work=CBC News|access-date=|url-status=live}}</ref>


==Oceania==
==Oceania==
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===Australia===
===Australia===
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis]] saw the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Gough Whitlam]] and his government dismissed by the nation's [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] [[John Kerr (governor-general)|Sir John Kerr]], in response to a prolonged budget deadlock in Parliament. The Whitlam government had the confidence of the lower house, the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. In the [[Australian Constitution]], the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] has equal powers with the House of Representatives, except it may not initiate or amend a [[supply bill]]. It can, however, reject or defer consideration of such a bill, and that is what it did on this occasion. The Constitution permits the Governor-General to dismiss the government if they cannot command the [[Confidence (politics)|confidence]] of Parliament and will not call an election. Though the government lacked the confidence of the Senate, they commanded the confidence of the lower house, where government is formed and confidence motions introduced. Whitlam also stated his intention to call an election, but Kerr nonetheless dismissed him without prior warning and installed [[Malcolm Fraser]] as Prime Minister, despite Fraser's inability to command the confidence of either house of Parliament.
*The [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis]] saw the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Gough Whitlam]] and his government dismissed by the nation's [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] [[John Kerr (governor-general)|Sir John Kerr]], in response to a prolonged budget deadlock in [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]]. Whitlam's [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government had the confidence of the lower house, the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. In the [[Australian Constitution]], the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] has equal powers with the House of Representatives, except it may not initiate or amend a [[supply bill]]. It can, however, reject or defer consideration of such a bill, and that is what it did on this occasion. The Constitution permits the Governor-General to dismiss the government if they cannot command the [[Confidence (politics)|confidence]] of Parliament and will not call an election. Though the government lacked the confidence of the Senate, they commanded the confidence of the lower house, where government is formed, and confidence motions introduced. Whitlam also stated his intention to call an election, but Kerr nonetheless dismissed him without prior warning and installed [[Malcolm Fraser]] as Prime Minister, despite Fraser's inability to command the confidence of either house of Parliament. After Fraser's [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] government passed several important appropriations bills, Kerr declared a [[Double dissolution|double dissolution of Parliament]] and the [[1975 Australian federal election|1975 federal election]], which Fraser won in a landslide.
*In 2017, the [[2017 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis|eligibility of a number of Australian parliamentarians]] to sit in the [[Parliament of Australia]] was called into question because of their actual or possible [[dual citizenship]]. The issue arises from [[section 44 of the Constitution of Australia]], which prohibits members of either house of the Parliament from having allegiance to a foreign power. Several MPs resigned in anticipation of being ruled ineligible, and five more were forced to resign after being ruled ineligible by the [[High Court of Australia]], including [[National Party of Australia|National Party]] leader and [[Deputy Prime Minister of Australia|Deputy Prime Minister]] [[Barnaby Joyce]]. This became an ongoing political event referred to variously as a "constitutional crisis"<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kenny|first1=Mark|title=Citizenship fiasco deepens, threatening Malcolm Turnbull's authority|url=http://www.canberratimes.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/citizenship-fiasco-deepens-threatening-malcolm-turnbulls-authority-20171103-gze3l4.html|website=Canberra Times|publisher=Fairfax Media|accessdate=3 November 2017|date=3 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/constitutional-crisis-leaves-turnbull-government-fighting-for-its-political-life-20170818-gxzi5c.html|last=Remeikis|first=Amy|title=Constitutional crisis leaves Turnbull government fighting for its political life|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=18 August 2017|accessdate=25 August 2017}}</ref> or the "citizenship crisis".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/barnaby-joyce-fiona-nash-nationals-in-crisis-government-in-turmoil-20170817-gxyr25.html|title=Barnaby Joyce, Fiona Nash citizenship saga: Nationals in crisis, government in turmoil|first1=Judith|last1=Ireland|first2=James|last2=Massola|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=19 August 2017|accessdate=25 August 2017}}</ref>
*In 2017, the [[2017 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis|eligibility of a number of Australian parliamentarians]] to sit in the [[Parliament of Australia]] was called into question because of their actual or possible [[dual citizenship]]. The issue arises from [[section 44 of the Constitution of Australia]], which prohibits members of either house of the Parliament from having allegiance to a foreign power. Several MPs resigned in anticipation of being ruled ineligible, and five more were forced to resign after being ruled ineligible by the [[High Court of Australia]], including [[National Party of Australia|National Party]] leader and [[Deputy Prime Minister of Australia|Deputy Prime Minister]] [[Barnaby Joyce]]. This became an ongoing political event referred to variously as a "constitutional crisis"<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kenny|first1=Mark|title=Citizenship fiasco deepens, threatening Malcolm Turnbull's authority|url=http://www.canberratimes.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/citizenship-fiasco-deepens-threatening-malcolm-turnbulls-authority-20171103-gze3l4.html|website=Canberra Times|publisher=Fairfax Media|access-date=3 November 2017|date=3 November 2017|archive-date=30 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230141648/http://www.canberratimes.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/citizenship-fiasco-deepens-threatening-malcolm-turnbulls-authority-20171103-gze3l4.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/constitutional-crisis-leaves-turnbull-government-fighting-for-its-political-life-20170818-gxzi5c.html|last=Remeikis|first=Amy|title=Constitutional crisis leaves Turnbull government fighting for its political life|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=18 August 2017|access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref> or the "citizenship crisis".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/barnaby-joyce-fiona-nash-nationals-in-crisis-government-in-turmoil-20170817-gxyr25.html|title=Barnaby Joyce, Fiona Nash citizenship saga: Nationals in crisis, government in turmoil|first1=Judith|last1=Ireland|first2=James|last2=Massola|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=19 August 2017|access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref>


