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{{Short description|Genus of poisonous, potentially psychoactive plants}}
{{other uses}}
{{Other uses}}
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{{short description|Genus of plants}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = DaturaMetel-plant.jpg
|image = Sacred datura (Datura wrightii) (14212557338).jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Datura metel]]''
|image_caption = ''[[Datura wrightii]]''
|display_parents = 2
|display_parents = 2
|taxon = Datura
|taxon = Datura
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = See text
|subdivision = 9–14 (See text)
|type_species = ''[[Datura stramonium]]''
|type_species = ''[[Datura stramonium]]''
|type_species_authority = L.
|type_species_authority = L.
}}
}}


'''''Datura''''' is a [[genus]] of nine species of poisonous [[Vespertine (biology)|Vespertine]] [[flowering plant]]s belonging to the family [[Solanaceae]]. They are commonly known as daturas, but also known as '''devil's trumpets'''<ref>{{Cite web|title = ''Datura metel''|url = https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/datura-metel/|website = plants.ces.ncsu.edu|access-date = 2016-01-17}}</ref> (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are contained in the closely related genus ''[[Brugmansia]]''). Other English common names include '''moonflower''', '''jimsonweed''', '''devil's weed''', '''hell's bells''' and '''thorn-apple'''. The Mexican common names '''Toloache''' and '''Tolguacha''' derive from the [[Nahuatl]] name '''Tolohuaxihuitl''' meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of ''Datura'' species belonging to section ''Dutra'' of the genus). ''Datura'' species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions of the Americas and are distributed mostly in Mexico, which is considered the center of its origin. Although ''Datura ferox'' occurs in Argentina, ''Datura metel'' in Asia, and ''Datura leichardthii'' in Australia, these species were probably introduced from Mexico.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karinho-Betancourt |first1=Eunice |last2=Agrawal |first2=Anurag A. |last3=Halitschke |first3=Rayko |last4=Nunez-Farf ~ an |first4=Juan |title=Phylogenetic correlations among chemical and physical plant defenses change with ontogeny |journal=New Phytologist |date=2015 |volume=206 |issue=2 |pages=796–806 |doi=10.1111/nph.13300 |pmid=25652325 }}</ref> Its distribution within the [[Americas]] and [[North Africa]], however, is most likely restricted to the United States, Mexico and Southern Canada in North America, and [[Tunisia]] in Africa where the highest species diversity occurs.
'''''Datura''''' is a [[genus]] of nine species of highly [[poisonous]], [[Vespertine (biology)|vespertine]]-[[flowering plant]]s belonging to the nightshade family ([[Solanaceae]]).<ref>1959 Avery, Amos Geer, Satina, Sophie and Rietsema, Jacob ''Blakeslee: the genus Datura'', foreword and biographical sketch by Edmund W. Sinnott, pub. New York : Ronald Press Co.</ref> They are commonly known as '''thornapples''' or '''jimsonweeds''', but are also known as '''devil's trumpets''' or '''mad apple'''<ref>{{Cite web|title = ''Datura metel''|url = https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/datura-metel/|website = plants.ces.ncsu.edu|access-date = 2016-01-17|archive-date = 4 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033036/https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/datura-metel/|url-status = live}}</ref> (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus ''[[Brugmansia]]''). Other English common names include '''moonflower''', '''devil's weed''', and '''hell's bells'''. All species of ''Datura'' are extremely poisonous and [[Psychoactive plant|psychoactive]], especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause [[respiratory depression]], [[arrhythmias]], [[fever]], [[delirium]], [[hallucinations]], [[Toxidrome#Anticholinergic|anticholinergic toxidrome]], [[psychosis]], and death if taken internally.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Acute poisoning due to ingestion of Datura stramonium – a case report |year=2017 |publisher=NCBI |pmc=5555431 |last1=Trancă |first1=S. D. |last2=Szabo |first2=R. |last3=Cociş |first3=M. |journal=Romanian Journal of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=65–68 |pmid=28913501 }}</ref>


Due to their effects and symptoms, ''Datura'' species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as [[Hallucinogens#Deliriants|hallucinogens]] by various groups throughout history.<ref name="Fatur-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |title='Hexing Herbs' in Ethnobotanical Perspective: A Historical Review of the Uses of Anticholinergic Solanaceae Plants in Europe |journal=Economic Botany |date=June 2020 |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=140–158 |doi=10.1007/s12231-020-09498-w |bibcode=2020EcBot..74..140F |s2cid=220844064 }}</ref><ref name="Kennedy-2014">{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=David O. |year=2014 |chapter=The Deliriants - The Nightshade (''Solanaceae'') Family |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUNDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |title=Plants and the Human Brain |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=131–137 |isbn=978-0-19-991401-2 |lccn=2013031617}}</ref> Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with [[witchcraft]] and [[Magic (supernatural)|sorcery]] or similar practices in many cultures, including the [[Western world]].<ref name="Kennedy-2014"/><ref name="Hansen-1978">Hansen, Harold A. ''The Witch's Garden'' pub. Unity Press 1978 {{ISBN|978-0-913300-47-3}}</ref><ref>Rätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications'' pub. Park Street Press 2005</ref> Certain common ''Datura'' species have also been used [[ritual]]istically as [[entheogen]]s by some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] groups.<ref>Cecilia Garcia; James D. Adams (2005). Healing with medicinal plants of the west – cultural and scientific basis for their use. Abedus Press. {{ISBN|0-9763091-0-6}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Kumeyaay rock art at Hakwin: Hallucinogen datura explains symbols|url=https://www.sandiegoreader.com/news/1983/dec/15/rock/|magazine=San Diego Reader|date=15 December 1983|first=Gordon|last=Smith|archive-date=3 January 2023|access-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103214842/https://www.sandiegoreader.com/news/1983/dec/15/rock/|url-status=live}}</ref>
All species of ''Datura'' are poisonous, especially their seeds and flowers which can cause [[respiratory depression]], [[arrhythmias]], [[hallucinations]], [[psychosis]], as well as death if taken internally.


Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for [[medicinal]] purposes, and the [[alkaloid]]s present in some species have long been considered [[traditional medicine]]s in both the [[New World|New]] and [[Old World]]s due to the presence of the alkaloids [[scopolamine]] and [[atropine]], which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as ''[[Hyoscyamus niger]]'', ''[[Atropa belladonna]]'', and ''[[Mandragora officinarum]]''.<ref name="Fatur-2020"/><ref name="Kennedy-2014"/><ref name="Schultes-1979">Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas.</ref>
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A group of [[South America]]n species formerly placed in the genus ''Datura'' are now placed in the distinct genus ''[[Brugmansia]]''<ref>{{cite book | editor = Hawkes, J. G. |author1=Lester, R. N. |author2=Nee, M. |author3=Estrada, N. | title = Solanaceae III – Taxonomy, Chemistry, Evolution (Proceedings of Third International Conference on Solanaceae) | publisher = Royal Botanic Gardens | year = 1991 | location = Kew | pages = 197–210 | isbn = 0-947643-31-1 }}</ref> (''Brugmansia'' differs from ''Datura'' in that it is woody, making [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s, and it has pendulous flowers, rather than erect ones). Other related taxa include
''[[Hyoscyamus niger]]'', ''[[Atropa belladonna]]'', ''[[Mandragora officinarum]]'', [[Physalis]], and many more.


