Marsilius of Padua: Difference between revisions

Marsilius of Padua
Marsilius of Padua
Born	c. 1270; Commune of Padua
Died	c. 1342; Munich, Duchy of Upper Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire
Education	University of Paris
Notable work	Defensor pacis
Era	14th-century philosophy; Medieval philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
Main interests	Politics;

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Marsilius of Padua (Italian: Marsilio da Padova; born Marsilio Mainardi, Marsilio de i Mainardini or Marsilio Mainardini; c. 1270 – c. 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine, who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th-century political figure. His political treatise Defensor pacis (The Defender of Peace), an attempt to refute papal claims to a "plenitude of power" in affairs of both church and state, is seen by some scholars as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later Middle Ages.^[1] It is one of the first examples of a trenchant critique of caesaropapism in Western Europe.^[2] Marsilius is sometimes seen as a forerunner of the Protestant reformation, because many of his beliefs were later adopted by Calvin and Luther.^[3]

Early years

Marsilius was born in Padua, an important city near Venice, circa the 1270s. He probably studied medicine at the University of Padua^[4] and later went to the University of Paris, where he became a devoted admirer of Aristotle, whom he called 'the divine philosopher".^[5] He served as rector of the University of Paris approximately 1312–1313.^[6] It is probable that he taught at the University of Paris before and after his tenure as rector.^[6]

Political theory and later years

Marsilius wrote Defensor pacis in 1324.^[7] This treatise was written in the context of a power struggle between Pope John XXII and Louis of Bavaria (or Ludwig of Bavaria), the elected candidate for Holy Roman Emperor. Louis' policies in the Italian peninsula, where the Empire had important territories, threatened papal territorial sovereignty. In 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the powerful Kingdom of Naples. Naples, along with France, was a strong ally of John XXII. John excommunicated Louis and demanded that he relinquish his claim to the imperial crown. Louis responded to John XXII with fresh provocations.

In Defensor pacis, Marsilius sought to demonstrate, by arguments from reason (in Dictio I of the text) and by argument from authority (in Dictio II) the independence of the Holy Roman Empire from the Papacy and the emptiness of the prerogatives alleged to have been usurped by the Roman pontiffs. A number of Marsilius's views were declared to be heretical by Pope John XXII in 1327.^[7]^[8]

Most of Defensor pacis is devoted to theology. Relying heavily on Scripture, Marsilius seeks to show that Jesus did not claim to possess any temporal power and that he did not intend his church to exercise any.^[9] On the contrary, Scripture teaches that the church should be thoroughly subordinate to the state in both secular and spiritual matters. All authority in the church lies with the whole body of the faithful, the secular ruler who acts as the people's representative, and general councils called by the secular ruler.^[10] Some of Marsilius's arguments on these themes had a marked influence during the Reformation.^[11]

Today, Marsilius's Defensor pacis is best remembered not for its theology but for its political philosophy and legal theory. Marsilius agrees with Aristotle that the purpose of government is the rational fulfillment of humans' natural desire for a "sufficient life".^[12] However, he goes beyond Aristotle in embracing a form of republicanism that views the people as the only legitimate source of political authority. Sovereignty lies with the people, and the people should elect, correct, and, if necessary, depose its political leaders.^[11] Democracy, Marsilius argues, is the best form of government because it tends to produce the wisest laws, protects the common benefit, promotes "sufficiency of life", and produces laws that are most likely to be obeyed.^[13]

Marsilius and John of Jandun, who has sometimes been credited as a co-author of Defensor pacis, left France for Louis' court in Bavaria. Louis admitted Marsilius and John to his circle. Others were also under his protection, including Michael of Cesena and the philosopher William of Ockham, an advocate of an early form of church and state separation. In 1326, Marsilius accompanied Louis to Italy, where he preached or circulated written attacks against the pope. The Lord of Milan Galeazzo I Visconti, suspected of conspiring with John XXII, was deposed and Louis was crowned King of Italy in Milan in 1327.

In January 1328 Louis entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor by the aged senator Sciarra Colonna, called captain of the Roman people. Three months later, Louis published a decree declaring "Jacque de Cahors"—Pope John XXII—deposed on grounds of heresy. He then installed the Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as Nicholas V. Nicholas was deposed upon Louis's departure from Rome in 1329.