===Fiji===
===Fiji===
*In the [[1977 Fijian constitutional crisis|Fiji constitutional crisis of 1977]], the winning party in a general election failed to name a government due to internal conflicts. The [[Governor-General of Fiji|Governor-General]] intervened, appointing a prime minister from the opposition party.
*In the [[1977 Fijian constitutional crisis|Fiji constitutional crisis of 1977]], the winning party in a general election failed to name a government due to internal conflicts. The [[Governor-General of Fiji|Governor-General]] intervened, appointing a prime minister from the opposition party.

===Kiribati===
{{Main|2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis}}


===New Zealand===
===New Zealand===
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The 1936 [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]], when [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]] proposed to marry divorcee [[Wallis Simpson]] against the advice of his ministers.
*The [[New Zealand constitutional crisis, 1984|New Zealand constitutional crisis of 1984]] was caused by [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Rob Muldoon|Sir Rob Muldoon]]'s refusal to devalue the [[New Zealand dollar|dollar]] as per the instructions of the Prime Minister-elect, [[David Lange]]. The outgoing cabinet rebelled against Muldoon, who relented. The upshot was the passage of the [[Constitution Act 1986 (NZ)|Constitution Act]], which patriated the constitution from the United Kingdom.
*The [[New Zealand constitutional crisis, 1984|New Zealand constitutional crisis of 1984]] was caused by [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Rob Muldoon|Sir Rob Muldoon]]'s refusal to devalue the [[New Zealand dollar]] as per the instructions of the Prime Minister-elect, [[David Lange]]. The outgoing cabinet rebelled against Muldoon, who relented. The crisis led to the passage of the [[Constitution Act 1986 (NZ)|Constitution Act]], which patriated the constitution from the United Kingdom.


===Papua New Guinea===
===Papua New Guinea===
*The [[2011–2012 Papua New Guinean constitutional crisis|Papua New Guinean constitutional crisis of 2011–2012]] was caused by a disagreement, involving every branch of government including the [[Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea|Supreme Court]], as to who the legitimate [[Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea|Prime Minister]] was. Specifically, whether Prime Minister [[Michael Somare]]'s dismissal by the Speaker of the [[National Parliament of Papua New Guinea|National Parliament]] while he was in hospital had been lawful. After ten months, the crisis was resolved peacefully by [[2012 Papua New Guinean general election|a general election]].
*The [[2011–2012 Papua New Guinean constitutional crisis|Papua New Guinean constitutional crisis of 2011–2012]] was caused by a disagreement, involving every branch of government including the [[Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea|Supreme Court]], as to who the legitimate [[Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea|Prime Minister]] was. Specifically, whether Prime Minister [[Michael Somare]]'s dismissal by the Speaker of the [[National Parliament of Papua New Guinea|National Parliament]] while he was in hospital had been lawful. After ten months, the crisis was resolved peacefully by [[2012 Papua New Guinean general election|a general election]].