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
The name ''Datura'' is taken from [[Sanskrit]] धतूरा ''{{transl|hi|dhatūra}}'' 'thorn-apple',<ref>American Heritage Dictionary: ''datura''</ref> ultimately from [[Sanskrit]] धत्तूर ''{{IAST|dhattūra}}'' 'white thorn-apple' (referring to ''[[Datura metel]]'' of Asia).<ref name="MWSD">{{MWSD}}</ref> In the [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] text ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' different species of ''Datura'' are also referred to as ''{{IAST|kanaka}}'' and ''{{IAST|unmatta}}''.<ref name="MWSD"/> Dhatura is offered to [[Shiva]] in [[Hinduism]]. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.<ref>the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' or [[OED]]</ref> [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] refers to one type in ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' as ''apple-Peru''. In Mexico, its common name is ''toloache''.
The [[Genus|generic]] name ''Datura'' is taken from [[Hindi]] धतूरा ''{{transliteration|hi|dhatūra}}'' "thorn-apple",<ref>American Heritage Dictionary: ''datura''</ref> ultimately from [[Sanskrit]] धत्तूर ''{{IAST|dhattūra}}'' "white thorn-apple" (referring to ''[[Datura metel]]'' of Asia).<ref name="Monier-Williams-1899">{{MWSD}}</ref> In the [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] text ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', different species of ''Datura'' are also referred to as ''{{IAST|kanaka}}'' and ''{{IAST|unmatta}}''.<ref name="Monier-Williams-1899"/> ''Dhatura'' is offered to [[Shiva]] in [[Hinduism]]. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.<ref>the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' or [[OED]]</ref> [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] refers to one type in ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name is ''toloache''. The Mexican common name {{wikt-lang|es|toloache}} (also spelled {{lang|es|tolguacha}}) derives from the [[Nahuatl]] {{lang|nah|tolohuaxihuitl}}, meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of ''Datura'' species belonging to section ''Dutra'' of the genus).


==Description==
==Description==
''Datura'' species are [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], leafy [[annual plant|annuals]] and short-lived [[perennial plant|perennials]] which can reach up to 2&nbsp;m in height. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, 10–20&nbsp;cm long and 5–18&nbsp;cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The [[flower]]s are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of ''Brugmansia''), trumpet-shaped, 5–20&nbsp;cm long and 4–12&nbsp;cm broad at the mouth; colors vary from white to yellow, pink, and pale purple. The [[fruit]] is a spiny [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]] 4–10&nbsp;cm long and 2–6&nbsp;cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous [[seed]]s. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields and even wasteland locations.
''Datura'' species are [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], leafy [[annual plant|annuals]] and short-lived [[perennial plant|perennials]], which can reach up to 2&nbsp;m in height. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, 10–20&nbsp;cm long, and 5–18&nbsp;cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The [[flower]]s are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of ''[[Brugmansia]]''), trumpet-shaped, 5–20&nbsp;cm long, and 4–12&nbsp;cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The [[fruit]] is a spiny [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]], 4–10&nbsp;cm long and 2–6&nbsp;cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous [[seed]]s. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.


''Datura'' belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with [[deadly nightshade]], [[henbane]], and [[Mandragora officinarum|mandrake]]. All parts of the plants are toxic, and datura has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of [[potions]] and witches' brews, most notably ''[[Datura stramonium]]''.<ref name="Preissel"/>
''Datura'' belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with [[deadly nightshade]], [[henbane]], and [[Mandragora officinarum|mandrake]]. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, [[potions]], and witches' brews, most notably ''[[Datura stramonium]]''.<ref name="Preissel-2002"/><ref>Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). ''The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens'' (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pps. 261-4.</ref>


In India it has been referred to as "poisonous" and as an [[aphrodisiac]]. In little measures it was used in [[Ayurveda]] as a medicine from the ancient times. It is used in rituals and prayers to [[Shiva]]. It is also used in [[Ganesh Chaturthi]].
In India, ''D. metel'' has long been regarded as a poison and [[aphrodisiac]], having been used in [[Ayurveda]] as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], a festival devoted to the deity [[Ganesha]].<ref name="Siklós-1993"/> The [[Caterpillar|larvae]] of some [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species, including ''[[Hypercompe indecisa]]'', eat some ''Datura'' species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on ''Datura'' leaves, other animals such as [[cows]] will generally avoid consuming them.

The [[Caterpillar|larvae]] of some [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species, including ''[[Hypercompe indecisa]]'', eat some ''Datura'' species.


==Species and cultivars==
==Species and cultivars==
[[File:Datura FR 2012.jpg|thumb|''Datura metel'']]
[[File:Datura FR 2012.jpg|thumb|''[[Datura metel]]'' 'Fastuosa']]
It is difficult to classify ''Datura'' as to its species, and it often happens that the descriptions of new species are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as ''D. wrightii'' and ''D. inoxia'', are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, ''Datura'' species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle-high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.<ref name='Preissel'>{{cite book |author1=Preissel, U. |author2=Preissel, H.-G. | title = ''Brugmansia'' and ''Datura'': Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples | publisher = Firefly Books | year = 2002 | location = Buffalo, NY | pages = 106–129 | isbn = 1-55209-598-3 }}</ref>
Classifying ''Datura'' as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as ''D. wrightii'' and ''D. inoxia'', are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, ''Datura'' species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.<ref name="Preissel-2002">{{cite book |author1=Preissel, U. |author2=Preissel, H.-G. | title = ''Brugmansia'' and ''Datura'': Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples | publisher = Firefly Books | year = 2002 | location = Buffalo, NY | pages = 106–129 | isbn = 1-55209-598-3 }}</ref> ''Datura'' species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: ''D. ferox'' (native to China), ''D. metel'' (native to India and Southeast Asia), and ''D. leichardthii'' (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karinho-Betancourt |first1=Eunice |last2=Agrawal |first2=Anurag A. |last3=Halitschke |first3=Rayko |last4=Nunez-Farf ~ an |first4=Juan |title=Phylogenetic correlations among chemical and physical plant defenses change with ontogeny |journal=New Phytologist |date=2015 |volume=206 |issue=2 |pages=796–806 |doi=10.1111/nph.13300 |pmid=25652325 |doi-access= |bibcode=2015NewPh.206..796K }}</ref>

⚫
A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus ''Datura'' are now placed in the distinct genus ''[[Brugmansia]]''<ref>{{cite book | editor = Hawkes, J. G. |author1=Lester, R. N. |author2=Nee, M. |author3=Estrada, N. | title = Solanaceae III – Taxonomy, Chemistry, Evolution (Proceedings of Third International Conference on Solanaceae) | publisher = Royal Botanic Gardens | year = 1991 | location = Kew | pages = 197–210 | isbn = 0-947643-31-1 }}</ref> (''Brugmansia'' differs from ''Datura'' in that it is woody (the species being [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s) and has [[indehiscent]] fruits.) The solanaceous tribe [[Datureae]], to which ''Datura'' and ''Brugmansia'' belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus ''[[Trompettia]]'' <small>J. Dupin</small>, featuring the species ''Trompettia cardenasiana'', which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus ''[[Iochroma]]''.

