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{{Short description|Dialects of the Japanese language}}
{{Cleanup|June 2006}}
{{Infobox language family
{{TOCright}}
|name=Japanese
As with any language, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has its share of regional dialects. The ''lingua franca'' of Japan is called ''hyōjungo'' (標準語, lit. "standard language"), and while it was based initially on Tokyo speech, the language of Japan's capital has since gone in its own direction to become one of Japan's many 弁(''-ben''), or dialects.
|region=[[Japan]]
|familycolor=altaic
|fam1=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
|child1=[[Eastern Japanese]]
|child2=[[Western Japanese]]
|child3=[[#Kyushu Japanese|Kyūshū]]
|child4=''[[Hachijō language|Hachijō]]'' ?
|glotto=japa1256
|glottoname=Japanesic
|glotto2=nucl1643
|glottorefname2=Japanese
|map=Japanese dialects-en.png
|mapcaption=Map of Japanese dialects (north of the heavy grey line)
}}
The {{nihongo|[[dialect]]s|方言|hōgen}} of the [[Japanese language]] fall into two primary clades, Eastern (including modern capital [[Tokyo]]) and Western (including old capital [[Kyoto]]), with the dialects of [[Kyushu]] and [[Hachijō Island]] often distinguished as additional branches, the latter perhaps the most divergent of all.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|p=196}} </ref> The [[Ryukyuan languages]] of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] and the southern islands of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] form a separate branch of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic family]], and are '''not''' Japanese dialects, although they are sometimes referred to as such.


The setting of Japan with its numerous islands and mountains has the ideal setting for developing many dialects.<ref name=":0">{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|p=185}} </ref>
==Eastern Japanese==
=== Hokkaidō===
The residents of [[Hokkaidō|Hokkaidō Prefecture]] are (relatively) recent arrivals from all parts of Japan, and this combination of influences has resulted in a set of regionalisms sometimes called Hokkaidō-ben. Hokkaidō-ben appears to have been influenced most significantly by '''Tōhoku-ben''', not surprising due to Hokkaidō's geographic proximity to northeastern Honshū. Characteristics of Hokkaidō-ben include speech that contains fewer gender-specific differences, a rich vocabulary of regionalisms, and alternatives to "desu". There is a tendency toward rapid, abbreviated speech patterns, as is not uncommon in other rural areas of Japan. Overall, Hokkaidō-ben is not dramatically different from what is called standard Japanese. Most native speakers of Hokkaidō-ben can easily switch to standard Japanese when the situation calls for it. However, Hokkaidō-ben is different enough that the prepared ear has an advantage in understanding it.


{{TOC limit|limit=3}}
Here are some examples of words and phrases common in Hokkaidō that are less common in standard Japanese:


==History==
*''dabe'' — isn't it (''desho'')
Regional variants of Japanese have been confirmed since the [[Old Japanese]] era. The ''[[Man'yōshū]]'', the oldest existing collection of Japanese poetry, includes poems written in dialects of the capital ([[Nara, Nara|Nara]]) and eastern Japan, but other dialects were not recorded. The compiler included ''azuma uta'' ("eastern songs") that show that eastern dialect traits were distinct from the western dialect of Nara.<ref name=":0" /> It is not clear if the capital of Nara entertained the idea of a standard dialect, however, they had an understanding which dialect should be regarded as the standard one, the dialect of the capital.<ref name=":0" />
* ''(tebukuro o) haku'' — wearing gloves, using the verb traditionally reserved for shoes
*''sa'' - often used instead of ''ne'' (final particle soliciting confirmation or agreement)
**''dabe sa'' -- (roughly) indeed, isn't it? (''desho ne'')
*''shibareru'' — freezing cold weather, hard freeze
*''namara'' — very
*''kowai'' — I am tired. (However, 'kowai' in Standard Japanese is the adjective for 'scary')
*''(gomi o)'' nageru — discard (trash) ''literally, "to throw" trash''
*''waya'' — dreadful
*''futtsuku'' - sticking to, adhering to
*''tekkurikaeru'' - stumble and fall (skiing)
*''bakuru'' - swap, trade
*''hankakusai'' — fool
*''zangi'' — fried chicken nuggets
*''dosanko'' — Hokkaidō native, 3 or more generations


The recorded features of [[Eastern Old Japanese|eastern dialects]] were rarely inherited by modern dialects, except for a few [[language island]]s such as [[Hachijō-jima|Hachijo Island]]. In the [[Early Middle Japanese]] era, there were only vague records such as "rural dialects are crude". However, since the [[Late Middle Japanese]] era, features of regional dialects had been recorded in some books, for example ''[[Arte da Lingoa de Iapam]]'', and the recorded features were fairly similar to modern dialects. In these works, recorded by the Christian missionaries in Japan, they regard the true colloquial Japanese as the one used by the court nobles in Kyōto. Other indications for the Kyōto dialect to be considered the standard dialect at that time are glossaries of local dialects that list the Kyōto equivalent for local expressions.<ref name=":0" />
=== Tōhoku===
'''Tōhoku-ben''' is spoken in [[Tōhoku Region|Tōhoku]], the Northeastern region of [[Honshū]]. Toward the northern part of [[Honshū]], Tōhoku-ben can differ so dramatically from standard Japanese that it is sometimes rendered with subtitles. It is considered by some Southern inhabitants of Japan to be a slow and "clumsy" dialect with connotations of dawdling or idleness.


The variety of Japanese dialects developed markedly during the [[Early Modern Japanese]] era ([[Edo period]]) because many feudal lords restricted the movement of people to and from other fiefs. Some isoglosses agree with old borders of ''[[Han system|han]]'', especially in Tohoku and Kyushu. Nevertheless, even with the political capital being moved to Edo (i.e. Tōkyō) the status of the Kyōto dialect was not threatened immediately as it was still the cultural and economic center that dominated Japan. This dominance waned as Edo began to assert more political and economic force and made investments in its cultural development. At the end of the eighteen century the Japanese that was spoken in Edo was regarded as standard as all glossaries from this period use the Edo dialect for local expressions.<ref name=":1">{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|p=186}} </ref>
A notable [[Linguistics|linguistic]] feature of Tōhoku-ben is its neutralization of the high vowels /i/ and /u/, so that the words [[Sushi]], "susu" (ash), and "shishi" (lion) are rendered homophonous, where they would have been distinct in other dialects. It is for this reason that Tōkoku-ben is somewhat pejoratively referred to as "zuzu-ben".


In the [[Meiji era|Meiji period]] the Tōkyō dialect was assuming the role of a standard dialect that was used between different regions to communicate with each other. The Meiji government set policies in place to spread the concept of {{nihongo|標準語|hyōjun-go||"standard language"}}. One of the main goals was to be an equal to the western world and the unification of the language was a part to achieve this. For the ''hyōjun-go'' the speech of the Tōkyō middle class served as a model. The Ministry of Education at this time made text books in the new standard language and fostered an inferiority complex in the minds of those who spoke in dialects besides the Tōkyō dialect. One example is a student who was forced to wear a "[[dialect card|dialect tag]]" around the neck.<ref name=":1" />
In addition, all [[unvoiced]] stops become [[voiced]] intervocalically, rendering the pronunciation of the word "kato" (trained rabbit) as [kado]. However, unlike the high vowel neutralization, this does not result in new homophones, as all voiced stops are pre-[[nasalization|nasalized]], meaning that the word "kado" (corner) is roughly pronounced [kando]. This is particularly noticeable with the "g" sound, which is nasalized sufficiently that it sounds very much like the english "ng" as in "thing", with the stop of the hard "g" almost entirely lost.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, the period of [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|Shōwa nationalism]] and the [[Japanese economic miracle|post-war economic miracle]], the push for the replacement of regional [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] with Standard Japanese reached its peak.