In Bavaria, as imperial vicar, Marsilius persecuted the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In recompense for his services, he was appointed archbishop of Milan,^[14] and John of Jandun obtained from Louis IV the bishopric of Ferrara.

Marsilius also composed a treatise De translatione [Romani] imperii, which some authorities consider is a rearrangement of a similar work by Landolfo Colonna [Wikidata] called De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali. This work, and Marsilius's variation, sought to justify the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs: Louis of Bavaria had recently annulled the marriage of the son of the King of Bohemia.

Death

Marsilius died in Munich around 1342, still unreconciled to the Church.

Legacy

Some authorities consider Defensor pacis one of the most important political and religious works of fourteenth-century Europe. In the Defensor minor, Marsilius completed and elaborated on different points in the doctrine laid down in the Defensor pacis. He dealt here with problems concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penance, indulgences, crusades and pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the general church council, marriage and divorce, and unity with the Greek Orthodox Church. In this work he even more clearly articulates imperial supremacy over the Church.^[15]

Theological beliefs

Marsilius believed that the pope doesn't have absolute authority, and that the scriptures are above the pope. Marsilius saw the scriptures as being above the church and believed the papacy to be of human arrangement instead of divine.^[16]

References

^ Mulieri, Alessandro (2023). "Theorizing the multitude before Machiavelli. Marsilius of Padua between Aristotle and Ibn Rushd". European Journal of Political Theory. 22 (4): 542–564. doi:10.1177/14748851221074104. ISSN 1474-8851. S2CID 246587791.
^ Hahn, Scott & Wiker, Benjamin (2013). Politicizing the Bible: The Roots of Historical Criticism and the Secularization of Scripture 1300-1700. Chapter 2: "The First Cracks of Secularism: Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham": Herder & Herder. pp. 17–59 passim.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 2021-12-23.
^ Alan Gewirth, "Marsilius of Padua," in Paul Edwards, ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 5. New York: Macmillan, 1967, p. 166.
^ Marsilius of Padua, The Defender of Peace. Translated by Alan Gewirth. New York: Harper & Row, 1967, p. 38.
^ ^a ^b Sullivan, James (1897). "Marsiglio of Padua and William of Ockam I". The American Historical Review. 2 (3): 409–426. doi:10.2307/1833397. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 1833397.
^ ^a ^b Lee, Hwa-Yong, Political Representation in the Later Middle Ages: Marsilius in Context (New York etc., Lang, 2008)
^ Sullivan, James (1897). "Marsiglio of Padua and William of Ockam II". The American Historical Review. 2 (4): 593–610. doi:10.2307/1833978. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 1833978.
^ Marsilius of Padua, Defensor Pacis, pp. 113-126.
^ Marsilius of Padua, Defender of Peace, Discourse II.
^ ^a ^b Gewirth, "Marsilius of Padua," p. 167.
^ Marsilius of Padua, Defensor Pacis, p. 13.
^ Marsilius of Padua, The Defender of Peace, pp. 46-47.
^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Marsilius of Padua" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Lee, Hwa-Yong, Political Representation in the Later Middle Ages: Marsilius in Context (New York etc., Lang, 2008)
^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 2021-12-23.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Italian philosopher (c. 1275–1342)}}
-{{refimprove|date=May 2010}}
+{{Infobox philosopher
-<!-- This article needs more than "copy editing". There are significant information and documentation gaps. -->
+| region           = [[Western philosophy]]
+| era              = [[14th century in philosophy|14th-century philosophy]]<br>[[Medieval philosophy]]
+| image            = Marsile de Padoue 1319.jpg
+| caption          =
+| name             = Marsilius of Padua
+| honorific_suffix =
+| birth_date       = {{circa|1270}}
+| birth_place      = [[Medieval commune|Commune]] of [[Padua]]
+| death_date       = c. 1342
+| death_place      = [[Munich]], Duchy of [[Upper Bavaria]], Holy Roman Empire
+| school_tradition =
+| education        =[[University of Paris]]
+| alma_mater       =
+| notable_works    = ''[[Defensor pacis]]''
+| main_interests   =
+{{flatlist|
+*[[Politics]]
+}}
+| influences       =
+| influenced       =
+| notable_ideas    =
+}}
+{{Expand German|topic=bio|Marsilius von Padua|date=June 2021}}
 [[File:Marsilius, Defensor pacis, Paris, Lat. 14620.jpg|thumb|250px|Miniature on the first page of a luxury manuscript of the ''Defensor pacis'' (15th century). Marsilius is shown presenting a copy to the Emperor]]
