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Oku (Japanese: 奥) is a spatial theory or concept that pertains to the idea of "inwardness". It is unique to Japan and is an integral part of the urban space formation in the country.^[1] The term entails several abstract connotations such as profundity and can be used to describe not only physical but also psychological depth.^[1]

Origin

The term Oku is both used in Japanese and Chinese languages and share three literal meanings: 1) private, intimate, and deep; 2) exalted and sacred; and, 3) profound and recondite.^[2]^[3] In Japan, Oku is also often used in adjective form. Some of the usage that are relevant to the notion of space includes, oku-dokoro (inner place), oku-sha (inner shrine), oku-yama (mountain recesses), and oku-zashiki (inner room).^[1]

In traditional Japanese culture, Oku emerged as a principle to signify "the inner" or "inward".^[4] This idea is traced back to the emergence of rice cultivation in Japan and the environmental separation of villages from the environment.^[5] This formed part of the belief that the natural landscape has cosmological attachment, including spiritual spaces.^[6] In this view, the locations such as mountains and grove of trees are considered realms that are sacred and lofty, hence forbidden. According to Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki, "for the Japanese, the land is a living entity," and that "at the foundation of this idea is a feeling of deep respect for the land based upon its reverence".^[7] The environment came to be separated through spatial configurations from the Japanese homes and communities, which had relatively high densities since the ancient times.^[6] The cultural tradition that emerged from the chaotic world of the forest favored a type of harmony that is continually evolving.^[8]

Concept

As a Japanese concept, Oku specifies an idea of spatial configurations, which implies a relative distance or an impression of it at a given space. It is also described as a concept that signifies relative or a sense of distance within a space.^[1] It is not limited to this kind of configuration as it also expresses psychological depth^[9] and an a priori image scheme when approached from the Kantian perspective.^[5] A broad conceptualization described it as an invisible middle point.^[4] For example, in the case of a building, the principle of Oku seeks to bring what is distant closer so that the interior and exterior are unified.

The principle of Oku is often used in constructing homes and buildings in Japan that feature the layering of spaces from the outside to the inside with increasingly private zones.^[11] According to Maki, Oku can be distinguished from the so-called "center demarcation" to building spaces in Western culture.^[12] In addressing the relationship between center and boundary, the latter follows a layout oriented towards the attainment of the climax. Oku, on the other hand, works to embed drama and ritual in the process of the approach itself so that instead of going out of a route, the movement is all about searching or roaming.^[13] The feeling is also described as "moving into unknown places".^[14] In many instances, Oku does not have a climax since the ultimate destination gradually unfolds and this constructs a spatial experience with a time parameter.^[15]

Oku is often associated with the concept of ma, which corresponds to the notion of "in between" in Confucian thought.^[16] The latter involves the ambiguity of the boundaries while Oku is all about the ambiguity of the center.^[16] These two principles are said to be used to mediate what is found in nature and what an artist can make of it. Such mediation can be demonstrated in the way a designer turns a living Japanese garden into a vital and cubic enclosure.^[16]

The principle of Oku can also be applied in other fields such as art, literature, and individual behavior. This is seen in the multi-viewpoints of traditional landscape paintings, with each part of the drawing forming a different layer.^[17] The simultaneous coexistence of these elements create a complex symbolic spatiality.

Boundaries

Oku or an impression of it is achieved through the creation of multi-layered boundaries that some scholars call spatial creases.^[12]^[5] Another analogy likened oku as the core of multiple layers in an onion.^[9] These boundaries are built and interrelated with several elements such as topography, roads, and fences, among others.^[5] It is suggested that these boundaries are analogous to a wrapping and serves as a structural principle that adds to the value in an analysis of a structure.^[18]