=== Samoa ===

* The [[April 2021 Samoan general election]] resulted in legal challenges<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-04|title=Second vote called in latest twist in Samoa's most dramatic election in history|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/05/second-vote-called-in-latest-twist-in-samoas-most-dramatic-election-in-history|access-date=2021-05-21|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> and a [[2021 Samoan constitutional crisis|crisis]].<ref name=SOcrisis1>{{cite web |url=https://www.samoaobserver.ws/category/samoa/84480 |title=Head of State suspends Parliament |publisher=Samoa Observer |author=Joyetter Feagaimaali'i |date=22 May 2021 |access-date=22 May 2021 |quote="Samoa has been thrown into a constitutional crisis"}}</ref>


===Tuvalu===
===Tuvalu===
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===Chile===
===Chile===
*[[1973 Chilean coup d'état]]: Accusing [[Salvador Allende]]'s government of increasing authoritarianism, the [[Supreme Court of Chile|Supreme Court]], [[Comptroller General of Chile|Comptroller General]] and Chamber of Deputies<ref>[https://docs.google.com/document/preview?hgd=1&id=1-1mU7_DqEkeovBlYfi2yz-xLNJESPGEtdfJJ37lsNgk&pli=1 Acuerdo de la Cámara de Diputados sobre el grave quebrantamiento del orden constitucional y legal de la República]</ref> declared him out of order, and the Chamber urged the military to put an end to constitutional breaches. The military deposed Allende a few weeks later and abolished the constitution.
*[[1973 Chilean coup d'état]]: Accusing [[Salvador Allende]]'s government of increasing authoritarianism, the [[Supreme Court of Chile|Supreme Court]], [[Comptroller General of Chile|Comptroller General]] and Chamber of Deputies<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/document/preview?hgd=1&id=1-1mU7_DqEkeovBlYfi2yz-xLNJESPGEtdfJJ37lsNgk&pli=1&usp=embed_facebook|title=Acuerdo de la Cámara de Diputados sobre el grave quebrantamiento del orden constitucional y legal de la República|via=Google Docs}}</ref> declared him out of order, and the Chamber urged the military to put an end to constitutional breaches. The military deposed Allende a few weeks later and abolished the constitution.


===Peru===
===Peru===
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===Venezuela===
===Venezuela===
*[[2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis]]: The constitutional chamber of the [[Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Venezuela)|Supreme Tribunal of Justice]] ruled that the country's legislature, the [[National Assembly (Venezuela)|National Assembly]], was operating in contempt of the constitution due to prior rulings that some members had been improperly elected, and assumed legislative power for itself. Politicians opposed to the government of President [[Nicolás Maduro]], as well as Maduro's Prosecutor General, denounced the ruling for undermining the constitutional order, and the Tribunal rescinded it the following day. Maduro summoned a Constituent Assembly, nominally to draft a new constitution, but in practice to assert his authority against that of the National Assembly. As of 2019 the crisis remains unresolved, with National Assembly President [[Juan Guaidó]] attempting to assume the presidency from Maduro.
*[[2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis]] and [[Venezuelan presidential crisis]]: The constitutional chamber of the [[Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Venezuela)|Supreme Tribunal of Justice]] ruled that the country's legislature, the [[National Assembly (Venezuela)|National Assembly]], was operating in contempt of the constitution due to prior rulings that some members had been improperly elected and assumed legislative power for itself. Politicians opposed to the government of President [[Nicolás Maduro]], as well as Maduro's Prosecutor General, denounced the ruling for undermining the constitutional order, and the Tribunal rescinded it the following day. Maduro summoned a Constituent Assembly, nominally to draft a new constitution, but in practice to assert his authority against that of the National Assembly. After an irregular presidential election the following year, National Assembly President [[Juan Guaidó]] was recognized as interim president in opposition to Maduro, which he continued to claim through the end of 2022.