After World War II, the concept of {{nihongo|共通語|Kyōtsū-go||"common language"}} was introduced that differed from the concept of the standard language in so far that it is heavily influenced by the standard language but it retains dialectical traits. So the spoken language can differ from region to region but it is still mutually intelligible.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|p=187}} </ref>
Some words and phrases common in Tōhoku (and generally, also in Hokkaidō) that are less common in standard Japanese include:
*''-be'' or ''-bē'' as volitional suffix
*''sa'' - often used instead of ''ne'' (final particle soliciting confirmation or agreement)
*''o-ban desu'' — good evening (pronounced "oban dezū")
*''menkoi'' — cute


Now Standard Japanese has spread throughout the nation, and traditional regional varieties are declining because of education, television, expansion of traffic, urban concentration etc. However, regional varieties have not been completely replaced with Standard Japanese. The spread of Standard Japanese means the regional varieties are now valued as "nostalgic", "heart-warming" and markers of "precious local identity", and many speakers of regional dialects have gradually overcome their sense of inferiority regarding their natural way of speaking. The contact between regional varieties and Standard Japanese creates new regional speech forms among young people, such as [[Okinawan Japanese]].<ref>{{Cite book | author = Satoh Kazuyuki (佐藤和之) |author2=Yoneda Masato (米田正人) | title = Dōnaru Nihon no Kotoba, Hōgen to Kyōtsūgo no Yukue | publisher = The Taishūkan Shoten (大修館書店) | year = 1999 | location = Tōkyō | language = ja | isbn = 978-4-469-21244-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Mark|year=2019|chapter=Studies of Ryukyu-substrate Japanese|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/41138518|editor1=Patrick Heinrich|editor2=Yumiko Ohara|title=Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics|language=en|pages=441–457|place=New York|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=Hugh|chapter=Language|editor-last=Sugimoto|editor-first=Yoshio|title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern Japanese Culture|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|location=Cambridge|pages=56–75|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521880473|isbn=9781139002455}} P. 65: "[...] over the past decade or so we have seen the emergence of a new
=== Kantō===
''lingua franca'' for the whole prefecture. Nicknamed ''Uchinaa Yamatuguchi'' (Okinawan Japanese) this new dialect incorporates features of Ryukyuan phonology, grammar and lexicon into modern Japanese, resulting in a means of communication which can be more or less understood anywhere in Japan, but clearly marks anyone speaking it as an Okinawan."</ref>
==== Ibaraki ====


==Mutual intelligibility==
Ibaraki dialect, ''Ibaraki-ben'', is characterized by ''dakuten'' insertion, effecting a voiced syllable. For example, ''byōki'', illness, becomes something like ''byōgi''. Also characteristic of ''Ibaraki-ben'' in many areas is a decreased distinction between ''i'' and ''e'' sounds, so that ''iro enpitsu'' becomes ''ero inpitsu'' among many speakers. The final particles ''ppe'', ''be'', and ''he'' are perhaps most well-known. They derive from literary ''beshi'' (now ''beki'' in standard Japanese). The pitch accent of Ibaraki dialect is also fairly different from standard Japanese, typically rising at the end of statements and falling in questions. Below are a few words which are rather ubiquitous among speakers of the Ibaraki dialect:
In terms of [[mutual intelligibility]], a survey in 1967 found the four most unintelligible dialects (excluding [[Ryūkyūan languages]] and [[Tohoku dialects]]) to students from Greater Tokyo are the [[Kiso, Nagano (town)|Kiso]] dialect (in the deep mountains of [[Nagano Prefecture]]), the [[Himi, Toyama|Himi]] dialect (in [[Toyama Prefecture]]), the [[Kagoshima dialect]] and the [[Katsuyama, Okayama|Maniwa]] dialect (in the mountains of [[Okayama Prefecture]]).<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967"/> The survey is based on recordings of 12- to 20- second long, of 135 to 244 [[phoneme]]s, which 42 students listened and translated word-by-word. The listeners were all [[Keio University]] students who grew up in the [[Kanto region]].<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967">{{cite journal|title=On Dialect Intelligibility in Japan|first=Joseph K.|last=Yamagiwa|author-link=Joseph K. Yamagiwa|journal=Anthropological Linguistics |date=1967|volume=9|issue=1|pages=4, 5, 18|jstor=30029037}}</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
*''anme'' — related to literary ''aru mai'', and to ''nai darō'' in standard Japanese, meaning "(I suppose) not". Its opposite is ''appe'', from ''aru'' and ''ppe''
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Intelligibility to students from Tokyo and [[Kanto region]] (Date: 1967)<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967"/>
*''arutte'' — walking (instead of ''aruite'')
|-
*''daiji'' — ''daijōbu'' in standard Japanese, meaning "alright", and unrelated to the identically-pronounced standard word for "important"
| scope="col" | '''Dialect''' || [[Osaka City]] || [[Kyoto City]] || [[Tatsuta, Aichi]] || [[Kiso, Nagano (town)|Kiso, Nagano]] || [[Himi, Toyama]] || [[Maniwa, Okayama]] || [[Ōgata, Kōchi]] || [[Kanagi, Shimane]] || [[Kumamoto City]] || [[Kagoshima City]]
*''dere(suke)'' — lazy foolish person
|-
*''goja((ra)ppe)'' — silly foolish person
| scope="col" | '''Percentage''' || 26.4% || 67.1% || 44.5% || 13.3% || 4.1% || 24.7% || 45.5% || 24.8% || 38.6% || 17.6%
*''medo'' — hole
|}
*''-me'' — suffix for small animals (e.g. ''hē-me'', "fly"; ''kan-me'', "turtle"); used differently from the abusive ''-me'' in standard Japanese
*''odome'' — child


====Tokyo====
==Classification==
[[File:Japonic languages (schematic).png|thumb|Eastern Japanese dialects are blue, Western Japanese tan. [[Tōkai–Tōsan dialect|Green dialects]] have both Eastern and Western features. Kyushu dialects are orange; southern Kyushu is quite distinctive.{{image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]]
[[File:Japan pitch accent map.png|thumb|{{legend|#CD8080|Kyoto type (tone+downstep)}}
{{legend|#94CF97|Tokyo type (downstep)}}
Map of [[Japanese pitch accent|Japanese pitch-accent]] types. The divide between Kyoto and Tokyo types is used as the Eastern–Western Japanese boundary in the main map.{{image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]]


There are several generally similar approaches to classifying Japanese dialects. Misao Tōjō classified mainland Japanese dialects into three groups: Eastern, Western and Kyūshū dialects. Mitsuo Okumura classified Kyushu dialects as a subclass of Western Japanese. These theories are mainly based on grammatical differences between east and west, but [[Haruhiko Kindaichi]] classified mainland Japanese into concentric circular three groups: inside (Kansai, Shikoku, etc.), middle (Western Kantō, Chūbu, Chūgoku, etc.) and outside (Eastern Kantō, Tōhoku, Izumo, Kyushu, Hachijō, etc.) based on systems of accent, phoneme and conjugation.
The speech of modern Tokyo is often considered to equate standard Japanese, though in fact Tokyo dialect differs from hyōjungo in a number of areas. Noticeable earmarks of Tokyo dialect include the frequent use of さ (''sa,'' roughly analogous to "like" as used in American English slang),　じゃん (''jan,'' a contraction of じゃないか ''ja nai ka,'' "Isn't that right?") and つう (''tsuu'') in place of -と言う (''- to iu,'' "to say -" or "is called -"). It is also not uncommon for Tokyo dialect to change the -いる (''-iru'') stem of the present progressive to -ん (''-n''), as in つってんのー　(''tsutten nō,'' "[someone] is saying") vs. と言っているのよ (''to itte iru no yo'') of standard Japanese.


===Eastern and Western Japanese{{anchor|Eastern Japanese}}{{anchor|Western Japanese}}===
'''Edogawa-ben''', the fast-fading dialect of old families from Eastern Tokyo around the Edogawa river, is another example of a Tokyo dialect that differs from standard Japanese. This dialect is primarily known for the inability to pronounce or distinguish some phonemes which are considered wholly distinct in all other Japanese dialects. Most famous is the decreased distinction between "hi" and "shi", so that "hidoi" (terrible) becomes "shidoi", and "shichi" (seven) becomes "hichi". Though it also includes a few distinctive words, today it is largely indistinguishable from the standard speech of Tokyo other than the phonemic difference.
A primary distinction exists between Eastern and Western Japanese. This is a long-standing divide that occurs in both language and culture.<ref>See also [[Ainu language]]; the extent of Ainu placenames approaches the isogloss.</ref> Tokugawa points out the distinct eating habits, shapes of tools and utensils. One example is the kind of fish eaten in both areas. While the Eastern region eats more salmon, the West consumes more seabream.<ref>Tokugawa (1981): Kotoba - nishi to higashi. Nihongo no sekai 8. Tokyo: Chuokoronsha. </ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|pp=198–199}}</ref>


The map in the box at the top of this page divides the two along phonological lines. West of the dividing line, the more complex Kansai-type [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]] is found; east of the line, the simpler Tokyo-type accent is found, though Tokyo-type accents also occur further west, on the other side of Kansai. However, this [[isogloss]] largely corresponds to several grammatical distinctions as well: West of the pitch-accent isogloss:<ref name=shibatani197>{{Harvcoltxt|Shibatani|2008|page=197}}</ref>
=== Tōkai-Tōsan===
====Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka====
*Shizuoka
*Enshū
==== Gifu-Aichi====
*Mino
Hida dialect
*''dashikan'' — bad, no good
=====Nagoya=====
'''[[Nagoya-ben]]''' is a dialect spoken in and around the city of Nagoya. It is similar to Kansai-ben in intonation, but to Tokyo-ben in accent. Instead of "shitte iru?" Nagoya residents will say "shittoru?" They attach unique suffixes to the end of sentences: "-gaya" when surprised, "-te" for emphasis, "-ni" to show off one's knowledge, and "-dekan" for disappointment. Some Nagoya words: "ketta" for "jitensha", "tsukue o tsuru" to 'move a desk', "dera-" or "dora-" for "sugoi" or "tottemo". A Tokyo resident: "Sou ni kimatteru janai" Nagoya resident: "Sou ni kimattoru gaya." "Gan" is not typical Nagoya-ben. It is rather slang used by the younger Nagoya residents.


