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{{distinguish|text=[[idiophone]], a class of musical instruments}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Short description|Words evoking ideas of specific sounds or other sensations}}
{{Short description|Words evoking ideas of specific sounds or other sensations}}
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[[File:Jaan! in Hakui.jpg|thumb|A sculpture demonstrating an example of Japanese sound symbolism, "''jaan!''" ({{lang|ja|ジャーン}})]]
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{{distinguish|text=[[Idiophone]], a class of musical instruments}}
An '''ideophone''' is any [[word]] in a certain [[word class]] evoking ideas in sound imitation ([[onomatopoeia]]) to express an action, manner, or property. The class of ideophones is the least common [[syntactic category]] cross-linguistically; it occurs mostly in African, Australian, and [[Amerindian languages]], and sporadically elsewhere. It is globally the only known word class exotic to [[English language|English]]. Ideophones resemble [[Interjection|interjections]] but are unclassifiable as such owing to their special [[Phonetics|phonetic]] or [[Derivational morpheme|derivational]] characteristics, and based on their syntactic function within the sentence. They may include sounds that deviate from the language's phonological system, [[Imitation|imitating]]—often in a repetitive manner—sounds of movement, animal noises, bodily sounds, noises made by tools or machines, and the like.<ref name="Sasse">{{cite book |last=Sasse |first=Hans-Jürgen |title=Syntax--Theory and Analysis: An International Handbook |date=2015 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110202762 |editor-last=Kiss and Alexiadou |pages=158–217 |chapter=Syntactic categories and subcategories}}</ref>
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[[File:Jaan! in Hakui.jpg|thumb|An example of Japanese sound symbolism, "''jaan!''"]]

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'''Ideophones''' are words that evoke an idea in sound, often a vivid impression of certain sensations or sensory perceptions, e.g. sound ([[onomatopoeia]]), movement, color, shape, or action. Ideophones are found in many of the world's [[language]]s, though they are claimed to be relatively uncommon in Western languages.<ref>Nuckolls 2004</ref> In many languages, they are a major lexical class of the same order of magnitude as nouns and verbs:<ref name=":0" /> dictionaries of languages like Japanese, Korean, Xhosa and Zulu list thousands of them.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/handle_gakui/D1004724|title=A Grammar of Sound-Symbolic Words in Japanese: Theoretical Approaches to Iconic and Lexical Properties of Japanese Mimetics|last=Akita|first=Kimi|publisher=Kobe University|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> The word class of ideophones is sometimes called ''phonosemantic'' to indicate that it is not a grammatical word class in the traditional sense of the word (like '[[verb]]' or '[[noun]]'), but rather a lexical class based on the special relation between form and meaning exhibited by ideophones. In the discipline of [[linguistics]], ideophones have long been overlooked or treated as mysterious words,<ref>Voeltz and Kilian-Hatz 2001:2</ref> though a recent surge of interest in [[sound symbolism]], [[iconicity]] and linguistic diversity has brought them renewed attention.<ref>Imai & Kita 2014, Dingemanse et al. 2015</ref>
While English does have ideophonic or onomatopoetic expressions, it does not contain a proper class of ideophones because any English onomatopoeic word can be included in one of the classical categories. For example, ''la-di-da'' functions as an adjective while others, such as ''zigzag'', may function as a verb, adverb or adjective, depending on the clausal context. In the sentence 'The rabbit zigzag'''ged''' across the meadow", the verb zigzag takes the past –''ed'' verb ending. In contrast, the reconstructed example *"The rabbit ''zigzag zigzag'' across the meadow" emulates an ideophone but is not [[idiom (language structure)|idiomatic]] to English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/27594/how-do-ideophones-and-onomatopoeia-work-in-english |title=Linguistics. How do ideophones and onomatopoeia work in English? |last= |first= |date= |website=linguistics.stackexchange.com |publisher= |access-date=7 October 2022 |quote=}}</ref>

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Dictionaries of languages like Japanese, Korean, Xhosa, Yoruba, and Zulu list thousands of ideophones.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/handle_gakui/D1004724|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140104105027/http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/handle_gakui/D1004724|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 4, 2014|title=A Grammar of Sound-Symbolic Words in Japanese: Theoretical Approaches to Iconic and Lexical Properties of Japanese Mimetics|last=Akita|first=Kimi|publisher=Kobe University|year=2009}}</ref> Sometimes ideophones are called ''phonosemantic'' to indicate that it is not a grammatical word class in the traditional sense of the word (like [[verb]] or [[noun]]), but rather a lexical class based on the special relationship between form and meaning exhibited by ideophones. In the discipline of [[linguistics]], ideophones have sometimes been overlooked or treated as a subgroup of interjections.<ref name="Sasse2">{{cite book |last=Sasse |first=Hans-Jürgen |title=Syntax--Theory and Analysis: An International Handbook |date=2015 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110202762 |editor-last=Kiss and Alexiadou |pages=158–217 |chapter=Syntactic categories and subcategories}}</ref>