''Datura'' specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of ''Datura'',<ref name="Preissel-2002"/> but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list ''D. arenicola'', ''D. lanosa'', and ''D. pruinosa'' as accepted spp.):

*''Datura arenicola'' Gentry ex Bye & Luna
*''Datura ceratocaula'' Ortega
*''Datura discolor'' Bernh.
*''Datura ferox'' L.
*''Datura innoxia'' Mill.
*''Datura kymatocarpa'' Barclay
*''Datura lanosa'' A.S.Barclay ex Bye
*''Datura leichhardtii'' Benth.
*''Datura metel'' L.
*''Datura pruinosa'' Greenm.
*''Datura quercifolia'' Kunth
*''Datura reburra'' Barclay
*''Datura stramonium'' L.
*''Datura wrightii'' Regel

Of the above, ''D. leichhardtii'' is close enough to ''D. pruinosa'' to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise ''D. ferox'' and ''D. quercifolia'' are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of ''D. leichhardtii'', the Chinese provenance of ''D. ferox'', and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of ''D. metel'' have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.<ref name="Symon-1991"/>

The case of ''D. metel'' is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] [[cultivar]]s created from ''D. innoxia'' in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE &ndash; whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown &ndash; making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the [[New World]] to the [[Old World]] (see [[Columbian Exchange]]).<ref name="Symon-1991">'Datura (Solanaceae) is a New World Genus' by D.E. Symon and L. Haegi in (page 197 of) ''Solanaceae III: Taxonomy Chemistry Evolution'', Editors J.G. Hawkes, R.N. Lester, M. Nee, & N. Estrada, published by The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK for The Linnean Society of London 1991. {{ISBN|0-947643-31-1}}.</ref><ref name="Siklós-1993">{{cite journal |id={{INIST|3740667}} |last1=Siklós |first1=Bulcsu |title=Datura rituals in the ''Vajramahabhairava-Tantra'' |journal=Curare |date=1993 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=71–76 }} Republished as: {{cite journal |last1=Siklós |first1=Bulcsu |title=Datura rituals in the ''Vajramahabhairava-Tantra'' |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |date=1994 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=409–416 |jstor=23658487 }}</ref><ref name="Cavazos-2000">{{cite journal |last1=Cavazos |first1=Mario Luna |last2=Jiao |first2=Meijun |last3=Bye |first3=Robert |title=Phenetic analysis of Datura section Dutra (Solanaceae) in Mexico |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=August 2000 |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=493–507 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2000.tb01592.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>

''D. arenicola'' is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section ''Discola'' [not to be confused with the species name ''D. discolor''] within the genus. The specific name ''arenicola'' means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") [[sand]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=D. Robert A. |title=Datura arenicola (Solanaceae): A New Species in the New Section Discola from Baja California Sur, Mexico |journal=Madroño |date=July 2013 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=217–228 |doi=10.3120/0024-9637-60.3.217 |s2cid=86630069 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/282758 |archive-date=6 May 2023 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165307/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/282758 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Today, experts classify only nine species of ''Datura'':<ref name="Preissel"/>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Image !! Scientific name !! Common Name !! Distribution
! Image !! Scientific name !! Common name !! Distribution
|-
|-
| || ''[[Datura ceratocaula|D. ceratocaula]]'' <small>[[Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin|Jacq.]]</small>|| torna loco || Mexico.
| || ''[[Datura arenicola]]'' <small>Gentry ex Bye & Luna</small> || Sand thorn-apple, Baja datura, [[El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve|Vizcaíno Desert]] datura || [[Baja California Sur]], Mexico
|-
|-
|[[File:Whiteflower8.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura discolor|D. discolor]]'' <small>[[Johann Jakob Bernhardi|Bernh.]]</small> (syn. ''[[Datura kymatocarpa|D. kymatocarpa]]'', ''[[Datura reburra|D. reburra]]'')|| desert thorn-apple ||Sonoran Desert of western North America
| [[File:Datura ceratocaula.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura ceratocaula|D. ceratocaula]]'' <small>[[Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin|Jacq.]]</small>|| torna loco, Sister of [[Ololiuhqui]], swamp datura || Mexico.
|-
|-
|[[File:Datura ferox.JPG|120px]] || ''[[Datura ferox|D. ferox]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]</small>|| long-spined thorn-apple ||southeastern China
|[[File:Whiteflower8.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura discolor|D. discolor]]'' <small>[[Johann Jakob Bernhardi|Bernh.]]</small> (syn. ''[[Datura kymatocarpa|D. kymatocarpa]]'', ''[[Datura reburra|D. reburra]]'')|| desert thorn-apple ||[[Sonoran Desert]] of western North America
|-
|-
|[[File:Datura inoxia (8482127654).jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura innoxia|D. innoxia]]'' <small>[[Philip Miller|Mill.]]</small>|| thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, moonflower, sacred datura, ''toloatzin, toloache'' || Southwestern United States, Central and South America
|[[File:Datura ferox.JPG|120px]] || ''[[Datura ferox|D. ferox]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]</small>|| long-spined thorn-apple ||southeastern China (disputed<ref name="Symon-1991"/>)
|-
|[[File:Datura inoxia (8482127654).jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura innoxia|D. innoxia]]'' <small>[[Philip Miller|Mill.]]</small>|| thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, moonflower, ''toloatzin, toloache'' || Southwestern United States, Central and South America ([[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] [[weed]])
|-
|-
|[[File:Datura leichhardtii stamens.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Datura leichhardtii|D. leichhardtii]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Mueller|F.Muell.]] ex [[George Bentham|Benth.]]</small> (syn. ''D. pruinosa'')|| Leichhardt's datura || from Mexico to Guatemala
|[[File:Datura leichhardtii stamens.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Datura leichhardtii|D. leichhardtii]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Mueller|F.Muell.]] ex [[George Bentham|Benth.]]</small> (syn. ''D. pruinosa'')|| Leichhardt's datura || from Mexico to Guatemala
|-
|-
|[[File:Brugmansia metel syn Datura.png|120px]] || ''[[Datura metel|D. metel]]'' <small>L.</small>|| devil's trumpet<ref name="Preissel"/> || Asia, Africa.
|[[File:Brugmansia metel syn Datura.png|120px]] || ''[[Datura metel|D. metel]]'' <small>L.</small>|| Hindu datura, Indian thorn-apple, devil's trumpet<ref name="Preissel-2002"/> || Asia, Africa (disputed<ref name="Symon-1991"/>)
|-
|-
| || ''[[Datura quercifolia|D. quercifolia]]'' <small>[[Carl Sigismund Kunth|Kunth]]</small>|| oak-leaf thorn-apple || Mexico and the Southwestern United States
|[[File:Datura_quercifolia_flower.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura quercifolia|D. quercifolia]]'' <small>[[Carl Sigismund Kunth|Kunth]]</small>|| oak-leaved thorn-apple || Mexico and the Southwestern United States
|-
|-
|[[File:Datura stramonium 003.JPG|120px]] || ''[[Datura stramonium|D. stramonium]]'' <small>L.</small> (syn. ''D. inermis'', ''D. bernhardii'')|| jimsonweed, thorn-apple || Central America
|[[File:Datura stramonium 003.JPG|120px]] || ''[[Datura stramonium|D. stramonium]]'' <small>L.</small> (syn. ''D. inermis'', ''D. bernhardii'')|| jimsonweed, thorn-apple, devil's snare || Central America ([[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] [[weed]])
|-
|-
|[[File:Datura wrightii in Apple Valley, California 1.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura wrightii|D. wrightii]]'' <small>[[Eduard von Regel|Regel]]</small>|| sacred datura, sacred thorn-apple || southwestern North America.
|[[File:Datura wrightii in Apple Valley, California 1.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Datura wrightii|D. wrightii]]'' <small>[[Eduard von Regel|Regel]]</small>|| sacred datura, western jimsonweed, California jimsonweed, Momoy, sacred thorn-apple, tolguacha, toloache || Southwestern United States
|-
|-
|}
|}



American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the [[International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants]] as the official [[International Cultivar Registration Authority]] for ''Datura''. This role was delegated to ABADS by the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]] in 2002.
American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the [[International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants]] as the official [[International Cultivar Registration Authority]] for ''Datura''. This role was delegated to ABADS by the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]] in 2002.