* The perfective form of ''-u'' verbs such as ''harau'' 'to pay' is ''harōta'' (or minority ''haruta''), showing [[Onbin#Verb_stems|u-onbin]], rather than Eastern (and Standard) ''haratta''
=====Mikawa=====
** The perfective form of ''-su'' verbs such as ''otosu'' 'to drop' is also ''otoita'' in Western Japanese (largely apart from Kansai dialect) vs. ''otoshita'' in Eastern
'''Mikawa-ben''' is spoken in the east half of [[Aichi prefecture]] while Nagoya-ben is in the west half. The two dialects are very similar for people from other areas of Japan. But Mikawa and Nagoya people claim that the dialects are completely different. Mikawa people also claim that Mikawa-ben is the basis of Tokyo Japanese because it was made up in [[Edo period]] by [[samurai]] from this area.
* The imperative of ''-ru ([[Japanese consonant and vowel verbs|ichidan]])'' verbs such as ''miru'' 'to look' is ''miyo'' or ''mii'' rather than Eastern ''miro'' (or minority ''mire'', though Kyushu dialect also uses ''miro'' or ''mire'')
* The adverbial form of ''-i'' adjectival verbs such as ''hiroi'' 'wide' is ''hirō'' (or minority ''hirū''), showing [[Onbin#Adjective_endings|u-onbin]], for example ''hirōnaru'' (to become wide), rather than Eastern ''hiroku'', for example ''hirokunaru'' (to become wide)
* The negative form of verbs is ''-nu'' or ''-n'' rather than ''-nai'' or ''-nee'', and uses a different verb stem; thus ''suru'' 'to do' is ''senu'' or ''sen'' rather than ''shinai'' or ''shinee'' (apart from [[Sado Island]], which uses ''shinai'')<br/>[[File:Ja da ya.png|thumb|right|250px|Copula isoglosses. The blue–orange ''da/ja'' divide corresponds to the pitch-accent divide apart from Gifu and Sado.<br />(blue: ''da'', red: ''ja'', yellow: ''ya''; orange and purple: iconically for red+yellow and red+blue; white: all three.)]]
* The [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] is ''da'' in Eastern and ''ja'' or ''ya'' in Western Japanese, though Sado as well as some dialects further west such as [[San'in region|San'in]] use ''da'' [see map at right]
* The verb ''iru'' 'to exist' in Eastern and ''oru'' in Western, though Wakayama dialect uses ''aru'' and some Kansai and Fukui subdialects use both
While these grammatical isoglosses are close to the pitch-accent line given in the map, they do not follow it exactly. Apart from Sado Island, which has Eastern ''shinai'' and ''da'', all of the Western features are found west of the pitch-accent line, though a few Eastern features may crop up again further west (''da'' in San'in, ''miro'' in Kyushu). East of the line, however, there is a zone of intermediate dialects which have a mixture of Eastern and Western features. Echigo dialect has ''harōta'', though not ''miyo'', and about half of it has ''hirōnaru'' as well. In Gifu, all Western features are found apart from pitch accent and ''harōta''; Aichi has ''miyo'' and ''sen'', and in the west ([[Nagoya dialect]]) ''hirōnaru'' as well: These features are substantial enough that Toshio Tsuzuku classifies Gifu–Aichi dialect as Western Japanese. Western Shizuoka (Enshū dialect) has ''miyo'' as its single Western Japanese feature.<ref name=shibatani197/>


The Western Japanese [[Kansai dialect]] was the [[prestige dialect]] when Kyoto was the capital, and Western forms are found in literary language as well as in honorific expressions of modern Tokyo dialect (and therefore Standard Japanese), such as adverbial ''ohayō gozaimasu'' (not ''*ohayaku''), the humble existential verb ''oru'', and the polite negative ''-masen'' (not ''*-mashinai''),<ref name=shibatani197/> which uses the Kyoto-style negative ending -n. Because the imperial court, which put emphasis on correct polite speech, was located in Kyoto for a long time, there was greater development of honorific speech forms in Kyoto, which were borrowed into Tokyo speech.<ref name=":2">Shibatani (2008: 200)</ref> Another feature that the modern Tokyo dialect shares with Kyoto is the preservation of the vowel sequences {{IPA|/ai/}}, {{IPA|/oi/}}, and {{IPA|/ui/}}: in Eastern dialects, these tend to undergo coalescence and be replaced by {{IPA|[eː]}}, {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[iː]}} respectively.<ref>Shibatani (2008: 199)</ref> Examples of words that originated in Kyoto and were adopted by Tokyo are ''yaru'' ("to give"), ''kaminari'' ("thunder") and ''asatte'' ("two days from today").<ref>Shibatani (2008: 200)</ref>
=== Hachijō Island===
==Western Japanese==
===Hokuriku===
* Kaga
* Noto
* [[Sado Island]]
====Toyama====
'''Toyama-ben''' is spoken in [[Toyama]] prefecture. Instead of the standard, ''shitte imasuka''? or colloquial ''shitte iru''? for "Do you know?" Toyama-ben speakers will say, ''shittorukke?'' Other regional distinctions include words like ''kitokito'' for fresh and delicious.


===Kyushu Japanese===
Other distinctions include the negative past tense being formed differently from standard Japanese as follows:
Kyushu dialects are classified into three groups, [[Hichiku dialect]], [[Hōnichi dialect]] and [[Kagoshima dialect|Satsugu (Kagoshima) dialect]], and have several distinctive features:


*as noted above, Eastern-style imperatives ''miro ~ mire'' rather than Western Japanese ''miyo''
Standard Japanese: konakatta (did not come)
*''ka''-adjectives in Hichiku and Satsugu rather than Western and Eastern [[Japanese adjectives|''i''-adjectives]], as in ''samuka'' for ''samui'' 'cold', ''kuyaka'' for ''minikui'' 'ugly' and ''nukka'' for ''atsui'' 'hot'
Toyama-ben: konda (did not come)
*the [[nominalization]] and question particle ''to'' except for Kitakyushu and Oita, versus Western and Eastern ''no'', as in ''tottō to?'' for ''totte iru no?'' 'is this taken?' and ''iku to tai'' or ''ikuttai'' for ''iku no yo'' 'I'll go'
*the directional particle ''sai'' (Standard ''e'' and ''ni''), though Eastern Tohoku dialect use a similar particle ''sa''
*the emphatic [[sentence-final particle]]s ''tai'' and ''bai'' in Hichiku and Satsugu (Standard ''yo'')
*a concessive particle ''batten'' for ''dakedo'' 'but, however' in Hichiku and Satsugu, though Eastern Tohoku Aomori dialect has a similar particle ''batte''
*{{IPA|/e/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[je]}} and palatalizes ''s, z, t, d,'' as in ''mite'' {{IPA|[mitʃe]}} and ''sode'' {{IPA|[sodʒe]}}, though this is a conservative ([[Late Middle Japanese]]) pronunciation found with ''s, z'' (''sensei'' {{IPA|[ʃenʃei]}}) in scattered areas throughout Japan like the Umpaku dialect.
*as some subdialects in Shikoku and Chugoku, but generally not elsewhere, the accusative particle ''o'' resyllabifies a noun: ''honno'' or ''honnu'' for ''hon-o'' 'book', ''kakyū'' for ''kaki-o'' 'persimmon'.
*{{IPA|/r/}} is often dropped, for ''koi'' 'this' versus Western and Eastern Japanese ''kore''
*[[vowel reduction]] is frequent especially in Satsugu and [[Gotō Islands]], as in ''in'' for ''inu'' 'dog' and ''kuQ'' for ''kubi'' 'neck'
*Kyushu dialects share some lexical items with Ryukyuan languages, some of which appear to be innovations.{{sfnp|de Boer|2020|p=55}} Some scholars have proposed that Kyushu dialects and Ryukyuan languages are the same language group within the Japonic family.{{sfnp|de Boer|2020|p=52}}


Much of Kyushu either lacks pitch accent or has its own, distinctive accent. Kagoshima dialect is so distinctive that some have classified it as a fourth branch of Japanese, alongside Eastern, Western, and the rest of Kyushu.
Standard Japanese: inakatta (was not)
Toyama-ben: oranda (was not) (n.b.,Toyama-ben uses "oru" instead or "iru" to express "existence")


===Hachijō Japanese===
Standard Japanese: tabenakatta (did not eat)
{{main|Hachijō language}}
Toyama-ben: tabenda (did not eat)
A small group of dialects spoken in [[Hachijō-jima]] and [[Aogashima]], islands south of Tokyo, as well as the [[Daitō Islands]] east of Okinawa. Hachijō dialect is quite divergent and sometimes thought to be a primary branch of Japanese. It retains an abundance of inherited ancient Eastern Japanese features.