==See also==
==See also==
{{ portal | Politics }}

* [[Cabinet crisis]]
* [[Cabinet crisis]]


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[[Category:Constitutional crises| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional crises| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Political crisis]]

Latest revision as of 01:50, 11 December 2024

In political science, a constitutional crisis is a problem or conflict in the function of a government that the political constitution or other fundamental governing law is perceived to be unable to resolve. There are several variations to this definition. For instance, one describes it as the crisis that arises out of the failure, or at least a strong risk of failure, of a constitution to perform its central functions.[1] The crisis may arise from a variety of possible causes. For example, a government may want to pass a law contrary to its constitution; the constitution may fail to provide a clear answer for a specific situation; the constitution may be clear but it may be politically infeasible to follow it; the government institutions themselves may falter or fail to live up to what the law prescribes them to be; or officials in the government may justify avoiding dealing with a serious problem based on narrow interpretations of the law.[2][3] Specific examples include the South African Coloured vote constitutional crisis in the 1950s, the secession of the southern U.S. states in 1860 and 1861, the dismissal of the Australian federal government in 1975 and the 2007 Ukrainian crisis. While the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland does not have a codified constitution, it is deemed to have an uncodified one, and issues and crises in the UK and its constituent countries are described as constitutional crises.

Constitutional crises may arise from conflicts between different branches of government, conflicts between central and local governments, or simply conflicts among various factions within society. In the course of government, the crisis results when one or more of the parties to a political dispute willfully chooses to violate a law of the constitution; or to flout an unwritten constitutional convention; or to dispute the correct, legal interpretation of the violated constitutional law or of the flouted political custom. This was demonstrated by the XYZ Affair, which involved the bribery of French officials by a contingent of American commissioners who were sent to preserve peace between France and the United States.[4] The incident was published in the American press and created a foreign policy crisis, which precipitated the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Opposition to these acts in the form of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions cited that they violated freedom of speech and exhorted states to refuse their enforcement since they violated the Constitution.[4]

When the crisis arises because the constitution is legally ambiguous, the ultimate resolution usually establishes the legal precedent to resolve future crises of constitutional administration. Such was the case in the United States presidential succession of John Tyler, which established that a successor to the presidency assumes the office without any limitation. Politically, a constitutional crisis can lead to administrative paralysis and eventual collapse of the government, the loss of political legitimacy, or to civil war. A constitutional crisis is distinct from a rebellion, which occurs when political factions outside a government challenge the government's sovereignty, as in a coup d'état or a revolution led by the military or by civilians.

Africa

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Democratic Republic of the Congo

[edit]
Patrice Lumumba

Egypt

[edit]

Malawi

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  • A constitutional crisis occurred in Malawi in 2012 with regard to the succession of Bingu wa Mutharika. The President and Vice-President were from different parties which led to deliberations over who the rightful successor would be and the constitutional crisis. Vice-President Joyce Banda eventually succeeded wa Mutharika.

Gambia

[edit]

Rhodesia

[edit]

Somalia

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South Africa

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Asia

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Iran

[edit]

Malaysia

[edit]

South Korea

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  • The 2024 South Korean martial law started with the announcement from President Yoon Suk Yeol to impose martial law during a televised adress on 3 December 2024. He accused the Democratic Party (DPK), which has a majority in the National Assembly, of conducting "anti-state activities" and collaborating with "North Korean communists" to destroy the country. The short-lived move from the President sparked mass protest across the country and resignation of many members of Yoon's cabinet.

Pakistan

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  • Supreme Court Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah clashed repeatedly with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in late 1997, accusing him of undermining the court's independence. After Ali Shah suspended a constitutional amendment that prevented dismissal of the prime minister, Sharif ordered President Farooq Leghari to appoint a new chief justice. When Leghari refused, Sharif considered impeaching him, but backed down after a warning from the armed forces. Faced with a choice of accepting Sharif's demands or dismissing him, Leghari resigned. Ali Shah resigned shortly afterward, establishing Sharif's dominance.
  • Following a no-confidence motion against Prime Minister Imran Khan on 8 March 2022, a constitutional crisis occurred when the deputy speaker of the National Assembly rejected the no-confidence motion on the 3 April 2022. President Arif Alvi subsequently dissolved the national assembly, upon advice from the Prime Minister,[12][13][14] which constitutionally could not be done by a Prime Minister who is facing a no-confidence motion.