==Characteristics==
==Characteristics==


An often-cited definition of the notion of ideophone is the following by [[Clement Martyn Doke]]<ref name=":1">Doke 1935 as cited in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>
The word ideophone was coined in 1935 by [[Clement Martyn Doke]], who defined it in his ''Bantu Linguistic Terminology'' as follows.<ref name=":1">Doke 1935 as cited in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>
{{quote|A vivid representation of an idea in sound. A word, often onomatopoeic, which describes a predicate, qualificative or adverb in respect to manner, color, sound, smell, action, state or intensity.}}
{{quote|A vivid representation of an idea in sound. A word, often onomatopoeic, which describes a predicate, qualificative or adverb in respect to manner, color, sound, smell, action, state or intensity.}}


Ideophones evoke sensory events. A well known instance of ideophones are [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] words – words that imitate the sound (of the event) they refer to. Some ideophones may be derived from onomatopoeic notions. A case in point is the English ideophonic verb ''to tinkle'', which imitates a brief metallic sound. In many languages, however, ideophones go far beyond onomatopoeia in imitating many things beyond sound.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, in [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]], ''kpuk '''a rap on the door' may be onomatopoeic, but other ideophones depict motion and visual scenes: ''loɓoto-loɓoto'' 'large animals plodding through mud', ''kiláŋ-kiláŋ'' 'in a zigzagging motion', ''pɛɗɛŋ-pɛɗɛŋ'' 'razor sharp'.<ref name=":2" />
Ideophones evoke sensory events. A well known instance of ideophones are [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] words—words that imitate the sound (of the event) they refer to. Some ideophones may be derived from onomatopoeic notions. In many languages, however, ideophones do not solely represent sound.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, in [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]], ''kpuk '''a rap on the door' may be onomatopoeic, but other ideophones depict motion and visual scenes: ''loɓoto-loɓoto'' 'large animals plodding through mud', ''kiláŋ-kiláŋ'' 'in a zigzagging motion', ''pɛɗɛŋ-pɛɗɛŋ'' 'razor sharp'.<ref name=":2" />


Ideophones are often characterized as [[Iconicity|iconic]] or [[Sound symbolism|sound-symbolic]] words, meaning that there can be a resemblance between their form and their meaning. For instance, in West-African languages, voiced consonants and low tone in ideophones are often connected to large and heavy meanings, whereas voiceless consonants and high tones tend to relate to small and light things.<ref>Westermann 1927</ref> [[Reduplication]] figures quite prominently in ideophones, often conveying a sense of repetition or plurality present in the evoked event.<ref>Watson in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref> The iconicity of ideophones is shown by the fact that people can guess the meanings of ideophones from various languages at a level above chance.<ref>Iwasaki et al. 2007, Dingemanse et al. 2015</ref> However, not everything about the form of ideophones directly relates to their meaning; as conventionalized words, they contain arbitrary, language-specific phonemes just like other parts of the vocabulary.
Ideophones are often characterized as [[Iconicity|iconic]] or [[Sound symbolism|sound-symbolic]] words, meaning that there can be a resemblance between their form and their meaning. For instance, in West-African languages, voiced consonants and low tone in ideophones are often connected to largeness and heaviness, whereas voiceless consonants and high tones tend to relate to smallness and lightness.<ref>Westermann 1927</ref> [[Reduplication]] figures quite prominently in ideophones, often conveying a sense of repetition or plurality present in the evoked event.<ref>Watson in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref> The iconicity of ideophones is shown by the fact that people can guess the meanings of ideophones from various languages at a level above chance.<ref>Iwasaki et al. 2007, Dingemanse et al. 2015</ref> However, the form of ideophones does not completely relate to their meaning; as conventionalized words, they contain arbitrary, language-specific phonemes just like other parts of the vocabulary.


===Grammar===
===Grammar===
The grammatical function of ideophones varies by language. In some languages (e.g. [[Welayta language|Welayta]], [[Yir-Yoront language|Yir-Yiront]], [[Semai language|Semai]], [[Korean language|Korean]]), they form a separate word class, while in others, they occur across a number of different word classes (e.g. [[Mundang]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Sotho language|Sotho]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]]).<ref>Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>
The grammatical function of ideophones varies by language. In some languages (e.g. [[Welayta language|Welayta]], [[Yir-Yoront language|Yir-Yiront]], [[Semai language|Semai]], [[Korean language|Korean]]), they form a separate word class, while in others, they occur across a number of different word classes (e.g. [[Mundang]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Sotho language|Sotho]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]]).<ref>Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>