===Cladogram===
Standard Japanese: shinakatta (did not do)
The relationships between the dialects are approximated in the following [[cladogram]]:<ref>{{Harvp|Pellard|2009}} and {{Harvp|Karimata|1999}}.</ref>
Toyama-ben: senda (did not do)


{{clade
The distinction made is that the negative past tense in Toyama-ben is formed by adding to the stem of the verb the "nu" suffix, indicating a negative, followed by a "da" indicating the past tense or completed action. "Nu" becomes "n".
|label1=[[Japanese language|Japanese]]&nbsp;
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Kyushu dialect|Kyūshū]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Kagoshima dialect|Kagoshima]]
|2=[[Hichiku dialect|Hichiku]]
|3=[[Hōnichi dialect|Hōnichi]]
}}
|label2=&nbsp;[[Western Japanese|Western]]&nbsp;
|2={{clade
|1=[[Chūgoku dialect|Chūgoku]]
|2=[[Umpaku dialect|Umpaku]]
|3=[[Shikoku dialect|Shikoku]]
|4=[[Kansai dialect|Kansai]]
|5=[[Hokuriku dialect|Hokuriku]]
}}
|label3=[[Eastern Japanese|Eastern]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Tōkai–Tōsan dialect|Tōkai–Tōsan]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kantō dialect|Kantō]]
|2=inland [[Hokkaido dialects|Hokkaidō]]
}}
|3={{clade
|1=[[Tōhoku dialect|Tōhoku]]
|2=coastal [[Hokkaido dialects|Hokkaidō]]
}}
}}
}}
|2=[[Hachijō language|Hachijō]]
}}
}}


====Fukui====
== Theories ==
'''Fukui-ben''' is the dialect of [[Fukui prefecture]]. Speakers of Fukui-ben tend to talk in an up-and-down, sing-songy manner. It is considered a relatively rural dialect, yet it is not without its own rough, home-spun elegance.


=== Theory of Peripheral Distribution of Dialectal Forms ===
Examples of Fukui-ben include:
West geographically separated areas seem to have been influenced by Eastern traits. The phonology of Tokyo has influenced Western areas like San-in, Shikoku and Kyushu. Eastern morpho-syntactic and lexical characteristics are also found in the West. These instances cannot be explained as borrowing from the Kyoto speech as Tokyo did because between the regions Eastern traits are not contiguous and there is no evidence that regions had contact with Tokyo. One theory argues that the Eastern type speech was spread all over Japan at the beginning and later Western characteristics developed. The eastward spread was prevented through the geography of Japan that divides East and West that separated the cultures in each of them socio-culturally until this day.<ref name=":2" />
*''hoya hoya'', meaning ''hai'' (yes) or ''so desu yo'' (that is true)
*''mmmmm-do'', instead of ''ē-to'' (let's see, or well)
*''tsuru tsuru'', meaning "very," or "a lot" (as in, "tsuru tsuru ippai," or this glass is very full, almost overflowing)
*''jami jami'' describes poor reception on a TV. The usual term is ''suna arashi'' "sandstorm."
*''hayo shine-ma'' is a way of telling someone to "hurry up" (However, ''hayo shine-ma'' in Standard Japanese is a way telling someone to "die now")


[[Kunio Yanagita]] began his discussion for this theory in analysing the local variants for the word "snail". He discovered that the newest words for snail are used in the proximity of Kyoto, the old cultural center, and older forms are found in outer areas. Since the spreading of newer forms of words is slow, older forms are observable in the areas farthest away from the center, creating in effect a situation in which older forms are surrounded by newer forms. His theory in the case of Japan argues that the spread of newer forms happens in a circular pattern with its center being the cultural center. However, this theory can only be true if the characteristics located in peripheral areas are reflections of the historical ones.<ref>Shibatani (2008: 202) </ref>
===Kinki (Kansai)===
''See main article: [[Kansai-ben]]''


=== Origin of Japanese ===
'''Kansai-ben''' ([[:ja:関西弁|関西弁]]) is a dialect spoken in the [[Kansai]] region of [[Japan]]. Kansai-ben features a number of regional differences: to draw a broad generalization, Osaka-ben can be considered "brash," Kyoto-ben "lilting" and Kobe-ben "melodious."
While it is generally accepted that languages in Western Japan are older than the Tokyo dialect, there are new studies that challenge this assumption. For example, there exists a distinction between five word classes in the Osaka-Kyoto dialect while there is no such distinction made in other parts of Japan in the past.<ref>Shibatani (2008: 211—212)</ref> Tokugawa argues that it is unlikely that the Osaka-Kyoto speech would be first established and other systems of speech would not be affected by it. Therefore, he states that that the Osaka-Kyoto speech created the distinction afterwards. He concludes that either Western Japan accent or the Eastern variant "could be taken the parent of Central Japan accent."<ref>Tokugawa (1972: 314)</ref>


The Kyoto speech seems to rather have conserved its speech while peripheral dialects have made new innovations over time. However, peripheral dialects have features that are reminiscent of historical forms. The language of peripheral areas form linguistic areas of older forms that come from the central language while its phonetics are distinct from the central language. On the other hand, the central area has influenced other dialects by the propagation of innovative forms.<ref>Shibatani (2008: 214) </ref>
<!--Keep this section short and sweet!-->
=====Banshū=====
*[[Harima Province|Harima]]


===== Ise =====
== Dialect articles ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
*Shima
|+
=====Osaka=====
!Dialect
'''[[Osaka|Ōsaka]]-ben''' belongs to the Kansai family of dialects. The terminology is confusing, as people often use Kansai-ben interchangeably with Ōsaka-ben. Even those in the know may confuse true Ōsaka-ben with Kansai-ben.
!Classification
!Location
!Map
|-
|[[Akita dialect|Akita]]
|Northern [[Tōhoku dialect|Tōhoku]]
|[[Akita Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Akita.png|thumb|199x199px]]
|-
|[[Amami Japanese|Amami]]
|Japanese with a strong [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]] influence
|Amami Ōshima
|[[File:Amami Ōshima Relief Map, SRTM.jpg|thumb|175x175px]]
|-
|[[Awaji dialect|Awaji]]
|[[Kansai dialect|Kinki]]
|[[Awaji Island]]
|[[File:Location-of-Awaji-island-en.png|thumb|180x180px]]
|-
|[[Banshū dialect|Banshū]]
|Kinki
|Southwestern [[Hyōgo Prefecture]]
|[[File:Provinces of Japan-Harima.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Bingo dialect|Bingo]]
|Sanyō, [[Chūgoku dialect|Chūgoku]]
|Eastern [[Hiroshima Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Bingo region.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Gunma dialect|Gunma]]
|West [[Kantō dialect|Kantō]]
|[[Gunma Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Gunma.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Hakata dialect|Hakata]]
|[[Hichiku dialect|Hichiku, Kyūshū]]
|[[Fukuoka|Fukuoka City]]
|[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on Fukuoka city.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Hida dialect|Hida]]
|[[Tōkai–Tōsan dialect|Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan]]
|[[Hida (region)|Northern Gifu Prefecture]]
|[[File:Regions of Gifu Prefecture.svg|thumb|Hida Region = Brown-yellow area]]
|-
|[[Hokkaido dialects|Hokkaidō]]
|Hokkaidō
|[[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]]
|[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on 02edit Hokkaido prefecture.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Ibaraki dialect|Ibaraki]]
|East Kantō / Transitional Tōhoku
|[[Ibaraki Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Ibaraki.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Inshū dialect|Inshū]]
|East San'in, [[Chūgoku dialect|Chūgoku]]
|[[Inaba Province|Eastern Tottori Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Inshu.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Iyo dialect|Iyo]]
|[[Shikoku]]
|[[Ehime Prefecture]]
|[[File:Provinces of Japan-Iyo.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Kaga dialect|Kaga]]
|[[Hokuriku dialect|Hokuriku]]
|South and central [[Ishikawa Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Kaga dialect.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Kanagawa dialect|Kanagawa]]
|West Kantō
|[[Kanagawa Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Kanagawa.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Kesen dialect|Kesen]]
|Southern Tōhoku
|[[Kesen District, Iwate|Kesen District]], [[Iwate Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Kesen.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Mikawa dialect|Mikawa]]
|Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan
|Eastern [[Aichi Prefecture]]
|[[File:Provinces of Japan-Mikawa.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Mino dialect|Mino]]
|Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan
|Southern Gifu Prefecture
|[[File:Provinces of Japan-Mino.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Nagaoka dialect|Nagaoka]]
|Echigo, Tōkai-Tōsan
|Central [[Niigata Prefecture]]
|[[File:Nagaoka city.PNG|thumb|Green = Nagaoka City]]
|-
|[[Nagoya dialect|Nagoya]]
|Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan
|[[Nagoya]], Aichi Prefecture
|[[File:Nagoya in Aichi Prefecture Ja.svg|thumb|Purple area = Nagoya]]
|-
|[[Nairiku dialect|Nairiku]]
|Southern Tōhoku
|Eastern [[Yamagata Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Nairiku.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Nanbu dialect|Nambu]]
|Northern Tōhoku
|Eastern [[Aomori Prefecture]], northern and central Iwate Prefecture, [[Kazuno, Akita|Kazuno]] Region of Akita Prefecture
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Nanbu(2).png|thumb|Dark blue area = Nambu]]
|-
|[[Narada dialect|Narada]]
|Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka, Tōkai-Tōsan
|[[Hayakawa, Yamanashi|Narada]], [[Yamanashi Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Narada.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Ōita dialect|Ōita]]
|[[Hōnichi dialect|Honichi]], Kyūshū
|[[Ōita Prefecture]]
|[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on 44 Oita prefecture.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Okinawan Japanese]]
|Japanese with Ryukyuan influence.
|[[Okinawa Islands]]
|[[File:Okinawa Islands map.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Saga dialect|Saga]]
|Hichiku, Kyūshū
|[[Saga Prefecture]], [[Isahaya, Nagasaki|Isahaya]]
|[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on 41 Saga prefecture.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Sanuki dialect|Sanuki]]
|Shikoku
|[[Kagawa Prefecture]]
|[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on 37 Kagawa prefecture.svg|thumb]]
|-
|[[Nanbu dialect|Shimokita]]
|Northern Tōhoku
|North-Eastern [[Aomori Prefecture]], Shimokita peninsula
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Nanbu(2).png|thumb|Light blue area = Shimokita]]
|-
|[[Shizuoka dialect|Shizuoka]]
|Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka, Tōkai-Tōsan
|[[Shizuoka Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Shizuoka dialects.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Tochigi dialect|Tochigi]]
|East Kantō / Transitional Tōhoku
|[[Tochigi Prefecture]] (excluding [[Ashikaga, Tochigi|Ashikaga]])
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Tochigi.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Tokyo dialect|Tōkyō]]
|West Kantō
|[[Tokyo|Tōkyō]]
|[[File:Tokyo-Kanto definitions, 23 wards.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Tosa dialect|Tosa]]
|Shikoku
|Central and eastern [[Kōchi Prefecture]]
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Tosa.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Tsugaru dialect|Tsugaru]]
|Northern Tōhoku
|Western Aomori Prefecture
|[[File:Prefectures of Japan Tsugaru.png|thumb]]
|-
|[[Tsushima dialect|Tsushima]]
|Hichiku, Kyūshū
|[[Tsushima Island]], [[Nagasaki Prefecture]]
|[[File:Tsushima island en.png|thumb]]
|}