These creases or layers also demonstrate the other defining characteristic of Oku in terms of space - the focus on roaming or searching in the approach. The winding layers both conceal and hint at places where people can gather or rest.^[19] For this reason, different types of “denial” are used so that the space creates a sense of curiosity.^[19] An example was the kansho or the open space positioned at the center of each urban block within the Edo period Nagoya castle town.^[20] These spaces were embedded within the checkerboard layout of Nagoya and served as a place were urban activities took place.^[20]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Marshall, Richard (2003). Emerging Urbanity: Global Urban Projects in the Asia Pacific Rim. New York: Spon Press. p. 44. ISBN 0415256232.
^ Li, Dan. "The Concept of "Oku" in Japanese and Chinese traditional paintings, gardens and architecture" (PDF). Kyushu University. Retrieved June 8, 2020.
^ Rizzardi, Pier Alessio; Hankun, Zhang (2018). The Condition of Chinese Architecture. TCA Think Tank. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-9164537-0-8.
^ ^a ^b Bergmann, Sigurd (2003). God in Context: A Survey of Contextual Theology. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 133. ISBN 0-7546-0615-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Greve, Anni (2016). Sanctuaries of the City: Lessons from Tokyo. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-05955-4.
^ ^a ^b Altman, Irwin; Low, Setha M. (1992). Place Attachment. New York: Plenum Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-4684-8755-8.
^ Buntrock, Dana (2013). Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today. Oxon: Routledge. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-134-72501-4.
^ Brebbia, C. A.; Echarri, V. (2017). Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture XV. Southampton: WIT Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-1-78466-183-0.
^ ^a ^b Hayub, S.; You-Chang, J.; Sunghoon, Y. (2015). "Inner Space in the City: Jose Luis Sert, Fumihiko Maki and Kyu Seung Woo′s Search for Inner Space". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 14 (2): 233–240. doi:10.3130/jaabe.14.233.
^ Buntrock, Dana (2013). Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today. Oxon: Routledge. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-134-72501-4.
^ Schittich, Christian (2012). Japan: Architecture, Constructions, Ambiances. Basel: Birkhauser. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-95553-167-6.
^ ^a ^b Chervenkova, Velizara (2017). Japanese Psychotherapies: Silence and Body-Mind Interconnectedness in Morita, Naikan and Dohsa-hou. Singapore: Springer. p. 22. ISBN 978-981-10-3125-0.
^ Janson, Alban; Tigges, Florian (2014). Fundamental Concepts of Architecture: The Vocabulary of Spatial Situations. Basel: Birkhauser. p. 87. ISBN 978-3-0346-0892-3.
^ Kohte, Susanne; Adam, Hubertus; Hubert, Daniel (2017). Encounters and Positions: Architecture in Japan. Basel: Birkhäuser. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-0356-0715-4.
^ Kronenburg, Robert (2013). Transportable Environments. Oxon: E & FN SPON. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-419-24250-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kosinski, Jerzy (1995). Passing by: Selected Essays, 1962-1991. Grove Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8021-3423-3.
^ Rizzardi, Pier Alessio; Hankun, Zhang (2018). The Condition of Chinese Architecture. TCA Think Tank. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-9164537-0-8.
^ Hendry, Joy (2016). An Anthropological Lifetime in Japan: The Writings of Joy Hendry. Leiden: BRILL. p. 410. ISBN 978-90-04-30286-0.
^ ^a ^b Totten, Christopher W. (2018). An Architectural Approach to Level Design. CRC Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-1-351-98292-4.
^ ^a ^b Divall, Colin; Bond, Winstan (2017). Suburbanizing the Masses: Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective. Routledge. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-351-77692-9.

[:0-1] Marshall, Richard (2003). Emerging Urbanity: Global Urban Projects in the Asia Pacific Rim. New York: Spon Press. p. 44. ISBN 0415256232.

[2] Li, Dan. "The Concept of "Oku" in Japanese and Chinese traditional paintings, gardens and architecture" (PDF). Kyushu University. Retrieved June 8, 2020.

[3] Rizzardi, Pier Alessio; Hankun, Zhang (2018). The Condition of Chinese Architecture. TCA Think Tank. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-9164537-0-8.

[:1-4] Bergmann, Sigurd (2003). God in Context: A Survey of Contextual Theology. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 133. ISBN 0-7546-0615-5.

[:2-5] Greve, Anni (2016). Sanctuaries of the City: Lessons from Tokyo. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-05955-4.

[:4-6] Altman, Irwin; Low, Setha M. (1992). Place Attachment. New York: Plenum Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-4684-8755-8.

[7] Buntrock, Dana (2013). Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today. Oxon: Routledge. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-134-72501-4.