-'''Marsilius of Padua''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Marsilio'' or ''Marsiglio da Padova''; born ''Marsilio dei Mainardini'' or ''Marsilio Mainardini''; c. 1275 &ndash; c. 1342) was an [[Italian people|Italian]] scholar, trained in medicine,  who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th-century political figure, and may have been an early proponent of ideas that were later popularized by libertarians as the [[Non-Aggression Principle]], the idea that people have the right to live as they choose provided they do not harm others <ref>{{cite article | title=Marsilius was a Radical Medieval Thinker | author=Paul Meany | URL=https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/marsilius-radical-medieval-thinker}}</ref>. His political treatise ''[[Defensor pacis]]'' (The Defender of Peace), an attempt to refute papalist claims to a "plenitude of power" in affairs of both church and state, is seen by some authorities as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later [[Middle Ages]]. It is one of the first examples of a trenchant critique of [[caesaropapism]] in Western Europe.<ref>{{cite book | title=Politicizing the Bible: The Roots of Historical Criticism and the Secularization of Scripture 1300-1700 | publisher=Herder & Herder |author1=Hahn, Scott  |author2=Wiker, Benjamin |lastauthoramp=yes | year=2013 | location=Chapter 2: "The First Cracks of Secularism: Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham" | pages=17–59 ''passim''}}</ref>
+'''Marsilius of Padua''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Marsilio'' ''da Padova''; born ''Marsilio Mainardi'', ''Marsilio de i Mainardini'' or ''Marsilio Mainardini''; c. 1270 &ndash; c. 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine,  who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th-century political figure. His political treatise ''[[Defensor pacis]]'' (The Defender of Peace), an attempt to refute papal claims to a "[[plenitude of power]]" in affairs of both church and state, is seen by some scholars as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mulieri |first=Alessandro |date=2023 |title=Theorizing the multitude before Machiavelli. Marsilius of Padua between Aristotle and Ibn Rushd |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14748851221074104 |journal=European Journal of Political Theory |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=542–564 |doi=10.1177/14748851221074104 |s2cid=246587791 |issn=1474-8851}}</ref> It is one of the first examples of a trenchant critique of [[caesaropapism]] in Western Europe.<ref>{{cite book | title=Politicizing the Bible: The Roots of Historical Criticism and the Secularization of Scripture 1300-1700 | publisher=Herder & Herder |author1=Hahn, Scott  |author2=Wiker, Benjamin |name-list-style=amp | year=2013 | location=Chapter 2: "The First Cracks of Secularism: Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham" | pages=17–59 ''passim''}}</ref> Marsilius is sometimes seen as a [[Proto-Protestantism|forerunner of the Protestant reformation]], because many of his beliefs were later adopted by Calvin and Luther.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.ii.vii.html|access-date=2021-12-23|website=ccel.org}}</ref>
 ==Early years==
-Marsilius was born in [[Padua]], an important Italian city, circa 1275-1280. He probably studied medicine at the University of Padua<ref>Alan Gewirth, "Marsilius of Padua," in Paul Edwards, ed., ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', vol. 5. New York: Macmillan, 1967, p. 166.</ref> and later went to the [[University of Paris]], where he became a devoted admirer of Aristotle, whom he called 'the divine philosopher".<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''The Defender of Peace''. Translated by Alan Gewirth. New York: Harper & Row, 1967, p. 38.</ref> He served as [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of the University of Paris in 1313.
+Marsilius was born in [[Padua]], an important city near Venice, circa the 1270s. He probably studied medicine at the [[University of Padua]]<ref>Alan Gewirth, "Marsilius of Padua," in Paul Edwards, ed., ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', vol. 5. New York: Macmillan, 1967, p. 166.</ref> and later went to the [[University of Paris]], where he became a devoted admirer of Aristotle, whom he called 'the divine philosopher".<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''The Defender of Peace''. Translated by Alan Gewirth. New York: Harper & Row, 1967, p. 38.</ref> He served as [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of the University of Paris approximately 1312–1313.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sullivan |first=James |date=1897 |title=Marsiglio of Padua and William of Ockam I |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833397 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=409–426 |doi=10.2307/1833397 |jstor=1833397 |issn=0002-8762}}</ref> It is probable that he taught at the University of Paris before and after his tenure as rector.<ref name=":0" />