===Past classified species===
===Past classified species===

* ''[[Datura lanosa|D. lanosa]]''
* ''[[Datura lanosa|D. lanosa]]''
* ''[[Datura suaveolens|D. suaveolens]]''
* ''[[Datura suaveolens|D. suaveolens]]''
Line 72: Line 93:
==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==
[[File:Datura fruit.jpg|thumb|200px|Fruit]]
[[File:Datura fruit.jpg|thumb|200px|Fruit]]
[[File:Datura innoxia fruit split open.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''D. inoxia'' with ripe, split-open fruit]]
[[File:Datura metel Fastuosa2944475918.jpg|thumb|''[[Datura metel]]'' 'Fastuosa' (Hindi: काला धतूरा ''kāla dhatūra'' – "black datura")]]
''Datura'' species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny [[capsule (fruit)|capsules]], but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.<ref name="Preissel"/>
''Datura'' species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny [[Capsule (fruit)|capsules]], but, with care, the tuberous-rooted [[Perennial plant|perennial]] species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.<ref name="Preissel-2002"/>


==Toxicity==
==Toxicity==
All ''Datura'' plants contain [[tropane alkaloids]] such as [[scopolamine]] and [[atropine]], primarily in their seeds and flowers as well as the roots of certain species such as ''[[Datura wrightii|D. wrightii]]''. Because of the presence of these substances, ''Datura'' has been used for centuries in some cultures as a [[poison]].<ref name="Preissel"/><ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Adams, J. D. Jr. | author2 = Garcia, C. | title = Spirit, Mind and Body in Chumash Healing | journal = Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | year = 2005 | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 459–463 | doi = 10.1093/ecam/neh130 | pmid = 16322802 | pmc = 1297503 | url = http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/4/459 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012085820/http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/4/459 | archivedate = 12 October 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make ''Datura'' exceptionally hazardous as a drug.
All ''Datura'' plants contain [[tropane alkaloids]] such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such as ''[[Datura wrightii|D. wrightii]]''. Because of the presence of these substances, ''Datura'' has been used for centuries in some cultures as a [[poison]].<ref name="Preissel-2002"/><ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Adams, J. D. Jr. | author2 = Garcia, C. | title = Spirit, Mind and Body in Chumash Healing | journal = Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | year = 2005 | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 459–463 | doi = 10.1093/ecam/neh130 | pmid = 16322802 | pmc = 1297503 }}</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020"/> A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make ''Datura'' exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone".<ref name="Holzman-1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Holzman RS | title = The legacy of Atropos, the fate who cut the thread of life | journal = Anesthesiology | volume = 89 | issue = 1 | pages = 241–9 | date = July 1998 | pmid = 9667313 | doi = 10.1097/00000542-199807000-00030 | s2cid = 28327277 | doi-access = free }} citing J. Arena, Poisoning: Toxicology-Symptoms-Treatments, 3rd edition. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p 345</ref> ''Datura'', as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other [[Anticholinergics|anticholinergic drugs]], also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing [[dementia]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/news_article.php?newsID=2300 |title = Study suggests link between long-term use of anticholinergics and dementia risk |publisher = [[Alzheimer's Society]] |date = 2015-01-26 |access-date = 2015-02-17 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151112115547/https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/news_article.php?newsID=2300 |archive-date = 2015-11-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=More |first1=Sandeep |last2=Kumar |first2=Hemant |last3=Cho |first3=Duk-Yeon |last4=Yun |first4=Yo-Sep |last5=Choi |first5=Dong-Kug |title=Toxin-Induced Experimental Models of Learning and Memory Impairment |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=1 September 2016 |volume=17 |issue=9 |page=1447 |doi=10.3390/ijms17091447 |pmid=27598124 |pmc=5037726 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm.<ref name="Preissel"/> Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting ''Datura''. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media contained stories of [[adolescent]]s and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting ''Datura''.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5233a2.htm |author1=Goetz, R. |author2=Siegel, E. |author3=Scaglione, J. |author4=Belson, M. |author5=Patel, M. | title = Suspected Moonflower Intoxication – Ohio, 2002 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | year = 2003 | volume = 52 | issue = 33 | pages = 788–791 | pmid = 12931077 | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-jimson_x.htm | title = Jimson weed users chase high all the way to hospital| accessdate = 2009-02-15 | newspaper = [[USA TODAY]] | first = D. | last = Leinwand | date = 2006-11-01 }}</ref> There are also several reports in the medical literature of deaths from ''[[Datura stramonium|D. stramonium]]'' and ''[[Datura ferox|D. ferox]]'' [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Michalodimitrakis | first1 = M. | last2 = Koutselinis | first2 = A. | title = Discussion of "Datura stramonium: A fatal poisoning" | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | year = 1984 | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 961–962 | pmid = 6502123
In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm.<ref name="Preissel-2002"/> Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking ''Datura''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |last2=Kreft |first2=Samo |title=Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018) |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2020 |volume=177 |pages=52–88 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005 |pmid=32217234 |bibcode=2020Txcn..177...52F |s2cid=213559151 }}</ref> For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of [[adolescent]]s and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting ''Datura''.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5233a2.htm | author1 = Goetz, R. | author2 = Siegel, E. | author3 = Scaglione, J. | author4 = Belson, M. | author5 = Patel, M. | title = Suspected Moonflower Intoxication – Ohio, 2002 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | year = 2003 | volume = 52 | issue = 33 | pages = 788–791 | pmid = 12931077 | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] | archive-date = 25 June 2017 | access-date = 9 September 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170625120845/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5233a2.htm | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-jimson_x.htm | title = Jimson weed users chase high all the way to hospital | access-date = 2009-02-15 | newspaper = [[USA Today]] | first = D. | last = Leinwand | date = 2006-11-01 | archive-date = 6 September 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090906122049/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-jimson_x.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well.<ref name="Pennachio-2010">{{Cite book|vauthors=Pennachio M, Jefferson L, Havens K |title=Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-537001-0|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pr9fgQIr5LkC&pg=PA7}}</ref> Although most poisonings occur with more common species of ''Datura'' such as ''[[Datura stramonium|D. stramonium]]'', several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from ''D. ferox'' [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Michalodimitrakis | first1 = M. | last2 = Koutselinis | first2 = A. | title = Discussion of "Datura stramonium: A fatal poisoning" | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | year = 1984 | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 961–962 | pmid = 6502123
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Boumba | first1 = V. A. | last2 = Mitselou | first2 = A. | last3 = Vougiouklakis | first3 = T. | title = Fatal poisoning from ingestion of ''Datura stramonium'' seeds | journal = Veterinary and Human Toxicology | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–82 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15080209 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Steenkamp | first1 = P. A. | last2 = Harding | first2 = N. M. | last3 = Van Heerden | first3 = F. R. | last4 = Van Wyk | first4 = B.-E. | title = Fatal ''Datura'' poisoning: Identification of atropine and scopolamine by high performance liquid chromatography / photodiode array / mass spectrometry | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.03.011 | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 145 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–39 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15374592 }}</ref> Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Taha, S. A. |author2=Mahdi, A. H. | year = 1984 | title = Datura intoxication in Riyadh | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 78 | issue = 1 | pages = 134–135 | pmid = 6710568 | doi=10.1016/0035-9203(84)90196-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Djibo | first1 = A. | last2 = Bouzou | first2 = S. B. | title = [Acute intoxication with "sobi-lobi" (Datura). Four cases in Niger] | language = French | journal = Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique | year = 2000 | volume = 93 | issue = 4 | pages = 294–297 | pmid = 11204734 }}</ref>
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Boumba | first1 = V. A. | last2 = Mitselou | first2 = A. | last3 = Vougiouklakis | first3 = T. | title = Fatal poisoning from ingestion of ''Datura stramonium'' seeds | journal = Veterinary and Human Toxicology | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–82 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15080209 |oclc=112473077 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Steenkamp | first1 = P. A. | last2 = Harding | first2 = N. M. | last3 = Van Heerden | first3 = F. R. | last4 = Van Wyk | first4 = B.-E. | title = Fatal ''Datura'' poisoning: Identification of atropine and scopolamine by high performance liquid chromatography / photodiode array / mass spectrometry | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.03.011 | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 145 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–39 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15374592 }}</ref> Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Taha, S. A. |author2=Mahdi, A. H. | year = 1984 | title = Datura intoxication in Riyadh | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 78 | issue = 1 | pages = 134–135 | pmid = 6710568 | doi=10.1016/0035-9203(84)90196-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Djibo | first1 = A. | last2 = Bouzou | first2 = S. B. | title = [Acute intoxication with "sobi-lobi" (Datura). Four cases in Niger] | language = fr | journal = Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique | year = 2000 | volume = 93 | issue = 4 | pages = 294–297 | pmid = 11204734 }}</ref>
[[File:Datura innoxia fruit split open.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''D. inoxia'' with ripe, split-open fruit]]
⚫
In some parts of [[Europe]] and [[India]], ''Datura'' has been a popular [[poison]] for [[suicide]] and [[murder]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |last2=Kreft |first2=Samo |title=Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018) |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2020 |volume=177 |pages=52–88 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005 |pmid=32217234 |bibcode=2020Txcn..177...52F |s2cid=213559151 }}</ref> From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in [[Agra]], India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting ''Datura.''<ref name="Preissel-2002" /><ref name="Andrews-2013">{{cite web|last=Andrews|first=Dale|title=Daturas|url=http://www.sleuthsayers.org/2012/02/daturas.html|work=Crime Poisons|publisher=SleuthSayers|access-date=4 March 2013|location=Washington|date=2013-02-28|archive-date=10 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210034739/https://www.sleuthsayers.org/2012/02/daturas.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A group called [[Thuggee|Thugs]] ''(practicers of thuggee)'' were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in [[ritual]]s devoted to the Hindu goddess [[Kali]]. They were alleged to employ ''Datura'' in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.<ref name="Dash-2005">[[Mike Dash|Dash, Mike]] ''Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult'' {{ISBN|1-86207-604-9}}, 2005</ref>