Despite this diversity, ideophones show a number of robust regularities across languages. One is that they are often marked in the same way as quoted speech and demonstrations.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Samarin|first=William J.|year=1971|title=Survey of Bantu ideophones|url=|journal=African Language Studies|volume=12|pages=130–168|via=}}</ref> Sometimes ideophones can form a complete utterance on their own, as in English "ta-da!" or Japanese {{Nihongo||ジャーン|jaan|ta-da}}.<ref name=":0">Diffloth 1972</ref> However, ideophones also often occur within utterances, depicting a scene described by other elements of the utterance, as in Japanese ''Taro wa <u>sutasuta to</u> haya-aruki o si-ta'' 'Taro walked hurriedly' (literally 'Taro did haste-walk ''sutasuta''<nowiki/>').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kita|first=Sotaro|year=1997|title=Two-dimensional semantic analysis of Japanese mimetics|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/106489/9/WRAP-two-dimensional-semantic-analysis-Japanese-mimetics-Kita-2018.pdf|journal=Linguistics|volume=35|issue=2|pages=379–415|doi=10.1515/ling.1997.35.2.379}}</ref>
Despite this diversity, ideophones show a number of robust regularities across languages. One is that they are often marked in the same way as quoted speech and demonstrations.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Samarin|first=William J.|year=1971|title=Survey of Bantu ideophones|journal=African Language Studies|volume=12|pages=130–168}}</ref> Sometimes ideophones can form a complete utterance on their own, as in English "ta-da!" or Japanese {{Nihongo||ジャーン|jaan|ta-da}}.<ref name=":0">Diffloth 1972</ref> However, in such cases the word ideophone is used as a synonym to interjection. Proper ideophones may occur within utterances, depicting a scene described by other elements of the utterance, as in Japanese ''Taro wa <u>sutasuta to</u> haya-aruki o shita'' "Taro walked hurriedly' (literally 'Taro did haste-walk ''sutasuta''<nowiki/>').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kita|first=Sotaro|year=1997|title=Two-dimensional semantic analysis of Japanese mimetics|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/106489/9/WRAP-two-dimensional-semantic-analysis-Japanese-mimetics-Kita-2018.pdf|journal=Linguistics|volume=35|issue=2|pages=379–415|doi=10.1515/ling.1997.35.2.379|s2cid=144380452 }}</ref> Ideophones are more like illustrations ''of'' events than responses ''to'' events. An ideophone like Gbaya ''kiláŋ-kiláŋ'' 'in a zigzagging motion' displays a certain resemblance to the event (for instance, its irregular vowels and tones depicting the irregularity of the motion).

Whether they occur as part of other utterances or on their own, ideophones tend show a high degree of grammatical independence. They often occur at the edge of the utterance; they may be syntactically optional; and they tend to carry little inflectional or derivational morphology.<ref name=":3" /> Other signs of their relative independence are that they are often produced with higher intonation and expressive lengthening, and set off from the rest of the utterance by a brief pause.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kunene in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>

Because of their relative independence, ideophones are sometimes compared to [[interjection]]s: direct expressions of emotions like "Wow!" or "Ouch!". However, they are distinct in a number of ways.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ameka|first=Felix K.|year=1992|title=Interjections: the universal yet neglected part of speech|url=http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:855720/component/escidoc:855719/Ameka_1992_Interjections_J_Pragm_1992.pdf|journal=Journal of Pragmatics|volume=18|issue=2–3|pages=101–118|via=|doi=10.1016/0378-2166(92)90048-g|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0011-5356-1}}</ref> Whereas interjections usually occur on their own, ideophones more often modify other utterances, providing an illustration of a scene the utterance is about. Also, ideophones are more like illustrations ''of'' events than responses ''to'' events. An ideophone like Gbaya ''kiláŋ-kiláŋ'' 'in a zigzagging motion' displays a certain resemblance to the event (for instance, its irregular vowels and tones depicting the irregularity of the motion). An interjection like 'Wow!' indexes someone's response to an event but does not resemble that event itself.


===Registers===
===Registers===
Languages may differ in the context in which ideophones are used. In some languages, ideophones are primarily used in spoken language (e.g. [[narrative]] contexts) and are rarely encountered in written language.<ref name=":2">Noss in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref> In other languages (e.g. [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]]), ideophones can be freely used in all [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]]. In general, however, ideophones tend to occur more extensively in spoken language because of their expressive or dramaturgic function.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Languages may differ in the context in which ideophones are used. In some languages, ideophones are primarily used in spoken language (e.g. [[narrative]] contexts) and are rarely encountered in written language.<ref name=":2">Noss in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref> In other languages (e.g. [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]]), ideophones can be freely used in all [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]]. In general, however, ideophones tend to occur more extensively in spoken language because of their expressive or dramaturgic function.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kunene in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001</ref>


==Examples==
==Examples==


===[[English language|English]]===
===[[Japanese language|Japanese]]===
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{{main|Japanese sound symbolism}}
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The Japanese language has thousands of ideophones, often called ''mimetics''. The constructions are quite metrical 2-2, or 3-3, where [[Mora (linguistics)|morae]] play a role in the symmetry. The first consonant of the second word of the reduplication [[rendaku|may become voiced]] if phonological conditions allow. Japanese ideophones are used extensively in daily conversations as well as in the written language.