[8] Brebbia, C. A.; Echarri, V. (2017). Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture XV. Southampton: WIT Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-1-78466-183-0.

[:8-9] Hayub, S.; You-Chang, J.; Sunghoon, Y. (2015). "Inner Space in the City: Jose Luis Sert, Fumihiko Maki and Kyu Seung Woo′s Search for Inner Space". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 14 (2): 233–240. doi:10.3130/jaabe.14.233.

[10] Buntrock, Dana (2013). Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today. Oxon: Routledge. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-134-72501-4.

[11] Schittich, Christian (2012). Japan: Architecture, Constructions, Ambiances. Basel: Birkhauser. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-95553-167-6.

[:3-12] Chervenkova, Velizara (2017). Japanese Psychotherapies: Silence and Body-Mind Interconnectedness in Morita, Naikan and Dohsa-hou. Singapore: Springer. p. 22. ISBN 978-981-10-3125-0.

[13] Janson, Alban; Tigges, Florian (2014). Fundamental Concepts of Architecture: The Vocabulary of Spatial Situations. Basel: Birkhauser. p. 87. ISBN 978-3-0346-0892-3.

[14] Kohte, Susanne; Adam, Hubertus; Hubert, Daniel (2017). Encounters and Positions: Architecture in Japan. Basel: Birkhäuser. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-0356-0715-4.

[15] Kronenburg, Robert (2013). Transportable Environments. Oxon: E & FN SPON. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-419-24250-5.

[:7-16] Kosinski, Jerzy (1995). Passing by: Selected Essays, 1962-1991. Grove Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8021-3423-3.

[17] Rizzardi, Pier Alessio; Hankun, Zhang (2018). The Condition of Chinese Architecture. TCA Think Tank. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-9164537-0-8.

[18] Hendry, Joy (2016). An Anthropological Lifetime in Japan: The Writings of Joy Hendry. Leiden: BRILL. p. 410. ISBN 978-90-04-30286-0.

[:5-19] Totten, Christopher W. (2018). An Architectural Approach to Level Design. CRC Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-1-351-98292-4.

[:6-20] Divall, Colin; Bond, Winstan (2017). Suburbanizing the Masses: Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective. Routledge. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-351-77692-9.