⚫
''Datura'' toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of [[honey]] produced by several wasp species, including ''[[Brachygastra lecheguana]]'', during the ''Datura'' blooming season. These semi-domesticated [[honey wasp]]s apparently collect ''Datura'' nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.<ref name="Bequaert-1933">{{cite journal |last1=Bequaert |first1=Joseph |title=The Nearctic Social Wasps of the Subfamily Polybiinae (Hymenopetra; Vespidae) |journal=Entomologica Americana |date=29 November 1933 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=87–150 |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/bee_lab_ba/285/ |archive-date=24 October 2021 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024155709/https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/bee_lab_ba/285/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
⚫
In some parts of [[Europe]] and [[India]], ''Datura'' has been a popular [[poison]] for [[suicide]] and [[murder]]. From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in [[Agra]], India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting ''Datura.''<ref name="Preissel" /><ref name="SS1">{{cite web| last=Andrews|first=Dale |title=Daturas| url=http://www.sleuthsayers.org/2012/02/daturas.html |work=Crime Poisons| publisher=SleuthSayers |accessdate=4 March 2013| location=Washington |date=2013-02-28}}</ref> The [[Thuggee|Thugs]] ''(practicers of thuggee)'' were devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled and/or poisoned their victims in [[ritual]]s devoted to the Hindu goddess [[Kali]]. They were known to employ ''Datura'' in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.<ref name="mikedash">[[Mike Dash|Dash, Mike]] ''Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult'' {{ISBN|1-86207-604-9}}, 2005</ref>


⚫
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested ''Datura'' used as an ingredient in stew.<ref name="CDCP-2010">{{cite journal |title=Jimsonweed poisoning associated with a homemade stew - Maryland, 2008 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |date=5 February 2010 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=102–104 |pmid=20134399 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5904a3.htm |author1=Centers for Disease Control Prevention |archive-date=24 October 2021 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024160945/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5904a3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
⚫
''Datura'' toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of [[honey]] produced by several wasp species, including ''[[Brachygastra lecheguana]]'', during the ''Datura'' blooming season. It appears that these semi-domesticated [[honey wasp]]s collect ''Datura'' nectar for honey production which can lead to poisoning.<ref name="Bequaert">{{cite journal|author=Bequaert, J.Q. |year=1932|title=The Nearctic social wasps of the subfamily polybiinae (Hymenoptera; Vespidae)|journal= Entomologica Americana|volume= 13|issue=3|pages=87–150}}</ref>


In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating ''Datura'' plants is prohibited.<ref name="Preissel-2002" /><ref name="Andrews-2013" /> Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the [[Hyoscyameae]], containing such well-known toxic species as ''[[Hyoscyamus niger]]'' and ''[[Atropa belladonna]]'', the Solandreae containing the genus ''[[Solandra]]'' ("chalice vines") and the [[Mandragoreae]], named for the famous ''[[Mandragora officinarum]]'', most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.
⚫
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested ''Datura'' used as an ingredient in stew.<ref name='CDCStew'>{{cite journal | title = Jimsonweed Poisoning Associated with a Homemade Stew – Maryland, 2008 | journal = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | date = 2010-02-05 | first = W. | last = Bontoyan | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | pages = 102–103 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm5904.pdf | accessdate = 2010-02-11 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>


==Effects of ingestion==
In some places, it is prohibited to buy, sell, or cultivate ''Datura'' plants.<ref name="Preissel" /><ref name="SS1" />
''Datura'' is considered a [[deliriant]]. Due to the potent combination of [[anticholinergic]] substances it contains, ''Datura'' [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]] typically produces the effects of [[Toxidrome#Anticholinergic|anticholinergic]] [[delirium]] (usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiate [[reality]] from [[fantasy]]); [[Delusions|bizarre thoughts]], [[hyperthermia]]; [[tachycardia]]; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe [[mydriasis]] (dilated pupils) with resultant painful [[photophobia]] that can last several days.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |last2=Kreft |first2=Samo |title=Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018) |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2020 |volume=177 |pages=52–88 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005 |pmid=32217234 |bibcode=2020Txcn..177...52F |s2cid=213559151 }}</ref> Muscle stiffness, [[urinary retention]], temporary paralysis, [[disrobing]], [[Reduced affect display|emotional bluntness]], [[dysphoria]], and [[confusion]] are often reported, and pronounced [[amnesia]] is another commonly reported effect.<ref name="Freye-2009">{{cite book | last = Freye | first = E. | chapter = Toxicity of Datura Stramonium | date = 2009 | title = Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs | publisher = Springer | location = Netherlands | pages = 217–218 | isbn = 978-90-481-2447-3 | doi = 10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |last2=Kreft |first2=Samo |title=Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018) |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2020 |volume=177 |pages=52–88 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005 |pmid=32217234 |bibcode=2020Txcn..177...52F |s2cid=213559151 }}</ref> The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Volgin |first1=Andrey D. |last2=Yakovlev |first2=Oleg A. |last3=Demin |first3=Konstantin A. |last4=Alekseeva |first4=Polina A. |last5=Kyzar |first5=Evan J. |last6=Collins |first6=Christopher |last7=Nichols |first7=David E. |last8=Kalueff |first8=Allan V. |title=Understanding Central Nervous System Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogenic Drugs through Experimental Animal Models |journal=ACS Chemical Neuroscience |date=16 January 2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=143–154 |doi=10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433 |pmid=30252437 |s2cid=52824516 }}</ref><ref name="Forest-2008">{{cite web | url = http://studentdoctor.net/2008/07/atypical-drugs-of-abuse/ | title = Atypical Drugs of Abuse | author = Forest E | date = 27 July 2008 | work = Articles & Interviews | publisher = Student Doctor Network | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130527231559/http://studentdoctor.net/2008/07/atypical-drugs-of-abuse/ | archive-date = 27 May 2013 }}</ref> The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.<ref name="Pennachio-2010"/><ref name="Bliss-2001">{{cite journal | last = Bliss | first = Molly | title = Datura Plant Poisoning | journal = Clinical Toxicology Review | year = 2001 | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | url = http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/assets/images/pdfs/ctrs/CTR%20Datura%20Plant%20Poisoning.pdf | access-date = 8 July 2010 | archive-date = 23 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210423112108/http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/assets/images/pdfs/ctrs/CTR%20Datura%20Plant%20Poisoning.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |last2=Kreft |first2=Samo |title=Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018) |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2020 |volume=177 |pages=52–88 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005 |pmid=32217234 |bibcode=2020Txcn..177...52F |s2cid=213559151 }}</ref>