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* ''doki doki'' ({{lang|ja|ドキドキ}}) – heart-pounding
True ideophones are few in English: most ideophone-like words are either onomatopoeia like ''murmur'' or sound-symbolic ordinary words like ''pitter-patter'', where ''patter'' is a normal word but ''pitter'' is added to give an impression of lightness and quickness.
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* ''kira kira'' ({{lang|ja|キラキラ}}) – glittery

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* ''shiin'' ({{lang|ja|シーン}}) – silence
* ''zigzag''; an onomatopoetic impression of sharp edges or angles
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* ''niko niko'' ({{lang|ja|ニコニコ}}) – smile
* ''gaga''; unintelligible utterances
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* ''jii'' ({{lang|ja|じー}}) – stare
* ''boing''; the sound of a spring being released
*''run run'' ({{lang|ja|ルンルン}}) – cheerful
* ''boom''; the sound of an explosion
* ''bang''; the sound of a gunshot
* ''swish''; the sound of swift movement
* ''splish-splash''; the sound of water splashing
* ''ta-daa!''; the sound of a [[fanfare]]
* ''thud''; the sound of something heavy falling on the ground
* ''tick-tock''; the sound of time passing
* ''zoom''; the sound of something rushing past, with doppler effect
* ''helter-skelter''; hurriedly, recklessly

Other ideophones can appear in cartoons; in particular, the words in jagged balloons usually called ''sound effects'' are typically ideophones.

===[[German language|German]]===
* ''Zickzack''; (in) a zigzag line or shape
* ''ratzfatz''; very fast
* ''zack, zack!''; quickly, immediately, promptly
* ''holterdiepolter''; helter-skelter, pell-mell
* ''pillepalle''; pish-posh, petty, irrelevant
* ''plemplem''; crazy, gaga, cuckoo
* ''tick, tack''; the sound of time passing by


===[[Tamil language|Tamil]]===
===[[Tamil language|Tamil]]===
The Tamil language uses a lot of ideophones, both in spoken (colloquial) and in formal usage.
The Tamil language uses many ideophones, both in spoken (colloquial) and in formal usage. Ideophones are called irattaik kilavi (இரட்டைக் கிளவி) in Tamil grammar.


* ''sora sora'' ({{lang|ta|சொற சொற}}) &mdash; rough (the sound produced when rubbing back and forth on a rough surface)
* ''sora sora'' ({{lang|ta|சொறசொற}}) – rough (the sound produced when rubbing back and forth on a rough surface)
* ''vazha-vazha'' ({{lang|ta|வழவழ}}) - smooth, slippery
* ''vazha-vazha'' ({{lang|ta|வழவழ}}) – smooth, slippery
* ''mozhu-mozhu'' ({{lang|ta|மொழுமொழு}}) - smooth (surface)
* ''mozhu-mozhu'' ({{lang|ta|மொழுமொழு}}) – smooth (surface)
* ''kozhu-kozhu'' ({{lang|ta|கொழுகொழு}}) - plump
* ''kozhu-kozhu'' ({{lang|ta|கொழுகொழு}}) – plump
* ''buzu-buzu'' ({{lang|ta|புசுபுசு}}) - soft and bushy
* ''kozha-kozha'' ({{lang|ta|கொழகொழ}}) – slimy, gooey
* ''gidu-gidu'' ({{lang|ta|கிடுகிடு}}) - quickly, fast
* ''busu-busu'' ({{lang|ta|புசுபுசு}}) – soft and bushy
* ''mada-mada'' ({{lang|ta|மடமட}}) - quickly, fast
* ''kaNa-kaNa'' ({{lang|ta|கணகண}}) - warm, hot
* ''masa-masa'' ({{lang|ta|மசமச}}) - sluggish, lethargic
* ''giDu-giDu'' ({{lang|ta|கிடுகிடு}}) – quickly, fast
* ''viru-viru'' ({{lang|ta|விறுவிறு}}) - energetically
* ''Tak-Tak'' ({{lang|ta|டக்டக்}}) - quickly, rapidly
* ''choda-choda'' ({{lang|ta|சொதசொத}}) - marshy, waterlogged
* ''maDa-maDa'' ({{lang|ta|மடமட}}) – quickly, fast
* ''paLa-paLa'' ({{lang|ta|பளபள}}) - glittering, shiny
* ''masa-masa'' ({{lang|ta|மசமச}}) – sluggish, lethargic
* ''veda-veda'' ({{lang|ta|வெடவெட}}) - shaking, trembling
* ''viru-viru'' ({{lang|ta|விறுவிறு}}) – energetically (also, spicy)
* ''chuda-chuda'' ({{lang|ta|சுடச்சுட}}) - piping hot
* ''choda-choda'' ({{lang|ta|சொதசொத}}) – marshy, waterlogged
* ''paLa-paLa'' ({{lang|ta|பளப்பள/பளபள}}) – glittering, shiny
* ''veDa-veDa'' ({{lang|ta|வெடவெட}}) – shaking, trembling
* ''chuDa-chuDa'' ({{lang|ta|சுடச்சுட}}) – piping hot
* ''mAngu-mAngu'' ({{lang|ta|மாங்குமாங்கு}}) – laboriously
* ''gara-gara'' ({{lang|ta|கரகர}}) – crunchy (as in food), gravely (as in voice)
* ''gaba-gaba'' ({{lang|ta|கபகப}}) - wolfing down food
* ''doLa-doLa'' ({{lang|ta|தொளதொள}}) - hanging loose (as in loose fitting)
* ''taLa-taLa'' ({{lang|ta|தளதள}}) - lush (as in a lush plant/orchard)
* ''toNa-toNa'' ({{lang|ta|தொணதொண}}) - annoyingly incessant