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+'''Oku''' ({{Langx|ja|奥}}) is a [[Space|spatial]] theory or concept that pertains to the idea of "inwardness". It is unique to [[Japan]] and is an integral part of the urban space formation in the country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Richard|title=Emerging Urbanity: Global Urban Projects in the Asia Pacific Rim|publisher=Spon Press|year=2003|isbn=0415256232|location=New York|pages=44}}</ref> The term entails several abstract connotations such as profundity and can be used to describe not only physical but also [[Psychology|psychological]] depth.<ref name=":0" />
-{{AFC submission|t||ts=20200605234730|u=Darwin Naz|ns=118|demo=}}<!-- Important, do not remove this line before article has been created. -->
-'''Oku''' (奥) is a [[Space|spatial]] theory or concept that pertains to the idea of inwardness. It is peculiar to [[Japan]] and is an integral part of the urban space formation in the country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Richard|title=Emerging Urbanity: Global Urban Projects in the Asia Pacific Rim|publisher=Spon Press|year=2003|isbn=0415256232|location=New York|pages=44}}</ref> The term entails several abstract connotations such as profundity and can be used to describe not only physical but also [[Psychology|psychological]] depth.<ref name=":0" />
 == Origin ==
-The term oku is both used in Japanese and Chinese languages and share three literal meanings: 1) private, intimate, and deep; 2) exalted and sacred; and, 3) profound and recondite.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Li|first=Dan|date=|title=The Concept of "Oku" in Japanese and Chinese traditional paintings, gardens and architecture|url=http://www.hues.kyushu-u.ac.jp/education/student/pdf/2009/2HE08084E.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=June 8, 2020|website=Kyushu University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rizzardi|first=Pier Alessio|title=The Condition of Chinese Architecture|last2=Hankun|first2=Zhang|date=2018|publisher=TCA Think Tank|year=|isbn=978-1-9164537-0-8|location=|pages=465}}</ref> In Japan, oku is also often used in adjective form. Some of the usage that are relevant to the notion of space includes, ''oku-dokoro'' (inner place), ''oku-sha'' (inner shrine), ''oku-yama'' (mountain recesses), and ''oku-zashiki'' (inner room).<ref name=":0" />
+The term Oku is both used in Japanese and Chinese languages and share three literal meanings: 1) private, intimate, and deep; 2) exalted and sacred; and, 3) profound and recondite.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Li|first=Dan|date=|title=The Concept of "Oku" in Japanese and Chinese traditional paintings, gardens and architecture|url=http://www.hues.kyushu-u.ac.jp/education/student/pdf/2009/2HE08084E.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=June 8, 2020|website=Kyushu University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rizzardi|first1=Pier Alessio|title=The Condition of Chinese Architecture|last2=Hankun|first2=Zhang|date=2018|publisher=TCA Think Tank|isbn=978-1-9164537-0-8|location=|pages=465}}</ref> In Japan, Oku is also often used in adjective form. Some of the usage that are relevant to the notion of space includes, o''ku-dokoro'' (inner place), o''ku-sha'' (inner shrine), o''ku-yama'' (mountain recesses), and o''ku-zashiki'' (inner room).<ref name=":0" />
+[[File:Fumihiko Maki 2010 alt.jpg|thumb|[[Fumihiko Maki]] proposed his theory of oku in his work, ''Japanese City Spaces and the Concept of Oku.'']]
-In traditional Japanese culture, oku emerged as a principle to signify "the inner" or "inward".<ref name=":1" /> This idea is traced back to the emergence of rice cultivation and the environmental separation of villages from the mountains.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Greve|first=Anni|title=Sanctuaries of the City: Lessons from Tokyo|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-1-317-05955-4|location=|pages=}}</ref> In this view, the environment came to be considered a realm that is sacred and lofty, hence forbidden. It is separated through spatial configurations from the Japanese communities, which had relatively high densities since the ancient times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Altman|first=Irwin|title=Place Attachment|last2=Low|first2=Setha M.|publisher=Plenum Press|year=1992|isbn=978-1-4684-8755-8|location=New York|pages=172}}</ref>
+In traditional Japanese culture, Oku emerged as a principle to signify "the inner" or "inward".<ref name=":1" /> This idea is traced back to the emergence of rice cultivation in Japan and the environmental separation of villages from the environment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Greve|first=Anni|title=Sanctuaries of the City: Lessons from Tokyo|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-1-317-05955-4|location=|pages=}}</ref> This formed part of the belief that the natural landscape has cosmological attachment, including spiritual spaces.<ref name=":4" /> In this view, the locations such as mountains and grove of trees are considered realms that are sacred and lofty, hence forbidden. According to Japanese architect [[Fumihiko Maki]], "for the Japanese, the land is a living entity," and that "at the foundation of this idea is a feeling of deep respect for the land based upon its reverence".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Buntrock|first=Dana|title=Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-72501-4|location=Oxon|pages=190}}</ref> The environment came to be separated through spatial configurations from the Japanese homes and communities, which had relatively high densities since the ancient times.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last1=Altman|first1=Irwin|title=Place Attachment|last2=Low|first2=Setha M.|publisher=Plenum Press|year=1992|isbn=978-1-4684-8755-8|location=New York|pages=172}}</ref> The cultural tradition that emerged from the chaotic world of the forest favored a type of harmony that is continually evolving.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brebbia|first1=C. A.|title=Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture XV|last2=Echarri|first2=V.|publisher=WIT Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-78466-183-0|location=Southampton|pages=277}}</ref>