 ==Political theory and later years==
 Marsilius wrote ''Defensor pacis'' in 1324.<ref name=Lee>Lee, Hwa-Yong,  ''Political Representation in the Later Middle Ages: Marsilius in Context'' (New York etc., Lang, 2008)</ref> This treatise was written in the context of a power struggle between [[Pope John XXII]] and [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis of Bavaria]] (or Ludwig of Bavaria), the elected candidate for [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Louis' policies in the Italian peninsula, where the Empire had important territories, threatened papal territorial sovereignty. In 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the powerful [[Kingdom of Naples]]. Naples, along with [[France]], was a strong ally of John XXII.  John [[excommunicated]] Louis and demanded that he relinquish his claim to the imperial crown. Louis responded to John XXII with fresh provocations.
-In ''Defensor pacis'', Marsilius sought to demonstrate, by arguments from [[reason]] (in ''Dictio I'' of the text) and by argument from [[authority]] (in ''Dictio II'') the independence of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from the [[Papacy]] and the emptiness of the prerogatives alleged to have been usurped by the Roman pontiffs. A number of Marsilius's views were declared to be heretical by Pope John XXII in 1327.<ref name=Lee/>
+In ''Defensor pacis'', Marsilius sought to demonstrate, by arguments from [[reason]] (in ''Dictio I'' of the text) and by argument from [[authority]] (in ''Dictio II'') the independence of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from the [[Papacy]] and the emptiness of the prerogatives alleged to have been usurped by the Roman pontiffs. A number of Marsilius's views were declared to be heretical by Pope John XXII in 1327.<ref name=Lee/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sullivan |first=James |date=1897 |title=Marsiglio of Padua and William of Ockam II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833978 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=593–610 |doi=10.2307/1833978 |jstor=1833978 |issn=0002-8762}}</ref>
 Most of ''Defensor pacis'' is devoted to theology. Relying heavily on Scripture, Marsilius seeks to show that Jesus did not claim to possess any temporal power and that he did not intend his church to exercise any.<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''Defensor'' ''Pacis'', pp. 113-126.</ref> On the contrary, Scripture teaches that the church should be thoroughly subordinate to the state in both secular and spiritual matters. All authority in the church lies with the whole body of the faithful, the secular ruler who acts as the people's representative, and general councils called by the secular ruler.<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''Defender of Peace'', Discourse II.</ref> Some of Marsilius's arguments on these themes had a marked influence during the Reformation.<ref name="Gewirth p. 167">Gewirth, "Marsilius of Padua," p. 167.</ref>
-Today, Marsilius's ''Defensor pacis'' is best remembered not for its theology but for its political philosophy and legal theory. Marsilius agrees with Aristotle that the purpose of government is the rational fulfillment of humans' natural desire for a "sufficient life".<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''Defensor Pacis'', p. 13.</ref> However, he goes beyond Aristotle in embracing a form of republicanism that views the people as the only legitimate source of political authority. Sovereignty lies with the people, and the people should elect, correct, and, if necessary, depose its political leaders.<ref name="Gewirth p. 167"/> Democracy, Marsilius argues, is the best form of government because it tends to produce the wisest laws, protects the common benefit, promotes "sufficiency of life", and produces laws that are most likely to be obeyed.<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''The Defender of Peace'', pp. 46-47.</ref>
+Today, Marsilius's ''Defensor pacis'' is best remembered not for its theology but for its political philosophy and legal theory. Marsilius agrees with Aristotle that the purpose of government is the rational fulfillment of humans' natural desire for a "sufficient life".<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''Defensor Pacis'', p. 13.</ref> However, he goes beyond Aristotle in embracing a form of republicanism that views the people as the only legitimate source of political authority. [[Popular sovereignty|Sovereignty lies with the people]], and the people should elect, correct, and, if necessary, depose its political leaders.<ref name="Gewirth p. 167"/> Democracy, Marsilius argues, is the best form of government because it tends to produce the wisest laws, protects the common benefit, promotes "sufficiency of life", and produces laws that are most likely to be obeyed.<ref>Marsilius of Padua, ''The Defender of Peace'', pp. 46-47.</ref>