Thailand

[edit]

Sri Lanka

[edit]
Main article: 2018 Sri Lankan constitutional crisis
  • On the 26th of October 2018, President Maithripala Sirisena appointed former President Mahinda Rajapaksa as Prime Minister and dismissed incumbent Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe. Ranil Wickremesing refused to accept the dismissal while stating that it was unconstitutional and undemocratic.

Europe

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Austria

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Belgium

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Denmark

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England

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For events after the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, see § United Kingdom below.
John of England signs Magna Carta. Illustration from Cassell's History of England (1902)

Estonia

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France

[edit]
  • The Brittany Affair of 1765: The king's court in Brittany forbade collection of taxes to which the provincial Estates did not consent. After King Louis XV annulled the court's decree, most of its members resigned. The chief prosecutor, Louis-René de Caradeuc de La Chalotais, was accused of writing letters denouncing the king's action and charged with treason. A court convened to try La Chalotais reached no conclusion due to questions of jurisdiction and the weakness of the evidence. The king then transferred the case to his own council, further inflaming fears of absolutism to the point that he was obligated to release La Chalotais and yield to the provincial authorities.
  • The 16 May 1877 crisis: President Patrice de Mac-Mahon dismissed Prime Minister Jules Simon and named Albert de Broglie to replace him. The National Assembly refused to recognize the new government and a crisis, which ended with the dissolution of the Assembly and new elections, ensued.

Germany

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Malta

[edit]

Order of Malta

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  • In December 2016 Matthew Festing, Grand Master of the Order of Malta, dismissed its Grand Chancellor Albrecht von Boeselager for allowing the distribution of contraceptives in violation of the Catholic Church's policy. Boeslanger protested that the dismissal was irregular under the Order's constitution and appealed to Pope Francis. Francis ordered an investigation of the dispute, then demanded and received Festing's resignation. The Order elected Giacomo dalla Torre del Tempio di Sanguinetto as Festing's successor on a program of constitutional reform and promoting religious obedience.

Norway

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Roman Republic

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Russia

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  • The constitutional crisis of 1993: President Boris Yeltsin ordered the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet when it refused constitutional reforms that would allow him to implement his privatization program. After the Constitutional Court struck down Yeltsin's order, parliament impeached him and recognized a rival government of dissenting officials. Yeltsin used military force to disperse parliament, established a government by presidential decree, and pushed through a new constitution that increased the power of the presidency.[19]

Scotland

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This covers the Kingdom of Scotland, which became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain after 1707. For constitutional crises since then, see United Kingdom below.

Spain

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Catalan president, Carles Puigdemont, addresses the crowd following the unilateral declaration of independence on 27 October

Turkey

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Ukraine

[edit]

United Kingdom

[edit]

While the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland does not have a written constitution, it is deemed to have an unwritten one, and issues and crises in the UK and its constituent countries are described as constitutional crises.

North America

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Canada

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Honduras

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United States

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The Electoral Commission was a panel that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876.

Oceania

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Australia

[edit]

Fiji

[edit]

Kiribati

[edit]
Main article: 2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis

New Zealand

[edit]

Papua New Guinea

[edit]

Samoa

[edit]

Tuvalu

[edit]

South America

[edit]

Chile

[edit]

Peru

[edit]

Venezuela

[edit]
  • 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis and Venezuelan presidential crisis: The constitutional chamber of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice ruled that the country's legislature, the National Assembly, was operating in contempt of the constitution due to prior rulings that some members had been improperly elected and assumed legislative power for itself. Politicians opposed to the government of President Nicolás Maduro, as well as Maduro's Prosecutor General, denounced the ruling for undermining the constitutional order, and the Tribunal rescinded it the following day. Maduro summoned a Constituent Assembly, nominally to draft a new constitution, but in practice to assert his authority against that of the National Assembly. After an irregular presidential election the following year, National Assembly President Juan Guaidó was recognized as interim president in opposition to Maduro, which he continued to claim through the end of 2022.