 == Concept ==
-As a Japanese concept, oku specifies an idea of spatial configurations, which implies a relative distance or an impression of it at a given space. It is also described as a concept that signifies relative or a sense of distance within a space.<ref name=":0" /> It is not limited to this kind of configuration as it also expresses psychological depth and an [[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]] image scheme when approached from the [[Kantianism|Kantian]] perspective.<ref name=":2" /> A broad conceptualization described it as an invisible middle point.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Bergmann|first=Sigurd|title=God in Context: A Survey of Contextual Theology|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|year=2003|isbn=0-7546-0615-5|location=Burlington, VT|pages=133}}</ref> For example, in the case of a building, the principle of oku seeks to bring what is distant closer so that the interior and exterior are unified.
+As a Japanese concept, Oku specifies an idea of spatial configurations, which implies a relative distance or an impression of it at a given space. It is also described as a concept that signifies relative or a sense of distance within a space.<ref name=":0" /> It is not limited to this kind of configuration as it also expresses psychological depth<ref name=":8">{{cite journal| last1=Hayub| first1=S.| last2=You-Chang| first2=J.| last3=Sunghoon|first3=Y.| year=2015| title=Inner Space in the City: Jose Luis Sert, Fumihiko Maki and Kyu Seung Woo′s Search for Inner Space| journal=Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering| volume=14 |issue=2| pages=233-240| doi=10.3130/jaabe.14.233| doi-access=free}}</ref> and an [[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]] image scheme when approached from the [[Kantianism|Kantian]] perspective.<ref name=":2" /> A broad conceptualization described it as an invisible middle point.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Bergmann|first=Sigurd|title=God in Context: A Survey of Contextual Theology|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|year=2003|isbn=0-7546-0615-5|location=Burlington, VT|pages=133}}</ref> For example, in the case of a building, the principle of Oku seeks to bring what is distant closer so that the interior and exterior are unified. [[File:Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo wall.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|Oku is demonstrated in the architecture of the [[Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo]]. It features a steel wall that runs along the approach to the museum while the landscaping that dominates the scene does not establish a focus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Buntrock|first=Dana|title=Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-72501-4|location=Oxon|pages=199}}</ref>]]
+The principle of Oku is often used in constructing homes and buildings in Japan that feature the layering of spaces from the outside to the inside with increasingly private zones.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schittich|first=Christian|title=Japan: Architecture, Constructions, Ambiances|publisher=Birkhauser|year=2012|isbn=978-3-95553-167-6|location=Basel|pages=51}}</ref> According to Maki, Oku can be distinguished from the so-called "center demarcation" to building spaces in Western culture.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Chervenkova|first=Velizara|title=Japanese Psychotherapies: Silence and Body-Mind Interconnectedness in Morita, Naikan and Dohsa-hou|publisher=Springer|year=2017|isbn=978-981-10-3125-0|location=Singapore|pages=22}}</ref> In addressing the relationship between center and boundary, the latter follows a layout oriented towards the attainment of the climax. Oku, on the other hand, works to embed drama and ritual in the process of the approach itself so that instead of going out of a route, the movement is all about searching or roaming.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Janson|first1=Alban|title=Fundamental Concepts of Architecture: The Vocabulary of Spatial Situations|last2=Tigges|first2=Florian|publisher=Birkhauser|year=2014|isbn=978-3-0346-0892-3|location=Basel|pages=87}}</ref> The feeling is also described as "moving into unknown places".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kohte|first1=Susanne|title=Encounters and Positions: Architecture in Japan|last2=Adam|first2=Hubertus|last3=Hubert|first3=Daniel|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2017|isbn=978-3-0356-0715-4|location=Basel|pages=25}}</ref> In many instances, Oku does not have a climax since the ultimate destination gradually unfolds and this constructs a spatial experience with a time parameter.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kronenburg|first=Robert|title=Transportable Environments|publisher=E & FN SPON|year=2013|isbn=978-0-419-24250-5|location=Oxon|pages=80}}</ref>
-[[File:Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo wall.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|Oku is demonstrated in the architecture of the [[Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo]]. It features a steel wall that run along the approach to the museum while the landscaping that dominates the scene does not establish a focus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Buntrock|first=Dana|title=Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition and Today|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-72501-4|location=Oxon|pages=199}}</ref>]]