===Xhosa===
===[[Japanese language|Japanese]]===
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{{main article|Japanese sound symbolism}}
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The Japanese language has thousands of ideophones, often called ''mimetics''. The constructions are quite metrical 2-2, or 3-3, where [[Mora (linguistics)|morae]] play a role in the symmetry. The first consonant of the second item of the reduplication [[rendaku|may become voiced]] if phonological conditions allow. Japanese ideophones are used extensively in daily conversations as well as in the written language.


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In [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], as in closely related Zulu, ideophones can convey very complex experiential impressions or can just strengthen meanings of other words. The ideophone is often introduced using the verb {{lang|xh|thi}} {{gloss|say}}.
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* ''doki doki'' ({{lang|ja|ドキドキ}}) &mdash; heartbeat: excitement
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* ''kira kira'' ({{lang|ja|キラキラ}}) &mdash; glitter
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* ''shiin'' ({{lang|ja|シーン}}) &mdash; silence
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* ''niko niko'' ({{lang|ja|ニコニコ}}) &mdash; smile
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* ''Jii'' ({{lang|ja|じ-}}) &mdash; stare


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Using {{lang|xh|thi}}:
===[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]===


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* {{lang|xh|cwaka}} – to be silent
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In Xhosa, as in closely related Zulu, ideophones can convey very complex experiential impressions or can just strengthen meanings of other words. The ideophone is often introduced using a dummy verb, -thi, which means "say."
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:: {{lang|xh|Lixesha lokuthi cwaka}}. 'It is time to be silent.' [literally: 'It is time to say {{lang|xh|cwaka}}.']
* {{lang|xh|gqi}} – to suddenly appear
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:: {{lang|xh|Bathi gqi abelungu eAfrika}}. 'The white people suddenly arrived in Africa.' [Literally: 'The white people said {{lang|xh|gqi}} in Africa.'])


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Without using {{lang|xh|thi}}:
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Using -thi:


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* {{lang|xh|ncam}} – exact
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* ''cwaka''; to be silent
{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=xh|Andazi '''ncam'''.|{I do not know} IDEO|'I do not know exactly.'}}
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Lixesha lokuthi cwaka. (It is time to be silent [literally: It is time to say cwaka]) - If a non-ideophone was used you could replace cwaka and say "Lixesha lokuthula."
* ''gqi''; to suddenly appear
* ''bhuxe'' – to stand motionless
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{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=xh|Ndime '''bhuxe''' phambi kwakhe.|{I stood} IDEO before him.|'I stood motionless before him.'}}
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Bathi gqi abelungu eAfrika. (The white people suddenly arrived in Africa. [Literally: The white people said gqi in Africa])

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Without using -thi:

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* ''ncam''; exact
Andazi ncam. (I don't know exactly. [Literally: I do not know ncam])
* ''bhuxe''; to stand motionless
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Ndime bhuxe phambi kwakhe. (I stood motionless before him. [I stood bhuxe before him])