===Effects of ingestion===
===Treatment===
⚫
Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute ''Datura'' poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. [[Gastric lavage]] and the administration of [[activated charcoal]] can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug [[physostigmine]] is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. [[Benzodiazepines]] can be given to calm the patient's [[Agitated delirium|agitation]], and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the ''Datura''.<ref name="Andrews-2013" /><ref name="Bliss-2001"/>
Due to the potent combination of [[anticholinergic]] substances it contains, ''Datura'' [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]] typically produces effects similar to that of an [[anticholinergic]] [[delirium]] (usually involving a complete inability to differentiate [[reality]] from [[fantasy]]); [[hyperthermia]]; [[tachycardia]]; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; and severe [[mydriasis]] (dilated pupils) with resultant painful [[photophobia]] that can last several days. Muscle stiffness, [[urinary retention]], temporary paralysis, and [[confusion]] is often reported and pronounced [[amnesia]] is another commonly reported effect.<ref name='Freye'>{{cite book | last = Freye | first = E. | title = Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs | chapter = Toxicity of ''Datura stramonium'' | publisher = Springer | year = 2010 | location = Netherlands | pages = 217–218 | isbn = 978-90-481-2447-3 | doi = 10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34 }}</ref>


=== Psychoactive use ===
==Psychoactive use==
In ''Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs'', Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has ''Datura''."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatur |first1=Karsten |title=Peculiar plants and fantastic fungi: An ethnobotanical study of the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms in Slovenia |journal=PLOS ONE |date=7 January 2021 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=e0245022 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0245022 |pmid=33412556 |pmc=7790546 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1645022F |doi-access=free }}</ref> The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of ''Datura'' find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically.<ref name="Freye-2009" /> However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'', have been known to use ''Datura'' spiritually (including the [[Navajo]] and especially the [[Havasupai]]).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3736/jintegrmed2013016|pmid=23506688|title=A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of ''Datura stramonium'' L|journal=Journal of Integrative Medicine|volume=11|issue=2|pages=73–9|year=2013|last1=Gaire|first1=Bhakta Prasad|last2=Subedi|first2=Lalita}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History| first=Robert C| last=Fuller| year=2000| page=[https://archive.org/details/stairwaystoheave00full/page/32 32]| isbn=0-8133-6612-7| publisher=Basic Books| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/stairwaystoheave00full/page/32}}</ref> Adequate knowledge of ''Datura''{{'s}} properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience.<ref name="Preissel-2002" /> The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern [[California]] used to ingest ''Datura'' to "commune with [[deities]] through [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]]".<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lopez Austin A, Lopez Lujan L |title=Mexico's Indigenous Past |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8061-3723-0 |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzB4rfXObCwC&pg=PA22}}</ref> The [[Southern Paiute]] believe ''Datura'' can [[Divination|help locate missing objects]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Southern Paiute Shamanism |first1=Isabel T. |last1=Kelly |year=1939 |url=http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/ucar002-005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107022113/http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/ucar002-005.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> In ancient Mexico, ''Datura'' also played an important role in the [[Aztec religion|religion of the Aztecs]] and the practices of their [[medicine men]] and [[necromancer]]s.<ref name="Safford-1916">{{cite book |last1=Safford |first1=William |title=Narcotic Plants and Stimulants of the Ancient Americans |date=1916 |publisher=Economic Botanist |location=United States |pages=405–406 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJXdX3IEtycC&q=datura+necromancy&pg=PA405}}</ref> It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for [[ritual sacrifice]] and malevolent purposes as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carod-Artal |first1=F.J. |title=Alucinógenos en las culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas |trans-title=Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures |language=es |journal=Neurología |date=January 2015 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=42–49 |doi=10.1016/j.nrl.2011.07.003 |pmid=21893367 |doi-access= }}</ref> In modern-day [[Mexico]], some datura species are still used for sorcery and other [[occult]] practices, mostly in the southern region of [[Veracruz]], specifically in the city of [[Catemaco#The "witches" of Catemaco|Catemaco]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Endredy |first1=James |title=The Flying Witches of Veracruz: A Shaman's True Story of Indigenous Witchcraft, Devil's Weed, and Trance Healing in Aztec Brujeria |date=2011 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |isbn=978-0-7387-3114-8 }}{{page needed|date=October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Budd-2002">{{cite news |author=Jim Budd|title= Viajando Ligero/ El misterioso Catemaco |newspaper=Reforma |location=Mexico City |date=27 October 2002 |page=5 }}</ref>
Datura is considered a [[deliriant]]. [[Christian Rätsch]] has said "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)]], an [[ethnobotanist]], lists it as a possible ingredient of [[zombie potion]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Dictionary of Hallucations |location=Oradell, NJ. |publisher=Springer |year=2010|pages=127}}</ref>


⚫
[[Bernardino de Sahagún]], in around 1569, called attention to ''Datura'' in these words:
In ''Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs'', Freye asserts:
⚫
"It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected."<ref name="Safford-1916"/>
Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has ''Datura''. The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of ''Datura'' find their experiences extremely unpleasant both mentally and often physically dangerous.<ref name = "Freye"/> However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'', have been known to use ''Datura'' spiritually (including the [[Navajo]] and especially the [[Havasupai]]).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3736/jintegrmed2013016|pmid=23506688|title=A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of ''Datura stramonium'' L|journal=Journal of Integrative Medicine|volume=11|issue=2|pages=73–9|year=2013|last1=Gaire|first1=Bhakta Prasad|last2=Subedi|first2=Lalita}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History| first=Robert C| last=Fuller| year=2000| page=[https://archive.org/details/stairwaystoheave00full/page/32 32]| isbn=0813366127| publisher=Basic Books| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/stairwaystoheave00full/page/32}}</ref> Again, knowledge of ''Datura''{{'s}} properties is necessary to facilitate a healthy experience.<ref name="Preissel"/>
The [[Southern Paiute]] believe ''Datura'' can help locate missing objects.<ref>Southern Paiute Shamanism by Isabel T. Kelly (1939) http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/ucar002-005.pdf</ref> In ancient Mexico, ''Datura'' also played an important role in the [[Aztec religion|religion of the Aztecs]] and the practices of their [[medicine men]] and [[necromancer]]s.<ref name="Economic Botanist">{{cite book |last1=Safford |first1=William |title=Narcotic Plants and Stimulants of the Ancient Americans |date=1916 |publisher=Economic Botanist |location=United States |pages=405–406 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BJXdX3IEtycC&pg=PA405&lpg=PA405&dq=datura+necromancy#v=onepage&q=datura%20necromancy&f=false}}</ref>