=====Kyoto=====
==See also==
{{Portal|Japan|Languages}}
'''[[Kyoto|Kyōto]]-ben''' is a soft and melodic Kansai variant. Traditional Kyoto dialect uses ''-taharu'' or ''-teharu'' (e.g. ''nani shitaharu no?'') in its sentence endings, though ''-yasu'' and ''-dosu'' are also common. See [[Kansai-ben]] for more. To end a verb in ''-taharu'' is also often considered to be more formal and is almost exclusively used by women. Ending a verb in ''-taaru'' is said to have the same effect but usable by men, though it is not very common.
* [[Yotsugana]], the different distinctions of historical *zi, *di, *zu, *du in different regions of Japan
* [[Okinawan Japanese]] and [[Amami Japanese]], variants of Standard Japanese influenced by the [[Ryukyuan languages]]
{{Clear}}


=====Kōbe=====
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
'''[[Kobe|Kōbe]]-ben''' is notable among Kansai dialects for conjugating the present progressive with the verb ending ''-ton'' or ''-tō.'' For example, while the phrase "What are you doing?" in standard (and casual) Japanese would be ''Nani shite iru?'' in Kōbe-ben it would be ''Nani shiton?'' or ''Nani shitō?'' Like Ōsaka-ben, Kōbe-ben uses the inflectional ねん (''nen'') to add emphasis, such that 何言っているんだよ (''Nani itteirundayo,'' "What (the heck) are you saying?") of standard Japanese could become 何ゆうとんねん (''Nani yūton'nen'') in Kōbe-ben.


=== Chūgoku===
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*[[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]]
* {{cite book |last=Karimata |first=Shigehisa |date=1999 |chapter=Onsei no men kara mita Ryūkyū shohōgen |editor=Gengogaku kenkyūkai
*[[Okayama Prefecture|Okayama]]
|title=Kotoba no kagaku 9 |pages=13–85 |location=Tokyo |publisher=Mugi shobō}}
*[[Yamaguchi Prefecture|Yamaguchi]]
* {{cite thesis
|last=Pellard
|first=Thomas
|date=2009
|title=Ōgami: Éléments de description d'un parler du Sud des Ryūkyū
|trans-title= Ōgami: Description of a Southern Ryukyuan language
|url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-00444150
|type=
|chapter=
|publisher=Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales
|docket=
|oclc=
|access-date=
|language=fr
}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Pellard
|first1=Thomas
|editor1-last=Heinrich
|editor1-first=Patrick
|editor2-last=Miyara
|editor2-first=Shinshō
|editor3-last=Shimoji
|editor3-first=Michinori
|title=Handbook of the Ryukyuan languages: history, structure, and use
|date=2015
|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton
|location=Berlin
|isbn=9781614511618
|pages=13–38
|chapter-url=https://hal.science/hal-01289257/file/Pellard_2015_The_linguistic_archeology_of_the_Ryukyu_Islands.pdf
|chapter=The Linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu Islands
|doi=10.1515/9781614511151
}}
* {{citation
| surname = de Boer | given = Elisabeth
| chapter = The classification of the Japonic languages | pages = 40–58
| title = The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages
| editor1-given = Martine | editor1-surname = Robbeets
| editor2-given = Alexander | editor2-surname = Savelyev
| publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2020 | isbn = 978-0-19-880462-8
| doi = 10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0005
| postscript = .
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shibatani |first1=Masayoshi |title=The languages of Japan |date=2008 |orig-date=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521369183 |page=197 |edition=Reprint}}
* Tokugawa, M. (1972): Towards a family tree for accent in Japanese dialects. In: Papers in Japanese Linguistics 1:2, pp. 301—320.
{{refend}}


== External links ==
===Shikoku===
{{Commons category}}
*[[Tokushima Prefecture|Awa]]
{{Wikibooks|Japanese|Dialects}}
*[[Kagawa Prefecture|Sanuki]]
{{Wiktionary|Category:Regional Japanese}}
*[[Ehime Prefecture|Iyo]]
*[http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/ National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics] {{in lang|en}}
====Kōchi Prefecture====
** [https://www2.ninjal.ac.jp/hogen/index.html 方言研究の部屋] ("Dialect research room") {{in lang|ja}}
'''Tosa-ben''' is used in [[Kochi Prefecture|Kōchi prefecture]].
** [https://mmsrv.ninjal.ac.jp/laj_map/ 日本言語地図] ("Linguistic Atlas of Japan") {{in lang|ja}}
** [https://mmsrv.ninjal.ac.jp/hogendanwa_siryo/en/index.html Datasets of "Texts of Tape-Recorded Conversations in Japanese Dialects"] {{in lang|en}}
** [https://mmsrv.ninjal.ac.jp/hogenrokuon_siryo/en/index.html Datasets of "Dialect Recording Series"] {{in lang|en}}
** [https://mmsrv.ninjal.ac.jp/hogendanwa_db/english/ Zenkoku Hougendanwa Database] {{in lang|en}}
** [https://www2.ninjal.ac.jp/past-publications/publication/catalogue/gaj_map/ 方言文法全国地図] ("Dialect grammar maps across Japan") {{in lang|ja}}
** [https://kikigengo.ninjal.ac.jp/en/ Endangered languages of Japan] {{in lang|en}}
* [http://dialectology-jp.org/ Dialectological Circle of Japan] {{in lang|ja}}
* [https://www2.sal.tohoku.ac.jp/hougen/ Center of the study of Dialectology. Tohoku University] {{in lang|ja}}
*[http://www.kansaiben.com/ Kansai Dialect Self-study Site for Japanese Language Learner] {{in lang|en}}
*[http://hougen.u-biq.org/ Japanese Dialects] {{in lang|en}}
*[http://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/dialect/ 全国方言辞典] ("All Japan Dialects Dictionary") {{in lang|ja}}
*[https://cotoacademy.com/guide-to-japanese-dialects-western-eastern-kyushu-regions/ Guide to Japanese Dialects]


{{Japonic languages}}
====Shiga Prefecture====
{{Japanese language}}
'''Gachakon''' (ガチャコン） is the local slang word for the Omitetsudo ([[:ja:近江鉄道]]), a local train. It is named such because it is said to go "gacha gacha gacha" as one rides it.
{{Language varieties}}
''-taharu'' is also used commonly in [[Shiga prefecture]]. One must not mistake, though, there are many differences in speaking patterns between Kyoto and the cities of [[Shiga Prefecture]].
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Dialects}}
== Kyūshū==
[[Category:Japanese dialects| ]]
=== Hōnichi ===
*Kitakyūshū
*[[Ōita Prefecture|Ōita]]
*[[Miyazaki Prefecture|Miyazaki]]
=== Miyazaki ===

Miyazaki is most noted for its intonation, which is very different from that of standard Japanese. At times it can even seem to employ the opposite (inverse) pattern of intonation.