-The principle of oku is a primary consideration in constructing buildings and spaces. According to Japanese architect [[Fumihiko Maki]], oku can be distinguished from the so-called "center demarcation" to building spaces in Western culture.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Chervenkova|first=Velizara|title=Japanese Psychotherapies: Silence and Body-Mind Interconnectedness in Morita, Naikan and Dohsa-hou|publisher=Springer|year=2017|isbn=978-981-10-3125-0|location=Singapore|pages=22}}</ref> In addressing the relationship between center and boundary, the latter follows a layout oriented towards the attainment of the climax. Oku, on the other hand, works to embed drama and ritual in the process of the approach itself so that instead of going out of a route, the movement is all about searching or roaming.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Janson|first=Alban|title=Fundamental Concepts of Architecture: The Vocabulary of Spatial Situations|last2=Tigges|first2=Florian|publisher=Birkhauser|year=2014|isbn=978-3-0346-0892-3|location=Basel|pages=87}}</ref>
+Oku is often associated with the concept of ''[[Ma (negative space)|ma]],'' which corresponds to the notion of "in between" in [[Confucianism|Confucian]] thought.<ref name=":7" /> The latter involves the ambiguity of the boundaries while Oku is all about the ambiguity of the center.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Kosinski|first=Jerzy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMsRpUall-wC&dq=oku+space+art+painting&pg=RA6-PA4|title=Passing by: Selected Essays, 1962-1991|date=1995|publisher=Grove Press|isbn=978-0-8021-3423-3|location=|pages=4}}</ref> These two principles are said to be used to mediate what is found in nature and what an artist can make of it. Such mediation can be demonstrated in the way a designer turns a living Japanese garden into a vital and cubic enclosure.<ref name=":7" />
-The principle of oku can also be applied in other fields such as art, literature, and individual behavior.
+The principle of Oku can also be applied in other fields such as art, [[literature]], and individual behavior. This is seen in the multi-viewpoints of traditional landscape paintings, with each part of the drawing forming a different layer.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rizzardi|first1=Pier Alessio|title=The Condition of Chinese Architecture|last2=Hankun|first2=Zhang|publisher=TCA Think Tank|year=2018|isbn=978-1-9164537-0-8|location=|pages=465}}</ref> The simultaneous coexistence of these elements create a complex symbolic spatiality.
 == Boundaries ==
-Oku or an impression of it is achieved through the creation of multi-layered boundaries that some scholars call spatial creases.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> These boundaries are built and interrelated with several elements such as topography, roads, and fences, among others.<ref name=":2" /> It is suggested that these boundaries are analogous to a wrapping and serves as a structural principle that adds to the value in a structural analysis that demonstrates the merit of illusion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hendry|first=Joy|title=An Anthropological Lifetime in Japan: The Writings of Joy Hendry|publisher=BRILL|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-30286-0|location=Leiden|pages=410}}</ref>
+Oku or an impression of it is achieved through the creation of multi-layered boundaries that some scholars call spatial creases.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> Another analogy likened oku as the core of multiple layers in an onion.<ref name=":8" /> These boundaries are built and interrelated with several elements such as topography, roads, and fences, among others.<ref name=":2" /> It is suggested that these boundaries are analogous to a wrapping and serves as a structural principle that adds to the value in an analysis of a structure.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hendry|first=Joy|title=An Anthropological Lifetime in Japan: The Writings of Joy Hendry|publisher=BRILL|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-30286-0|location=Leiden|pages=410}}</ref>
+These creases or layers also demonstrate the other defining characteristic of Oku in terms of space - the focus on roaming or searching in the approach. The winding layers both conceal and hint at places where people can gather or rest.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Totten|first=Christopher W.|title=An Architectural Approach to Level Design|publisher=CRC Press|year=2018|isbn=978-1-351-98292-4|location=|pages=258}}</ref> For this reason,  different types of “denial” are used so that the space creates a sense of curiosity.<ref name=":5" /> An example was the ''kansho'' or the open space positioned at the center of each urban block within the [[Edo period]] Nagoya castle town.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last1=Divall|first1=Colin|title=Suburbanizing the Masses: Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective|last2=Bond|first2=Winstan|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-351-77692-9|location=|pages=311}}</ref> These spaces were embedded within the checkerboard layout of [[Nagoya]] and served as a place were urban activities took place.<ref name=":6" />
 == References ==
 <!-- Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. -->
 {{reflist}}
+[[Category:Cultural heritage of Japan]]
+[[Category:Japanese aesthetics]]
+[[Category:Japanese home]]
+[[Category:Japanese traditions]]