[[Christian Rätsch]] has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]], an [[ethnobotanist]], also lists it as an essential ingredient of [[Haitian Vodou|Haitian]] [[Zombie#Folk beliefs|zombie potion]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Dictionary of Hallucations |location=Oradell, NJ. |publisher=Springer |year=2010|page=127}}</ref> In [[Western culture]], the same species (''[[Datura stramonium]]'') has been said to have been commonly used by [[Witchcraft|witches]] as an ingredient for their [[flying ointment]]s and was regularly included in detailed recipes of [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] ointments dating back as far as the [[early modern period]], predominately in [[New England]] and [[Western Europe#CIA classification|Western Europe]].<ref name="Hansen-1978"/><ref name="Schultes-1979"/><ref name="Kuklin-1999">{{cite book | last = Kuklin | first = Alexander | title = How Do Witches Fly?| publisher = DNA Press |date=February 1999 | isbn = 0-9664027-0-7 }}</ref> During the [[Witch trials in the early modern period|anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times]] it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow ''D. stramonium'' in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in [[incantations]].<ref name="Grieve-1971">{{cite book|author=Grieve, Maud|title=A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1971|isbn=978-0-486-22799-3|page=804|url=https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/t/thorna12.html#des|archive-date=6 May 2023|access-date=20 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165310/https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/t/thorna12.html#des|url-status=live}}</ref>
⚫
[[Bernardino de Sahagún]], in around 1569, called attention to ''Datura'' in the following words:
⚫
“It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected.” <ref name="Economic Botanist"/>

===Treatment===
⚫
Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, victims of ''Datura'' poisoning are typically hospitalized. [[Gastric lavage]] and the administration of [[activated charcoal]] can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material and the drug [[physostigmine]] is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. [[Benzodiazepines]] can be given to curb the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24–36 hours after ingestion of the ''Datura''.<ref name="SS1" /><ref>{{cite journal | last = Bliss | first = M. | title = Datura Plant Poisoning | journal = Clinical Toxicology Review | year = 2001 | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | url = http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/assets/images/pdfs/ctrs/CTR%20Datura%20Plant%20Poisoning.pdf }}</ref>


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
<gallery widths="220px" heights="150px" perrow="4">
<gallery widths="220px" heights="150px" perrow="4">
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg|Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
File:Datura stramonium RF.jpg|''D. stramonium'' (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg|Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
File:Datura wrightii, Twentynine Palms California - 2014-07.jpg | ''D. wrightii'' in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg|''Datura'' flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
File:Datura Stramonium, Twentynine Palms California.JPG | ''Datura wrightii'' in bloom
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg|''Datura'' flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
</gallery>
</gallery>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Scopolamine]]
*[[Donnatal]], a pharmaceutical containing the active alkaloids in belladonna, a plant similar to ''Datura'': scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, as a drug
*[[Anticholinergics]]
*[[Antimuscarinic]]
*[[List of poisonous plants]]
*[[Psychoactive plant]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist}}

⚫
==Further reading==
⚫
* {{cite book | author = Rätsch, C. | origyear = 1998| year = 2005 | title = The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants | url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/70492442/The-Encyclopedia-of-Psychoactive-Plants | location = Rochester, VT | publisher = Park Street Press | isbn = 978-0-89281-978-2 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Bliss | first = M. | title = Datura Plant Poisoning | journal = Clinical Toxicology Review | year = 2001 | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | url = http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/assets/images/pdfs/ctrs/CTR%20Datura%20Plant%20Poisoning.pdf }}
⚫
* {{eMedicine2|article|816657|Tropane Alkaloid Poisoning}} on eMedicine
⚫
* {{cite journal|last=Roblot|first=F|author2=Montaz, L |author3=Delcoustal, M |author4=Gaboriau, E |author5=Chavagnat, JJ |author6=Morichaud, G |author7=Pourrat, O |author8=Scepi, M |author9= Patte, D |title=[Datura stramonium poisoning: the diagnosis is clinical, treatment is symptomatic].|journal=La Revue de Médecine Interne|date=1995|volume=16|issue=3|pages=187–90|pmid=7740228|doi=10.1016/0248-8663(96)80689-8|language=French}}
⚫
* {{cite journal|last=Krenzelok|first=Edward P.|title=Aspects of poisoning and treatment|journal=Clinical Toxicology|date=February 2010|volume=48|issue=2|pages=104–110|doi=10.3109/15563651003630672|pmid=20229618}}


==External links==
==External links==
⚫
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura.shtml | publisher = Erowid | title = Datura Vault }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura.shtml | publisher = Erowid | title = Datura Vault }}

⚫
==Further reading==
⚫
{{Commons category}}
⚫
* {{cite book | author = Rätsch, C. | orig-date = 1998 | year = 2005 | title = The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants | url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/70492442/The-Encyclopedia-of-Psychoactive-Plants | location = Rochester, VT | publisher = Park Street Press | isbn = 978-0-89281-978-2 | access-date = 9 September 2017 | archive-date = 22 August 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130822070322/http://www.scribd.com/doc/70492442/The-Encyclopedia-of-Psychoactive-Plants }}
⚫
* {{eMedicine2|article|816657|Tropane Alkaloid Poisoning}} on eMedicine
⚫
* {{cite journal|last=Roblot|first=F|author2=Montaz, L |author3=Delcoustal, M |author4=Gaboriau, E |author5=Chavagnat, JJ |author6=Morichaud, G |author7=Pourrat, O |author8=Scepi, M |author9= Patte, D |title=Intoxication par ''Datura stramonium'': Le diagnostic est clinique, le traitement est symptomatique [''Datura stramonium'' poisoning: the diagnosis is clinical, treatment is symptomatic].|journal=La Revue de Médecine Interne|date=1995|volume=16|issue=3|pages=187–90|pmid=7740228|doi=10.1016/0248-8663(96)80689-8|language=fr}}
⚫
* {{cite journal|last=Krenzelok|first=Edward P.|title=Aspects of poisoning and treatment|journal=Clinical Toxicology|date=February 2010|volume=48|issue=2|pages=104–110|doi=10.3109/15563651003630672|pmid=20229618|s2cid=28433567}}


{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Cholinergics}}
{{Cholinergics}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q192497}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q192497}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Datura| ]]
[[Category:Datura| ]]
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[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Oneirogens]]
[[Category:Oneirogens]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
[[Category:Solanaceae genera]]
[[Category:Solanaceae genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]

Latest revision as of 02:00, 24 December 2024

For other uses, see Datura (disambiguation).

Datura
Datura wrightii
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Subfamily: Solanoideae
Tribe: Datureae
Genus: Datura
L.
Type species
Datura stramonium
L.
Species

9–14 (See text)

Datura is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae).[1] They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets or mad apple[2] (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus Brugmansia). Other English common names include moonflower, devil's weed, and hell's bells. All species of Datura are extremely poisonous and psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression, arrhythmias, fever, delirium, hallucinations, anticholinergic toxidrome, psychosis, and death if taken internally.[3]

Due to their effects and symptoms, Datura species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history.[4][5] Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including the Western world.[5][6][7] Certain common Datura species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups.[8][9]

Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine, which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as Hyoscyamus niger, Atropa belladonna, and Mandragora officinarum.[4][5][10]

Etymology

[edit]

The generic name Datura is taken from Hindi धतूरा dhatūra "thorn-apple",[11] ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर dhattūra "white thorn-apple" (referring to Datura metel of Asia).[12] In the Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita, different species of Datura are also referred to as kanaka and unmatta.[12] Dhatura is offered to Shiva in Hinduism. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.[13] Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name is toloache. The Mexican common name toloache (also spelled tolguacha) derives from the Nahuatl tolohuaxihuitl, meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of Datura species belonging to section Dutra of the genus).