Miyazaki dialect shares similarities with other Kyūshū dialects such as:

と(to) replacing the question particle か(ka)

Examples of Miyazaki dialect include;
*っけ (kke) instead of the stard か (ka) in a forming a question.
*テゲ (tege) as opposed to とても (totemo) very
*サミ (sami) as opposed to さむい (samui) cold
*こせん (kosen) as opposed to でしょう (deshou) -isn't it?

今日はテゲサミこせん (Kyō wa tege sami kosen): Today's really cold, isn't it?

*じゃがじゃが (jagajaga) That's right

The present continuous て(い)る (te(i)ru) being replaced by おと(oto)

何しょとっけ？(nani shoto kke?) What are you doing?

東京にいっちょると？ (Tokyo ni icchoruto?) You're going to Tokyo?

=== Hichiku ===
*Munakata
*[[Chikugo]]
*[[Iizuka, Fukuoka|Chikuho]]
*[[Saga Prefecture|Saga]]
*[[Nagasaki Prefecture|Nagasaki]]
'''Tsushima-ben''' ([[Kanji]] : [[:ja:対馬方言|対馬の方言]] or 対馬弁) is a Kyūshū dialect spoken within the [[Tsushima Subprefecture|Tsushima]] [[Subprefectures of Japan|Subprefecture]] of [[Nagasaki Prefecture]]. Tsushima dialect may be unintelligible to speakers of standard Japanese but can be understood to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū. Due to historical reasons and the geographical proximity of the [[Korean Peninsula]], Tsushima-ben, reborrowed many words from [[Korean language|Korean]]. Hence, it is a dialect which sometimes incorporates Korean derived words and expressions.

:: Examples of [[loanwords]] include :
::*''Yanban'' ヤンバン instead of ''ōjinushi'' 大地主([[Yangban]], Korean gentry)
::*''Chingu'' チング・チングィ instead of ''tomodachi'' 親友 (Close friend)
::*''Tōmankatta'' トーマンカッタ instead of ''yonige'' 夜逃げ
::*''Hangachi'' ハンガチ instead of ''hitotsu'' ひとつ (one person)
::*''Chokoman'' チョコマン instead of ''chīsai'' 小さい (Small)
::* ''Kōkoimo'' コーコイモ instead of ''satsumaimo'' サツマイモ (Sweet Potato)
::* ''Bacchi'' バッチ instead of ''zubon'' ズボン (Pants) ...

*[[Kumamoto Prefecture|Kumamoto]]
====Hakata====
'''Hakata-ben''' is the dialect of the [[Hakata-ku, Fukuoka|Hakata]] [[wards of Japan|ward]] of [[Fukuoka City]]. Throughout Japan, Hakata-ben is famous, amongst many other idiosyncrasies, for its use of ''-to?'' as a question, e.g., "What are you doing?", realized in Standard Japanese as ''nani o shite iru no?'', is ''nanba shiyotto?'' or ''nan shitōtō'' in Hakata. Hakata-ben is also being welcomed more often in Fukuoka in areas like television interviews, where standard Japanese is typically expected.

Examples of Hakata-ben include:
*''asoban'' instead of ''asobou;'' "let's have fun"
*''bari'' instead of ''totemo'' "very"
*''batten'' instead of ''demo'', ''kedo'' "but"
*''chikappai'' instead of ''monosugoku'' "extremely/best/very"
*''da ken'' instead of ''da kara'' "therefore"
*''shitōtchan'' instead of ''shiterunda'' "I'm doing it"
*''~shitōkiyo'' instead of ''shite kinasai'' "please do ~"; used with children
*''sogyan kanji'' instead of ''sonna kanji'' "Like that."
*''wakaran bai'' instead of ''wakaranai yo'' "I don't understand / don't get it."
*''umaka/samuka/atsuka'' instead of ''umai/samui/atsui'' "tasty/cold/hot"
*''yokarōmon'' instead of ''ii deshō'' "good, don't you think?"
*''yoka yo'' instead of ''ii yo'' "It's fine."
*''tsuya-tukeru'' instead of ''kakko-tsukeru'' "to act cool"

Most other dialects in [[Kyūshū]] share much in common with Hakata-ben, but the dialect of [[Kagoshima]] is strikingly different from other Kyūshū dialects.

=== Satsugū ===
====Kagoshima====
'''Satsuma-ben''', the dialect of [[Kagoshima prefecture]], is often called "unintelligible" because of distinct conjugations of words and significantly different vocabulary. As the farthest place from Kyoto, it is likely that divergences in dialect were accumulated in Satsuma making it sound relatively distinct.
There are several different dialect regions within Kagoshima prefecture.

There is a story, told both inside and outside Kagoshima, that Kagoshima dialect was consciously and deliberately developed as a way of protecting against spies from other parts of Japan during the [[Edo period]] when many samurai noblemen lived within Kagoshima and conducted important business within it.

==Ryūkyū==

Specialists agree that [[Ryūkyū Islands]] (the islands of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] and some of the islands of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]]) is not a dialect of the Japanese language; rather, it comprises a separate branch of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic family]]. In this view, Japonic is split into two groups: Japanese, spoken throughout the Japanese islands, and [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]], found in the Ryūkyū Islands, south of [[Kyūshū]]. Even so, there is great diversity within Japanese, and even greater within Ryukyuan, and many native speakers from one area of Japan can find the speech of another area virtually unintelligible. There has also developed in the Ryūkyūs a dialect which is close to Standard Japanese, but which is influenced by Ryukyuan languages. For example, "deeji" may be said sometimes instead of "taihen", or "haisai" instead of "konnichiwa".

However, it should be noted that above described Japanese dialects have all gone through the process of standardization since the introduction of national education and in its old form are more or less can be described as a language just like Ryūkyū language. However, similar to Ryūkyū language, these old speech are being lost and are barely spoken by old people.

== References ==
{{Wikibooks|Japanese/Hougen}}
*{{ja icon}} [http://www.lares.dti.ne.jp/~denjin/text/lesson06.html 関西弁講座] (in Japanese)
*[http://www.jonwilks.com/brief-guide-to-kyushu-ben/ A Brief Guide to Kyūshū-Ben]

[[Category:Dialects of Japan|Dialects of Japan]]

[[ja:日本語の方言]]

Latest revision as of 02:41, 8 December 2024

Japanese
Geographic
distribution		Japan
Linguistic classificationJaponic
  • Japanese
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottologjapa1256  (Japanesic)
nucl1643
Map of Japanese dialects (north of the heavy grey line)

The dialects (方言, hōgen) of the Japanese language fall into two primary clades, Eastern (including modern capital Tokyo) and Western (including old capital Kyoto), with the dialects of Kyushu and Hachijō Island often distinguished as additional branches, the latter perhaps the most divergent of all.[1] The Ryukyuan languages of Okinawa Prefecture and the southern islands of Kagoshima Prefecture form a separate branch of the Japonic family, and are not Japanese dialects, although they are sometimes referred to as such.

The setting of Japan with its numerous islands and mountains has the ideal setting for developing many dialects.[2]

History

[edit]

Regional variants of Japanese have been confirmed since the Old Japanese era. The Man'yōshū, the oldest existing collection of Japanese poetry, includes poems written in dialects of the capital (Nara) and eastern Japan, but other dialects were not recorded. The compiler included azuma uta ("eastern songs") that show that eastern dialect traits were distinct from the western dialect of Nara.[2] It is not clear if the capital of Nara entertained the idea of a standard dialect, however, they had an understanding which dialect should be regarded as the standard one, the dialect of the capital.[2]

The recorded features of eastern dialects were rarely inherited by modern dialects, except for a few language islands such as Hachijo Island. In the Early Middle Japanese era, there were only vague records such as "rural dialects are crude". However, since the Late Middle Japanese era, features of regional dialects had been recorded in some books, for example Arte da Lingoa de Iapam, and the recorded features were fairly similar to modern dialects. In these works, recorded by the Christian missionaries in Japan, they regard the true colloquial Japanese as the one used by the court nobles in Kyōto. Other indications for the Kyōto dialect to be considered the standard dialect at that time are glossaries of local dialects that list the Kyōto equivalent for local expressions.[2]

The variety of Japanese dialects developed markedly during the Early Modern Japanese era (Edo period) because many feudal lords restricted the movement of people to and from other fiefs. Some isoglosses agree with old borders of han, especially in Tohoku and Kyushu. Nevertheless, even with the political capital being moved to Edo (i.e. Tōkyō) the status of the Kyōto dialect was not threatened immediately as it was still the cultural and economic center that dominated Japan. This dominance waned as Edo began to assert more political and economic force and made investments in its cultural development. At the end of the eighteen century the Japanese that was spoken in Edo was regarded as standard as all glossaries from this period use the Edo dialect for local expressions.[3]

In the Meiji period the Tōkyō dialect was assuming the role of a standard dialect that was used between different regions to communicate with each other. The Meiji government set policies in place to spread the concept of 標準語 (hyōjun-go, "standard language"). One of the main goals was to be an equal to the western world and the unification of the language was a part to achieve this. For the hyōjun-go the speech of the Tōkyō middle class served as a model. The Ministry of Education at this time made text books in the new standard language and fostered an inferiority complex in the minds of those who spoke in dialects besides the Tōkyō dialect. One example is a student who was forced to wear a "dialect tag" around the neck.[3] From the 1940s to the 1960s, the period of Shōwa nationalism and the post-war economic miracle, the push for the replacement of regional varieties with Standard Japanese reached its peak.