==See also==
==See also==
Line 115: Line 97:
==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 0-521-45219-8| pages = [https://archive.org/details/soundsymbolism0000unse/page/178 178–204]| editors = Leanne Hinton, Johanna Nichols, John J. Ohala (eds.)| last = Childs| first = G. Tucker| title = Sound Symbolism| chapter = African Ideophones| location = Cambridge| date = 1994| url = https://archive.org/details/soundsymbolism0000unse/page/178}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 0-521-45219-8| pages = [https://archive.org/details/soundsymbolism0000unse/page/178 178–204]|editor1= Leanne Hinton |editor2=Johanna Nichols |editor3=John J. Ohala | last = Childs| first = G. Tucker| title = Sound Symbolism| chapter = African Ideophones| location = Cambridge| date = 1994| chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/soundsymbolism0000unse/page/178}}
* {{Cite journal| volume = 8| pages = 440–447| last = Diffloth| first = Gérard| title = Notes on expressive meaning| journal = Chicago Linguistic Society| date = 1972}}
* {{Cite journal| volume = 8| pages = 440–447| last = Diffloth| first = Gérard| title = Notes on expressive meaning| journal = Chicago Linguistic Society| date = 1972}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.013| volume = 19| issue = 10| pages = 603–615| last1 = Dingemanse| first1 = Mark| last2 = Blasi| first2 = Damián E.| last3 = Lupyan| first3 = Gary| last4 = Christiansen| first4 = Morten H.| last5 = Monaghan| first5 = Padraic| title = Arbitrariness, iconicity and systematicity in language| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences| date = 2015| pmid=26412098| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0028-7AAB-C| hdl-access = free}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.013| volume = 19| issue = 10| pages = 603–615| last1 = Dingemanse| first1 = Mark| last2 = Blasi| first2 = Damián E.| last3 = Lupyan| first3 = Gary| last4 = Christiansen| first4 = Morten H.| last5 = Monaghan| first5 = Padraic| title = Arbitrariness, iconicity and systematicity in language| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences| date = 2015| pmid=26412098| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0028-7AAB-C| s2cid = 3634642| hdl-access = free| author1-link = Mark Dingemanse}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1353/lan.2016.0034| volume = 92| issue = 2| pages = e117–e133| last1 = Dingemanse| first1 = Mark| last2 = Schuerman| first2 = Will| last3 = Reinisch| first3 = Eva| last4 = Tufvesson| first4 = Sylvia| last5 = Mitterer| first5 = Holger| title = What sound symbolism can and cannot do: testing the iconicity of ideophones from five languages| journal = Language| date = 2016| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-002A-62F0-7}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1353/lan.2016.0034| volume = 92| issue = 2| pages = e117–e133| last1 = Dingemanse | first1 = Mark| last2 = Schuerman| first2 = Will| last3 = Reinisch| first3 = Eva| last4 = Tufvesson| first4 = Sylvia| last5 = Mitterer| first5 = Holger| title = What sound symbolism can and cannot do: testing the iconicity of ideophones from five languages| journal = Language| date = 2016| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-002A-62F0-7| s2cid = 148546000| hdl-access = free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ido |first=Shinji |date= 2011 |title= Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives: An areal dimension|url=http://ojs.utlib.ee/index.php/jeful/article/view/jeful.2011.2.1.12/10282 |journal= Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri |volume=2 |issue= 1 |pages=185–193}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1098/rstb.2013.0298| issn = 0962-8436| volume = 369| issue = 1651| pages = 20130298| last1 = Imai| first1 = Mutsumi| last2 = Kita| first2 = Sotaro| title = The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution| journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| date = 2014-09-19| pmid = 25092666| pmc=4123677}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1098/rstb.2013.0298| issn = 0962-8436| volume = 369| issue = 1651| pages = 20130298| last1 = Imai| first1 = Mutsumi| last2 = Kita| first2 = Sotaro| title = The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution| journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| date = 2014-09-19| pmid = 25092666| pmc=4123677}}
* {{Cite journal| volume = 17| pages = 53–78| last1 = Iwasaki| first1 = Noriko| last2 = Vinson| first2 = David P.| last3 = Vigliocco| first3 = Gabriella| title = What do English Speakers know about gera-gera and yota-yota?: A Cross-linguistic Investigation of Mimetic Words for Laughing and Walking| journal = Japanese Language Education Around the Globe| date = 2007}}
* {{Cite journal| volume = 17| pages = 53–78| last1 = Iwasaki| first1 = Noriko| last2 = Vinson| first2 = David P.| last3 = Vigliocco| first3 = Gabriella| title = What do English Speakers know about gera-gera and yota-yota?: A Cross-linguistic Investigation of Mimetic Words for Laughing and Walking| journal = Japanese Language Education Around the Globe| date = 2007}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = University of Texas| pages = 131–142| editors = undefinedWai Fong Chiang, Elaine Chun, Laura Mahalingappa, Siri Mehus (eds.)| last = Nuckolls| first = Janis B.| title = SALSA XI: Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Symposium about Language and Society| chapter = To be or to be not ideophonically impoverished| location = Austin| series = Texas Linguistic Forum| date = 2004}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = University of Texas| pages = 131–142|editor1=Wai Fong Chiang |editor2=Elaine Chun |editor3=Laura Mahalingappa |editor4=Siri Mehus | last = Nuckolls| first = Janis B.| title = SALSA XI: Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Symposium about Language and Society| chapter = To be or to be not ideophonically impoverished| location = Austin| series = Texas Linguistic Forum| date = 2004}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = John Benjamins| isbn = 978-90-272-2946-5| editors = Voeltz, F. K. Erhard, Christa Kilian-Hatz (eds.)| title = Ideophones| location = Amsterdam| series = Typological Studies in Language| date = 2001|url = https://vdocuments.mx/ideophones-typological-studies-in-language-44.html}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = John Benjamins| isbn = 978-90-272-2946-5|editor1= Voeltz, F. K. Erhard |editor2=Christa Kilian-Hatz | title = Ideophones| location = Amsterdam| series = Typological Studies in Language| date = 2001|url = https://vdocuments.mx/ideophones-typological-studies-in-language-44.html}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = L. Friederichsen| pages = 315–328| editors = Boas, Franz (ed.)| last = Westermann| first = Diedrich Hermann| title = Festschrift Meinhof| chapter = Laut, Ton und Sinn in westafrikanischen Sudansprachen| location = Hamburg| date = 1927}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = L. Friederichsen| pages = 315–328|editor1= Boas, Franz | last = Westermann| first = Diedrich Hermann| title = Festschrift Meinhof| chapter = Laut, Ton und Sinn in westafrikanischen Sudansprachen| location = Hamburg| date = 1927}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}



[[Category:Phonaesthetics]]
[[Category:Phonaesthetics]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Semiotics]]
[[Category:Parts of speech]]
[[Category:Parts of speech]]

Latest revision as of 23:41, 10 November 2024

Not to be confused with idiophone, a class of musical instruments.