Description

[edit]

Datura species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of Brugmansia), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.

Datura belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions, and witches' brews, most notably Datura stramonium.[14][15]

In India, D. metel has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac, having been used in Ayurveda as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi, a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha.[16] The larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including Hypercompe indecisa, eat some Datura species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on Datura leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them.

Species and cultivars

[edit]
Datura metel 'Fastuosa'

Classifying Datura as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as D. wrightii and D. inoxia, are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.[14] Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: D. ferox (native to China), D. metel (native to India and Southeast Asia), and D. leichardthii (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.[17]

A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus Datura are now placed in the distinct genus Brugmansia[18] (Brugmansia differs from Datura in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees) and has indehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribe Datureae, to which Datura and Brugmansia belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus Trompettia J. Dupin, featuring the species Trompettia cardenasiana, which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus Iochroma.

Datura specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of Datura,[14] but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list D. arenicola, D. lanosa, and D. pruinosa as accepted spp.):

  • Datura arenicola Gentry ex Bye & Luna
  • Datura ceratocaula Ortega
  • Datura discolor Bernh.
  • Datura ferox L.
  • Datura innoxia Mill.
  • Datura kymatocarpa Barclay
  • Datura lanosa A.S.Barclay ex Bye
  • Datura leichhardtii Benth.
  • Datura metel L.
  • Datura pruinosa Greenm.
  • Datura quercifolia Kunth
  • Datura reburra Barclay
  • Datura stramonium L.
  • Datura wrightii Regel

Of the above, D. leichhardtii is close enough to D. pruinosa to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise D. ferox and D. quercifolia are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of D. leichhardtii, the Chinese provenance of D. ferox, and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of D. metel have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.[19]

The case of D. metel is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient pre-Columbian cultivars created from D. innoxia in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the New World to the Old World (see Columbian Exchange).[19][16][20]

D. arenicola is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section Discola [not to be confused with the species name D. discolor] within the genus. The specific name arenicola means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") sand".[21]

Image Scientific name Common name Distribution
Datura arenicola Gentry ex Bye & Luna Sand thorn-apple, Baja datura, Vizcaíno Desert datura Baja California Sur, Mexico
D. ceratocaula Jacq. torna loco, Sister of Ololiuhqui, swamp datura Mexico.
D. discolor Bernh. (syn. D. kymatocarpa, D. reburra) desert thorn-apple Sonoran Desert of western North America
D. ferox L. long-spined thorn-apple southeastern China (disputed[19])
D. innoxia Mill. thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, moonflower, toloatzin, toloache Southwestern United States, Central and South America (cosmopolitan weed)
D. leichhardtii F.Muell. ex Benth. (syn. D. pruinosa) Leichhardt's datura from Mexico to Guatemala
D. metel L. Hindu datura, Indian thorn-apple, devil's trumpet[14] Asia, Africa (disputed[19])
D. quercifolia Kunth oak-leaved thorn-apple Mexico and the Southwestern United States
D. stramonium L. (syn. D. inermis, D. bernhardii) jimsonweed, thorn-apple, devil's snare Central America (cosmopolitan weed)
D. wrightii Regel sacred datura, western jimsonweed, California jimsonweed, Momoy, sacred thorn-apple, tolguacha, toloache Southwestern United States

American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for Datura. This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002.

Past classified species

[edit]

Cultivation

[edit]
Fruit
Datura metel 'Fastuosa' (Hindi: काला धतूरा kāla dhatūra – "black datura")

Datura species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules, but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.[14]

Toxicity

[edit]

All Datura plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such as D. wrightii. Because of the presence of these substances, Datura has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison.[14][22][4] A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make Datura exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone".[23] Datura, as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia.[24][25]

In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm.[14] Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking Datura.[26] For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting Datura.[27][28] Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well.[29] Although most poisonings occur with more common species of Datura such as D. stramonium, several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from D. ferox intoxication.[30][31][32] Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.[33][34]

D. inoxia with ripe, split-open fruit

In some parts of Europe and India, Datura has been a popular poison for suicide and murder.[35] From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting Datura.[14][36] A group called Thugs (practicers of thuggee) were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to the Hindu goddess Kali. They were alleged to employ Datura in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.[37]

Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including Brachygastra lecheguana, during the Datura blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect Datura nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.[38]

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested Datura used as an ingredient in stew.[39]

In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating Datura plants is prohibited.[14][36] Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae, containing such well-known toxic species as Hyoscyamus niger and Atropa belladonna, the Solandreae containing the genus Solandra ("chalice vines") and the Mandragoreae, named for the famous Mandragora officinarum, most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.

Effects of ingestion

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Datura is considered a deliriant. Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, Datura intoxication typically produces the effects of anticholinergic delirium (usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiate reality from fantasy); bizarre thoughts, hyperthermia; tachycardia; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days.[40] Muscle stiffness, urinary retention, temporary paralysis, disrobing, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect.[41][42] The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.[43][44] The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.[29][45][46]

Treatment

[edit]

Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute Datura poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. Gastric lavage and the administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the Datura.[36][45]

Psychoactive use

[edit]

In Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs, Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has Datura."[47] The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of Datura find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically.[41] However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura, have been known to use Datura spiritually (including the Navajo and especially the Havasupai).[48][49] Adequate knowledge of Datura's properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience.[14] The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern California used to ingest Datura to "commune with deities through visions".[50] The Southern Paiute believe Datura can help locate missing objects.[51] In ancient Mexico, Datura also played an important role in the religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers.[52] It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well.[53] In modern-day Mexico, some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz, specifically in the city of Catemaco.[54][55]

Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention to Datura in these words: "It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected."[52]

Christian Rätsch has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". Wade Davis, an ethnobotanist, also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion.[56] In Western culture, the same species (Datura stramonium) has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as the early modern period, predominately in New England and Western Europe.[6][10][57] During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow D. stramonium in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations.[58]

[edit]
  • D. stramonium (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
    D. stramonium (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
  • D. wrightii in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
    D. wrightii in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
  • Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
    Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
  • Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
    Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ 1959 Avery, Amos Geer, Satina, Sophie and Rietsema, Jacob Blakeslee: the genus Datura, foreword and biographical sketch by Edmund W. Sinnott, pub. New York : Ronald Press Co.
  2. ^ "Datura metel". plants.ces.ncsu.edu. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
  3. ^ Trancă, S. D.; Szabo, R.; Cociş, M. (2017). "Acute poisoning due to ingestion of Datura stramonium – a case report". Romanian Journal of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 24 (1). NCBI: 65–68. PMC 5555431. PMID 28913501.
  4. ^ a b c Fatur, Karsten (June 2020). "'Hexing Herbs' in Ethnobotanical Perspective: A Historical Review of the Uses of Anticholinergic Solanaceae Plants in Europe". Economic Botany. 74 (2): 140–158. Bibcode:2020EcBot..74..140F. doi:10.1007/s12231-020-09498-w. S2CID 220844064.
  5. ^ a b c Kennedy, David O. (2014). "The Deliriants - The Nightshade (Solanaceae) Family". Plants and the Human Brain. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 131–137. ISBN 978-0-19-991401-2. LCCN 2013031617.
  6. ^ a b Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0-913300-47-3
  7. ^ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  8. ^ Cecilia Garcia; James D. Adams (2005). Healing with medicinal plants of the west – cultural and scientific basis for their use. Abedus Press. ISBN 0-9763091-0-6.
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  13. ^ the Oxford English Dictionary or OED
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Further reading

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