 Marsilius and [[John of Jandun]], who has sometimes been credited as a co-author of ''Defensor pacis'', left France for Louis' [[Alter Hof|court]] in [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]]. Louis admitted Marsilius and John to his circle. Others were also under his protection, including  [[Michael of Cesena]] and the philosopher [[William of Ockham]], an advocate of an early form of church and state separation. In 1326, Marsilius accompanied Louis to Italy, where he preached or circulated written attacks against the pope.  The Lord of Milan [[Galeazzo I Visconti]], suspected of conspiring with John XXII, was deposed and Louis was crowned King of Italy in [[Milan]] in 1327.
@@ Line 23: / Line 46: @@
 In Bavaria, as imperial vicar, Marsilius persecuted the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In recompense for his services, he was appointed [[archbishop of Milan]],<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Marsilius of Padua}}</ref> and John of Jandun obtained from Louis IV the [[bishopric of Ferrara]].
-Marsilius also composed a treatise ''De translatione [Romani] imperii'', which some authorities consider is a rearrangement of a similar work by [[Landolfo Colonna]] called ''De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali''. This work, and Marsilius's variation, sought to justify the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs: Louis of Bavaria had recently annulled the marriage of the son of the King of Bohemia.
+Marsilius also composed a treatise ''De translatione [Romani] imperii'', which some authorities consider is a rearrangement of a similar work by {{ill|Landolfo Colonna|WD=Q26251997}} called ''De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali''. This work, and Marsilius's variation, sought to justify the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs: Louis of Bavaria had recently annulled the marriage of the son of the King of Bohemia.
 ==Death==
@@ Line 30: / Line 53: @@
 ==Legacy==
 Some authorities consider ''Defensor pacis'' one of the most important political and religious works of fourteenth-century [[Europe]]. In the ''[[Defensor minor]]'', Marsilius completed and elaborated on different points in the doctrine laid down in the ''Defensor pacis''. He dealt here with problems concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction, [[penance]], [[indulgence]]s, [[crusade]]s and [[pilgrimage]]s, vows, [[excommunication]], the general church council, marriage and divorce, and unity with the [[Greek Orthodox Church]]. In this work he even more clearly articulates imperial supremacy over the Church.<ref>Lee, Hwa-Yong, ''Political Representation in the Later Middle Ages: Marsilius in Context'' (New York etc., Lang, 2008)</ref>
+== Theological beliefs ==
+Marsilius believed that the [[pope]] doesn't have absolute authority, and that the scriptures are above the pope. Marsilius saw the scriptures as being above the church and believed the papacy to be of human arrangement instead of divine.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.ii.vii.html|access-date=2021-12-23|website=ccel.org}}</ref>
 ==References==
@@ Line 35: / Line 61: @@
 ==Further reading==
-*''The Defender of Peace'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005).
+*''The Defender of Peace'', ed. Annabel Brett (Cambridge University Press, 2005).
-*''Writings on the Empire: Defensor minor and De translatione imperii'' (Cambridge University Press, 1993).
+*''Writings on the Empire: Defensor minor and De translatione imperii'', ed. Cary J. Nederman (Cambridge University Press, 1993).
 *{{CathEncy|wstitle=Marsilius of Padua}}
+*''A Companion to Marsilius of Padua'', ed. Gerson Moreno-Riaño and Cary J. Nederman (Leiden: Brill, 2012).
+*''Marsilius of Padua between History, Politics, and Philosophy'', ed. Alessandro Mulieri, Serena Masolini and Jenny Pelletier (Turnhout: Brepols, 2023).
+* [[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]] BBC radio programme on Marsilius
+https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_radio_fourfm?partner=uk.co.bbc&origin=share-mobile
 {{EB1911|wstitle=Marsilius of Padua|volume=17|pages=775–776}}
-{{Social and political philosophy}}
+{{Political philosophy}}
+{{Proto-Protestantism}}
 {{Authority control}}
@@ Line 48: / Line 80: @@
 [[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
 [[Category:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church]]
-[[Category:People from Padua]]
+[[Category:Physicians from Padua]]
-[[Category:Italian philosophers]]
 [[Category:Scholastic philosophers]]
-[[Category:14th-century Latin writers]]
+[[Category:14th-century writers in Latin]]
-[[Category:14th-century Italian people]]
+[[Category:14th-century Italian writers]]
+[[Category:Writers from Padua]]
+[[Category:14th-century Italian philosophers]]

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