A sculpture demonstrating an example of Japanese sound symbolism, "jaan!" (ジャーン)

An ideophone is any word in a certain word class evoking ideas in sound imitation (onomatopoeia) to express an action, manner, or property. The class of ideophones is the least common syntactic category cross-linguistically; it occurs mostly in African, Australian, and Amerindian languages, and sporadically elsewhere. It is globally the only known word class exotic to English. Ideophones resemble interjections but are unclassifiable as such owing to their special phonetic or derivational characteristics, and based on their syntactic function within the sentence. They may include sounds that deviate from the language's phonological system, imitating—often in a repetitive manner—sounds of movement, animal noises, bodily sounds, noises made by tools or machines, and the like.[1]

While English does have ideophonic or onomatopoetic expressions, it does not contain a proper class of ideophones because any English onomatopoeic word can be included in one of the classical categories. For example, la-di-da functions as an adjective while others, such as zigzag, may function as a verb, adverb or adjective, depending on the clausal context. In the sentence 'The rabbit zigzagged across the meadow", the verb zigzag takes the past –ed verb ending. In contrast, the reconstructed example *"The rabbit zigzag zigzag across the meadow" emulates an ideophone but is not idiomatic to English.[2]

Dictionaries of languages like Japanese, Korean, Xhosa, Yoruba, and Zulu list thousands of ideophones.[3] Sometimes ideophones are called phonosemantic to indicate that it is not a grammatical word class in the traditional sense of the word (like verb or noun), but rather a lexical class based on the special relationship between form and meaning exhibited by ideophones. In the discipline of linguistics, ideophones have sometimes been overlooked or treated as a subgroup of interjections.[4]

Characteristics

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The word ideophone was coined in 1935 by Clement Martyn Doke, who defined it in his Bantu Linguistic Terminology as follows.[5]

A vivid representation of an idea in sound. A word, often onomatopoeic, which describes a predicate, qualificative or adverb in respect to manner, color, sound, smell, action, state or intensity.

Ideophones evoke sensory events. A well known instance of ideophones are onomatopoeic words—words that imitate the sound (of the event) they refer to. Some ideophones may be derived from onomatopoeic notions. In many languages, however, ideophones do not solely represent sound.[5] For instance, in Gbaya, kpuk 'a rap on the door' may be onomatopoeic, but other ideophones depict motion and visual scenes: loɓoto-loɓoto 'large animals plodding through mud', kiláŋ-kiláŋ 'in a zigzagging motion', pɛɗɛŋ-pɛɗɛŋ 'razor sharp'.[6]

Ideophones are often characterized as iconic or sound-symbolic words, meaning that there can be a resemblance between their form and their meaning. For instance, in West-African languages, voiced consonants and low tone in ideophones are often connected to largeness and heaviness, whereas voiceless consonants and high tones tend to relate to smallness and lightness.[7] Reduplication figures quite prominently in ideophones, often conveying a sense of repetition or plurality present in the evoked event.[8] The iconicity of ideophones is shown by the fact that people can guess the meanings of ideophones from various languages at a level above chance.[9] However, the form of ideophones does not completely relate to their meaning; as conventionalized words, they contain arbitrary, language-specific phonemes just like other parts of the vocabulary.

Grammar

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The grammatical function of ideophones varies by language. In some languages (e.g. Welayta, Yir-Yiront, Semai, Korean), they form a separate word class, while in others, they occur across a number of different word classes (e.g. Mundang, Ewe, Sotho, Hausa).[10]

Despite this diversity, ideophones show a number of robust regularities across languages. One is that they are often marked in the same way as quoted speech and demonstrations.[11] Sometimes ideophones can form a complete utterance on their own, as in English "ta-da!" or Japanese jaan (ジャーン, ta-da).[12] However, in such cases the word ideophone is used as a synonym to interjection. Proper ideophones may occur within utterances, depicting a scene described by other elements of the utterance, as in Japanese Taro wa sutasuta to haya-aruki o shita "Taro walked hurriedly' (literally 'Taro did haste-walk sutasuta').[13] Ideophones are more like illustrations of events than responses to events. An ideophone like Gbaya kiláŋ-kiláŋ 'in a zigzagging motion' displays a certain resemblance to the event (for instance, its irregular vowels and tones depicting the irregularity of the motion).