After World War II, the concept of 共通語 (Kyōtsū-go, "common language") was introduced that differed from the concept of the standard language in so far that it is heavily influenced by the standard language but it retains dialectical traits. So the spoken language can differ from region to region but it is still mutually intelligible.[4]

Now Standard Japanese has spread throughout the nation, and traditional regional varieties are declining because of education, television, expansion of traffic, urban concentration etc. However, regional varieties have not been completely replaced with Standard Japanese. The spread of Standard Japanese means the regional varieties are now valued as "nostalgic", "heart-warming" and markers of "precious local identity", and many speakers of regional dialects have gradually overcome their sense of inferiority regarding their natural way of speaking. The contact between regional varieties and Standard Japanese creates new regional speech forms among young people, such as Okinawan Japanese.[5][6][7]

Mutual intelligibility

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In terms of mutual intelligibility, a survey in 1967 found the four most unintelligible dialects (excluding Ryūkyūan languages and Tohoku dialects) to students from Greater Tokyo are the Kiso dialect (in the deep mountains of Nagano Prefecture), the Himi dialect (in Toyama Prefecture), the Kagoshima dialect and the Maniwa dialect (in the mountains of Okayama Prefecture).[8] The survey is based on recordings of 12- to 20- second long, of 135 to 244 phonemes, which 42 students listened and translated word-by-word. The listeners were all Keio University students who grew up in the Kanto region.[8]

Intelligibility to students from Tokyo and Kanto region (Date: 1967)[8]
Dialect Osaka City Kyoto City Tatsuta, Aichi Kiso, Nagano Himi, Toyama Maniwa, Okayama Ōgata, Kōchi Kanagi, Shimane Kumamoto City Kagoshima City
Percentage 26.4% 67.1% 44.5% 13.3% 4.1% 24.7% 45.5% 24.8% 38.6% 17.6%

Classification

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Eastern Japanese dialects are blue, Western Japanese tan. Green dialects have both Eastern and Western features. Kyushu dialects are orange; southern Kyushu is quite distinctive.[image reference needed]
  Kyoto type (tone+downstep)
  Tokyo type (downstep)
Map of Japanese pitch-accent types. The divide between Kyoto and Tokyo types is used as the Eastern–Western Japanese boundary in the main map.[image reference needed]

There are several generally similar approaches to classifying Japanese dialects. Misao Tōjō classified mainland Japanese dialects into three groups: Eastern, Western and Kyūshū dialects. Mitsuo Okumura classified Kyushu dialects as a subclass of Western Japanese. These theories are mainly based on grammatical differences between east and west, but Haruhiko Kindaichi classified mainland Japanese into concentric circular three groups: inside (Kansai, Shikoku, etc.), middle (Western Kantō, Chūbu, Chūgoku, etc.) and outside (Eastern Kantō, Tōhoku, Izumo, Kyushu, Hachijō, etc.) based on systems of accent, phoneme and conjugation.

Eastern and Western Japanese

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A primary distinction exists between Eastern and Western Japanese. This is a long-standing divide that occurs in both language and culture.[9] Tokugawa points out the distinct eating habits, shapes of tools and utensils. One example is the kind of fish eaten in both areas. While the Eastern region eats more salmon, the West consumes more seabream.[10][11]

The map in the box at the top of this page divides the two along phonological lines. West of the dividing line, the more complex Kansai-type pitch accent is found; east of the line, the simpler Tokyo-type accent is found, though Tokyo-type accents also occur further west, on the other side of Kansai. However, this isogloss largely corresponds to several grammatical distinctions as well: West of the pitch-accent isogloss:[12]

  • The perfective form of -u verbs such as harau 'to pay' is harōta (or minority haruta), showing u-onbin, rather than Eastern (and Standard) haratta
    • The perfective form of -su verbs such as otosu 'to drop' is also otoita in Western Japanese (largely apart from Kansai dialect) vs. otoshita in Eastern
  • The imperative of -ru (ichidan) verbs such as miru 'to look' is miyo or mii rather than Eastern miro (or minority mire, though Kyushu dialect also uses miro or mire)
  • The adverbial form of -i adjectival verbs such as hiroi 'wide' is hirō (or minority hirū), showing u-onbin, for example hirōnaru (to become wide), rather than Eastern hiroku, for example hirokunaru (to become wide)
  • The negative form of verbs is -nu or -n rather than -nai or -nee, and uses a different verb stem; thus suru 'to do' is senu or sen rather than shinai or shinee (apart from Sado Island, which uses shinai)
    Copula isoglosses. The blue–orange da/ja divide corresponds to the pitch-accent divide apart from Gifu and Sado.
    (blue: da, red: ja, yellow: ya; orange and purple: iconically for red+yellow and red+blue; white: all three.)
  • The copula is da in Eastern and ja or ya in Western Japanese, though Sado as well as some dialects further west such as San'in use da [see map at right]
  • The verb iru 'to exist' in Eastern and oru in Western, though Wakayama dialect uses aru and some Kansai and Fukui subdialects use both

While these grammatical isoglosses are close to the pitch-accent line given in the map, they do not follow it exactly. Apart from Sado Island, which has Eastern shinai and da, all of the Western features are found west of the pitch-accent line, though a few Eastern features may crop up again further west (da in San'in, miro in Kyushu). East of the line, however, there is a zone of intermediate dialects which have a mixture of Eastern and Western features. Echigo dialect has harōta, though not miyo, and about half of it has hirōnaru as well. In Gifu, all Western features are found apart from pitch accent and harōta; Aichi has miyo and sen, and in the west (Nagoya dialect) hirōnaru as well: These features are substantial enough that Toshio Tsuzuku classifies Gifu–Aichi dialect as Western Japanese. Western Shizuoka (Enshū dialect) has miyo as its single Western Japanese feature.[12]

The Western Japanese Kansai dialect was the prestige dialect when Kyoto was the capital, and Western forms are found in literary language as well as in honorific expressions of modern Tokyo dialect (and therefore Standard Japanese), such as adverbial ohayō gozaimasu (not *ohayaku), the humble existential verb oru, and the polite negative -masen (not *-mashinai),[12] which uses the Kyoto-style negative ending -n. Because the imperial court, which put emphasis on correct polite speech, was located in Kyoto for a long time, there was greater development of honorific speech forms in Kyoto, which were borrowed into Tokyo speech.[13] Another feature that the modern Tokyo dialect shares with Kyoto is the preservation of the vowel sequences /ai/, /oi/, and /ui/: in Eastern dialects, these tend to undergo coalescence and be replaced by [eː], [eː] and [iː] respectively.[14] Examples of words that originated in Kyoto and were adopted by Tokyo are yaru ("to give"), kaminari ("thunder") and asatte ("two days from today").[15]

Kyushu Japanese

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Kyushu dialects are classified into three groups, Hichiku dialect, Hōnichi dialect and Satsugu (Kagoshima) dialect, and have several distinctive features:

  • as noted above, Eastern-style imperatives miro ~ mire rather than Western Japanese miyo
  • ka-adjectives in Hichiku and Satsugu rather than Western and Eastern i-adjectives, as in samuka for samui 'cold', kuyaka for minikui 'ugly' and nukka for atsui 'hot'
  • the nominalization and question particle to except for Kitakyushu and Oita, versus Western and Eastern no, as in tottō to? for totte iru no? 'is this taken?' and iku to tai or ikuttai for iku no yo 'I'll go'
  • the directional particle sai (Standard e and ni), though Eastern Tohoku dialect use a similar particle sa
  • the emphatic sentence-final particles tai and bai in Hichiku and Satsugu (Standard yo)
  • a concessive particle batten for dakedo 'but, however' in Hichiku and Satsugu, though Eastern Tohoku Aomori dialect has a similar particle batte
  • /e/ is pronounced [je] and palatalizes s, z, t, d, as in mite [mitʃe] and sode [sodʒe], though this is a conservative (Late Middle Japanese) pronunciation found with s, z (sensei [ʃenʃei]) in scattered areas throughout Japan like the Umpaku dialect.
  • as some subdialects in Shikoku and Chugoku, but generally not elsewhere, the accusative particle o resyllabifies a noun: honno or honnu for hon-o 'book', kakyū for kaki-o 'persimmon'.
  • /r/ is often dropped, for koi 'this' versus Western and Eastern Japanese kore
  • vowel reduction is frequent especially in Satsugu and Gotō Islands, as in in for inu 'dog' and kuQ for kubi 'neck'
  • Kyushu dialects share some lexical items with Ryukyuan languages, some of which appear to be innovations.[16] Some scholars have proposed that Kyushu dialects and Ryukyuan languages are the same language group within the Japonic family.[17]

Much of Kyushu either lacks pitch accent or has its own, distinctive accent. Kagoshima dialect is so distinctive that some have classified it as a fourth branch of Japanese, alongside Eastern, Western, and the rest of Kyushu.