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Contiades, Xenophon (2016). Constitutions in the Global Financial Crisis: A Comparative Analysis. Oxon: Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 9781409466314.
  2. ^ Azari, Julia; Masket, Seth (February 9, 2017). "The 4 Types of Constitutional Crises". FiveThirtyEight.
  3. ^ Graber, Mark A. (2015). A New Introduction to American Constitutionalism. Oxford University Press. p. 244. ISBN 9780190245238.
  4. ^ a b Sinopoli, Richard (1996). From Many, One: Readings in American Political and Social Thought. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p. 185. ISBN 0878406263.
  5. ^ Hoskyns, Catherine (1968). The Congo since independence, January 1960-December, 1961.
  6. ^ "Q&A: Egypt constitutional crisis". BBC. 24 December 2012.
  7. ^ Frisch, Hillel (16 November 2011). "Egypt's Constitutional Crisis". Retrieved 16 November 2011.
  8. ^ "Gambian president Yahya Jammeh rejects election result". The Guardian. Reuters. 9 December 2016. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  9. ^ "Gambia crisis: Senegal troops 'enter' to back new president". BBC. January 19, 2017. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  10. ^ Barber, Nick (2012). The Constitutional State.
  11. ^ "Somalia's Puntland refuses to recognise federal government after disputed constitutional changes". Reuters. 2024-03-31.
  12. ^ Khan, Dawn com | Sanaullah (2022-04-03). "President Alvi dissolves National Assembly on PM Imran's advice". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2022-04-03.
  13. ^ "President Arif Alvi approves dissolution of assembly on PM Imran Khan's advice". www.geo.tv. Retrieved 2022-04-03.
  14. ^ "President Arif Alvi dissolves NA on PM Imran's advice". The Express Tribune. 2022-04-03. Retrieved 2022-04-03.
  15. ^ Paulson, Stanley L. (2016). "Chapter 19: Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt: Growing Discord, Culminating in the "Guardian" Controversy of 1931". In Meierhenrich, Jens; Simons, Oliver (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt.
  16. ^ Monarchy of Norway#Council of State
  17. ^ Storting
  18. ^ "Parlamentarismen inn i Grunnloven". February 20, 2007.
  19. ^ Huskey, Eugene (2016). Presidential Power in Russia. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315482194.
  20. ^ "Timeline: Constitutional crises in English and British history". Reuters. 2019-08-30. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
  21. ^ Bogdanor, Vernon (1997). The Monarchy and the Constitution.
  22. ^ "Suspending Parliament was unlawful, court rules". 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  23. ^ Bloomberg, Edward Evans and Jonathan Browning | (2019-09-24). "Analysis | How Brexit Could Unleash a U.K. Constitutional Crisis". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  24. ^ Sandbach, Antoinette (2019-09-25). "Constitutional crisis: this looks like lights out for Boris and Brexit". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  25. ^ Green, David Allen (September 2, 2019). "The UK has not yet had a constitutional crisis over Brexit—but it could do soon". Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  26. ^ "From Magna Carta to Brexit: 800 years of constitutional crises in Britain". Reuters. 2019-08-30. Archived from the original on August 30, 2019. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  27. ^ Ellis, Richard E. (1989). The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights and the Nullification Crisis.
  28. ^ Philip Abbott (23 June 2008). Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61303-4.
  29. ^ Conlin, Michael F. (2019). The Constitutional Origins of the American Civil War.
  30. ^ McCullough, David (2003). Truman. p. 1069.
  31. ^ Marcus, Maeva (1994). Truman and the Steel Seizure Case.
  32. ^ Pohlman, Harry (2005). Constitutional Debate in Action: Governmental Powers.
  33. ^ Schudson, Michael (1992). Watergate in American Memory.
  34. ^ Kenny, Mark (3 November 2017). "Citizenship fiasco deepens, threatening Malcolm Turnbull's authority". Canberra Times. Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  35. ^ Remeikis, Amy (18 August 2017). "Constitutional crisis leaves Turnbull government fighting for its political life". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  36. ^ Ireland, Judith; Massola, James (19 August 2017). "Barnaby Joyce, Fiona Nash citizenship saga: Nationals in crisis, government in turmoil". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  37. ^ "Second vote called in latest twist in Samoa's most dramatic election in history". The Guardian. 2021-05-04. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  38. ^ Joyetter Feagaimaali'i (22 May 2021). "Head of State suspends Parliament". Samoa Observer. Retrieved 22 May 2021. Samoa has been thrown into a constitutional crisis
  39. ^ "Acuerdo de la Cámara de Diputados sobre el grave quebrantamiento del orden constitucional y legal de la República" – via Google Docs.
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