Registers

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Languages may differ in the context in which ideophones are used. In some languages, ideophones are primarily used in spoken language (e.g. narrative contexts) and are rarely encountered in written language.[6] In other languages (e.g. Ewe, Japanese), ideophones can be freely used in all registers. In general, however, ideophones tend to occur more extensively in spoken language because of their expressive or dramaturgic function.[14]

Examples

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Japanese

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Main article: Japanese sound symbolism

The Japanese language has thousands of ideophones, often called mimetics. The constructions are quite metrical 2-2, or 3-3, where morae play a role in the symmetry. The first consonant of the second word of the reduplication may become voiced if phonological conditions allow. Japanese ideophones are used extensively in daily conversations as well as in the written language.

  • doki doki (ドキドキ) – heart-pounding
  • kira kira (キラキラ) – glittery
  • shiin (シーン) – silence
  • niko niko (ニコニコ) – smile
  • jii (じー) – stare
  • run run (ルンルン) – cheerful

Tamil

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The Tamil language uses many ideophones, both in spoken (colloquial) and in formal usage. Ideophones are called irattaik kilavi (இரட்டைக் கிளவி) in Tamil grammar.

  • sora sora (சொறசொற) – rough (the sound produced when rubbing back and forth on a rough surface)
  • vazha-vazha (வழவழ) – smooth, slippery
  • mozhu-mozhu (மொழுமொழு) – smooth (surface)
  • kozhu-kozhu (கொழுகொழு) – plump
  • kozha-kozha (கொழகொழ) – slimy, gooey
  • busu-busu (புசுபுசு) – soft and bushy
  • kaNa-kaNa (கணகண) - warm, hot
  • giDu-giDu (கிடுகிடு) – quickly, fast
  • Tak-Tak (டக்டக்) - quickly, rapidly
  • maDa-maDa (மடமட) – quickly, fast
  • masa-masa (மசமச) – sluggish, lethargic
  • viru-viru (விறுவிறு) – energetically (also, spicy)
  • choda-choda (சொதசொத) – marshy, waterlogged
  • paLa-paLa (பளப்பள/பளபள) – glittering, shiny
  • veDa-veDa (வெடவெட) – shaking, trembling
  • chuDa-chuDa (சுடச்சுட) – piping hot
  • mAngu-mAngu (மாங்குமாங்கு) – laboriously
  • gara-gara (கரகர) – crunchy (as in food), gravely (as in voice)
  • gaba-gaba (கபகப) - wolfing down food
  • doLa-doLa (தொளதொள) - hanging loose (as in loose fitting)
  • taLa-taLa (தளதள) - lush (as in a lush plant/orchard)
  • toNa-toNa (தொணதொண) - annoyingly incessant

Xhosa

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In Xhosa, as in closely related Zulu, ideophones can convey very complex experiential impressions or can just strengthen meanings of other words. The ideophone is often introduced using the verb thi 'say'.

Using thi:

  • cwaka – to be silent
Lixesha lokuthi cwaka. 'It is time to be silent.' [literally: 'It is time to say cwaka.']
  • gqi – to suddenly appear
Bathi gqi abelungu eAfrika. 'The white people suddenly arrived in Africa.' [Literally: 'The white people said gqi in Africa.'])

Without using thi:

  • ncam – exact

Andazi

I do not know

ncam.

IDEO

Andazi ncam.

{I do not know} IDEO

'I do not know exactly.'

  • bhuxe – to stand motionless

Ndime

I stood

bhuxe

IDEO

phambi

before

kwakhe.

him.

Ndime bhuxe phambi kwakhe.

{I stood} IDEO before him.

'I stood motionless before him.'

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (2015). "Syntactic categories and subcategories". In Kiss and Alexiadou (ed.). Syntax--Theory and Analysis: An International Handbook. De Gruyter. pp. 158–217. ISBN 9783110202762.
  2. ^ "Linguistics. How do ideophones and onomatopoeia work in English?". linguistics.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
  3. ^ Akita, Kimi (2009). A Grammar of Sound-Symbolic Words in Japanese: Theoretical Approaches to Iconic and Lexical Properties of Japanese Mimetics. Kobe University. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014.
  4. ^ Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (2015). "Syntactic categories and subcategories". In Kiss and Alexiadou (ed.). Syntax--Theory and Analysis: An International Handbook. De Gruyter. pp. 158–217. ISBN 9783110202762.
  5. ^ a b Doke 1935 as cited in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001
  6. ^ a b Noss in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001
  7. ^ Westermann 1927
  8. ^ Watson in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001
  9. ^ Iwasaki et al. 2007, Dingemanse et al. 2015
  10. ^ Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001
  11. ^ Samarin, William J. (1971). "Survey of Bantu ideophones". African Language Studies. 12: 130–168.
  12. ^ Diffloth 1972
  13. ^ Kita, Sotaro (1997). "Two-dimensional semantic analysis of Japanese mimetics" (PDF). Linguistics. 35 (2): 379–415. doi:10.1515/ling.1997.35.2.379. S2CID 144380452.
  14. ^ Kunene in Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001

Bibliography

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