Hachijō Japanese

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Main article: Hachijō language

A small group of dialects spoken in Hachijō-jima and Aogashima, islands south of Tokyo, as well as the Daitō Islands east of Okinawa. Hachijō dialect is quite divergent and sometimes thought to be a primary branch of Japanese. It retains an abundance of inherited ancient Eastern Japanese features.

Cladogram

[edit]

The relationships between the dialects are approximated in the following cladogram:[18]

Japanese 

Theories

[edit]

Theory of Peripheral Distribution of Dialectal Forms

[edit]

West geographically separated areas seem to have been influenced by Eastern traits. The phonology of Tokyo has influenced Western areas like San-in, Shikoku and Kyushu. Eastern morpho-syntactic and lexical characteristics are also found in the West. These instances cannot be explained as borrowing from the Kyoto speech as Tokyo did because between the regions Eastern traits are not contiguous and there is no evidence that regions had contact with Tokyo. One theory argues that the Eastern type speech was spread all over Japan at the beginning and later Western characteristics developed. The eastward spread was prevented through the geography of Japan that divides East and West that separated the cultures in each of them socio-culturally until this day.[13]

Kunio Yanagita began his discussion for this theory in analysing the local variants for the word "snail". He discovered that the newest words for snail are used in the proximity of Kyoto, the old cultural center, and older forms are found in outer areas. Since the spreading of newer forms of words is slow, older forms are observable in the areas farthest away from the center, creating in effect a situation in which older forms are surrounded by newer forms. His theory in the case of Japan argues that the spread of newer forms happens in a circular pattern with its center being the cultural center. However, this theory can only be true if the characteristics located in peripheral areas are reflections of the historical ones.[19]

Origin of Japanese

[edit]

While it is generally accepted that languages in Western Japan are older than the Tokyo dialect, there are new studies that challenge this assumption. For example, there exists a distinction between five word classes in the Osaka-Kyoto dialect while there is no such distinction made in other parts of Japan in the past.[20] Tokugawa argues that it is unlikely that the Osaka-Kyoto speech would be first established and other systems of speech would not be affected by it. Therefore, he states that that the Osaka-Kyoto speech created the distinction afterwards. He concludes that either Western Japan accent or the Eastern variant "could be taken the parent of Central Japan accent."[21]

The Kyoto speech seems to rather have conserved its speech while peripheral dialects have made new innovations over time. However, peripheral dialects have features that are reminiscent of historical forms. The language of peripheral areas form linguistic areas of older forms that come from the central language while its phonetics are distinct from the central language. On the other hand, the central area has influenced other dialects by the propagation of innovative forms.[22]

Dialect articles

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Dialect Classification Location Map
Akita Northern Tōhoku Akita Prefecture
Amami Japanese with a strong Ryukyuan influence Amami Ōshima
Awaji Kinki Awaji Island
Banshū Kinki Southwestern Hyōgo Prefecture
Bingo Sanyō, Chūgoku Eastern Hiroshima Prefecture
Gunma West Kantō Gunma Prefecture
Hakata Hichiku, Kyūshū Fukuoka City
Hida Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan Northern Gifu Prefecture
Hida Region = Brown-yellow area
Hokkaidō Hokkaidō Hokkaidō
Ibaraki East Kantō / Transitional Tōhoku Ibaraki Prefecture
Inshū East San'in, Chūgoku Eastern Tottori Prefecture
Iyo Shikoku Ehime Prefecture
Kaga Hokuriku South and central Ishikawa Prefecture
Kanagawa West Kantō Kanagawa Prefecture
Kesen Southern Tōhoku Kesen District, Iwate Prefecture
Mikawa Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan Eastern Aichi Prefecture
Mino Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan Southern Gifu Prefecture
Nagaoka Echigo, Tōkai-Tōsan Central Niigata Prefecture
Green = Nagaoka City
Nagoya Gifu-Aichi, Tōkai-Tōsan Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture
Purple area = Nagoya
Nairiku Southern Tōhoku Eastern Yamagata Prefecture
Nambu Northern Tōhoku Eastern Aomori Prefecture, northern and central Iwate Prefecture, Kazuno Region of Akita Prefecture
Dark blue area = Nambu
Narada Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka, Tōkai-Tōsan Narada, Yamanashi Prefecture
Ōita Honichi, Kyūshū Ōita Prefecture
Okinawan Japanese Japanese with Ryukyuan influence. Okinawa Islands
Saga Hichiku, Kyūshū Saga Prefecture, Isahaya
Sanuki Shikoku Kagawa Prefecture
Shimokita Northern Tōhoku North-Eastern Aomori Prefecture, Shimokita peninsula
Light blue area = Shimokita
Shizuoka Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka, Tōkai-Tōsan Shizuoka Prefecture
Tochigi East Kantō / Transitional Tōhoku Tochigi Prefecture (excluding Ashikaga)
Tōkyō West Kantō Tōkyō
Tosa Shikoku Central and eastern Kōchi Prefecture
Tsugaru Northern Tōhoku Western Aomori Prefecture
Tsushima Hichiku, Kyūshū Tsushima Island, Nagasaki Prefecture

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Shibatani (2008:196)
  2. ^ a b c d Shibatani (2008:185)
  3. ^ a b Shibatani (2008:186)
  4. ^ Shibatani (2008:187)
  5. ^ Satoh Kazuyuki (佐藤和之); Yoneda Masato (米田正人) (1999). Dōnaru Nihon no Kotoba, Hōgen to Kyōtsūgo no Yukue (in Japanese). Tōkyō: The Taishūkan Shoten (大修館書店). ISBN 978-4-469-21244-0.
  6. ^ Anderson, Mark (2019). "Studies of Ryukyu-substrate Japanese". In Patrick Heinrich; Yumiko Ohara (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge. pp. 441–457.
  7. ^ Clarke, Hugh (2009). "Language". In Sugimoto, Yoshio (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Japanese Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–75. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521880473. ISBN 9781139002455. P. 65: "[...] over the past decade or so we have seen the emergence of a new lingua franca for the whole prefecture. Nicknamed Uchinaa Yamatuguchi (Okinawan Japanese) this new dialect incorporates features of Ryukyuan phonology, grammar and lexicon into modern Japanese, resulting in a means of communication which can be more or less understood anywhere in Japan, but clearly marks anyone speaking it as an Okinawan."
  8. ^ a b c Yamagiwa, Joseph K. (1967). "On Dialect Intelligibility in Japan". Anthropological Linguistics. 9 (1): 4, 5, 18. JSTOR 30029037.
  9. ^ See also Ainu language; the extent of Ainu placenames approaches the isogloss.
  10. ^ Tokugawa (1981): Kotoba - nishi to higashi. Nihongo no sekai 8. Tokyo: Chuokoronsha.
  11. ^ Shibatani (2008:198–199)
  12. ^ a b c Shibatani (2008:197)
  13. ^ a b Shibatani (2008: 200)
  14. ^ Shibatani (2008: 199)
  15. ^ Shibatani (2008: 200)
  16. ^ de Boer (2020), p. 55.
  17. ^ de Boer (2020), p. 52.
  18. ^ Pellard (2009) and Karimata (1999).
  19. ^ Shibatani (2008: 202)
  20. ^ Shibatani (2008: 211—212)
  21. ^ Tokugawa (1972: 314)
  22. ^ Shibatani (2008: 214)

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Karimata, Shigehisa (1999). "Onsei no men kara mita Ryūkyū shohōgen". In Gengogaku kenkyūkai (ed.). Kotoba no kagaku 9. Tokyo: Mugi shobō. pp. 13–85.
  • Pellard, Thomas (2009). Ōgami: Éléments de description d'un parler du Sud des Ryūkyū [Ōgami: Description of a Southern Ryukyuan language] (Thesis) (in French). Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales.
  • Pellard, Thomas (2015). "The Linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu Islands" (PDF). In Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinshō; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.). Handbook of the Ryukyuan languages: history, structure, and use. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 13–38. doi:10.1515/9781614511151. ISBN 9781614511618.
  • de Boer, Elisabeth (2020), "The classification of the Japonic languages", in Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (eds.), The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages, Oxford University Press, pp. 40–58, doi:10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0005, ISBN 978-0-19-880462-8.
  • Shibatani, Masayoshi (2008) [1990]. The languages of Japan (Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780521369183.
  • Tokugawa, M. (1972): Towards a family tree for accent in Japanese dialects. In: Papers in Japanese Linguistics 1:2, pp. 301—320.
[edit]
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