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{{short description|A Hindu weavers caste}}
{{Short description|Hindu caste of Kaikolar warriors and textile merchants}}
{{Copyedit|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox caste
{{infobox caste
| caste_name = Sengunthar
| caste_name = Sengunthar
| image =
| image = Veerabahu navaveerargal painting.jpg
| caption = [[Virabahu]] and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord [[Kartikeya]] on the wall of [[Chidambaram temple]]
| caption =
|kula_daivat=->|Community God = [[Murugan]]<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7YwDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkoolars+consider+murugan+their+caste+god&pg=PA113|title=Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India |date=1994|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520084797 |pages=113 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47}}</ref>
|kula_daivat = [[Kartikeya]]<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7YwDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkoolars+consider+murugan+their+caste+god&pg=PA113|title=Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India |date=1994|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520084797 |pages=113 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ramaswamy 1985 47">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
| classification =
| religions = [[Hinduism]]
| religions = [[Hinduism]]
| languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| populated_states = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| populated_states = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Pondicherry]], [[Sri Lanka]]
| classification = [[Tamil people]]<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkola+senapati |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |accessdate=4 December 2011}}</ref>}}
|related=[[Kaikala|Kaikalas of Andhra]]|notable_members=[[List of Sengunthars]]|kula_devi=[[Kamakshi Amman Temple|Kamakshi Amman]],<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985 47">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref> [[Angala Devi|Angalamman Parameswari]]|feudal_title=[[Mudaliar]], Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan}}
'''Sengunthar''' ({{IPA-tt|sɛŋkʊnʈɻ|}}), also known as the '''Kaikolar''' and '''Senguntha [[Mudaliar]]''' is a caste commonly found in the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] and the neighboring country [[Sri Lanka]]. In [[Andhra Pradesh]], they are known as [[Kaikalas|Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu]], who consider the early Chola emperor [[Karikala|Karikala Chola]] as their hero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Commission for Backward Classes |url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvYBtdZSrP4uO+ploAhiJHMALWmHIwbzS8Il37YLL3Fb0FHfWDHzP7c |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=www.ncbc.nic.in}}</ref> They were [[Warrior]]s of [[Chola]]s and Traditionally [[Textile]] [[Merchant]]s and [[Silk]] [[Weaving|Weavers]] by occupation {{sfn|Mines|1984|p=11}} They were part of the [[Chola military|Chola army]] as Kaikola regiment and were dominant during the rule of [[Imperial Cholas]], holding commander and minister positions in the court.<ref name=":0">Martial races of undivided India by Vidya Prakash Tyagi 2009 Page 278 https://www.google.com/books?id=vRwS6FmS2g0C</ref> [[Ottakoothar]], 12th century court poet and minister of [[Cholas]] under [[Vikrama Chola]], [[Kulothunga II|Kulothunga Chola II]], [[Rajaraja II|Raja Raja Chola II]] reign belong to this community. In the olden days in India, the Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title [[Mudaliar]] for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book |last=David |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology) |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977) |year=1977 |isbn=9027979596 |pages=188}}</ref> In early thirteenth century, after the fall of [[Chola Empire|Chola empire]] large number of Kaikolars migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]] and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession as they sworn to be soldiers only for Chola emperors. At present, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. Majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a [[patrilineal]] lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.

'''Sengunthar''' ({{IPA-tt|sɛŋkʊnʈɻ|}}), also known as the '''Kaikolar''' and '''Senguntha Mudaliyar''', is a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] caste commonly found in the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] and also in some other parts of South India. They are traditionally [[Weaving|weavers]] by occupation and [[warrior]]s by ancient heritage.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ&q=warrior+merchants+weavers|title=The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-26714-4|pages=11|language=en}}</ref> They are sub divided into numerous clans based on a [[patrilineal]] system called Koottam or Kulam.


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
The ancient occupational name of ''Kaikkolar'' comes from the words ''kai'' (hand) and ''kol'' (a shuttle used in looms). The appended ''-ar'' means ''people''.<ref name="Mines2">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref> ''Kaikkolar'' also means men with stronger arms.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |publisher=New Age International |year=1999 |isbn=978-8-12241-198-0 |page=491}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana}}</ref>{{full|date=February 2018}}
The ancient occupational name of ''Kaikkolar'' comes from the words ''kai'' (hand) and ''kol'' (a shuttle used in looms). The appended ''-ar'' means ''people''.<ref name="Mines2">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref> ''Kaikkolar'' also means men with stronger arms.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |publisher=New Age International |year=1999 |isbn=978-8-12241-198-0 |page=491}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0pTXAAAAMAAJ|title=Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana|first1=Sudarsen|last1=V|first2=G. Prakash|last2=Reddy|first3=Suryanarayana|last3=M|year=1987 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|page=97|isbn=9788170184355 }}</ref>


''Sengunthar'' means ''red spear people'', which has the community’s connection to the Lord [[Murugan]], who is known as a red god. Legend has it that there were nine commanders called ''Navaveerargal'' in Murugan’s army and Sengunthar descended from them<ref name="Mines2"/>.
''Sengunthar'' means ''red spear people'', which has the community's connection to the Lord [[Murugan]], who is known as a red god. Legend has it that there were nine commanders called ''Navaveerargal'' in Murugan's army and Sengunthars descended from them.<ref name="Mines2"/>


In ancient times they were also called as ''Kaarugar'' (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), ''Senguntha padaiyar'' (soldiers), ''Senaithalaivar'' (army commander) and ''Kaikolar'' (Weaver)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?lr=&cd=1&id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&dq=kaikkolar+diwakaram&q=+diwakaram#search_anchor |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}</ref>.
In ancient times they were also called as ''Kaarugar'' (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), ''Senguntha padaiyar'' (soldiers), ''Senaithalaivar'' (army commander) and ''Kaikolar'' (Weaver).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=+diwakaram |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>


Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA188&dq=Senkuntar+in+India+were+warriors+and+were+given+the+title+Mutaliyar+for+their+bravery&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtu7j7w73qAhX_8HMBHTaiC9gQ6AEIKTAA#v=snippet&q=Senkuntar%20India%20warriors%20given%20title%20Mutaliyar%20their%20bravery&f=false |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)|first=Kenneth|last=David|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977)|year=1977|pages=188|isbn=9027979596}}</ref>. The twelfth century poet [[Ottakoothar]]’s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as Mudaliars during the [[Later Chola]] period<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML8yAAAAMAAJ&q=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்&dq=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjfrPyu1bXqAhXVVc0KHdxrAs0Q6AEIJzAA|title=Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum|trans-title=Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet|first=Civa|last= Kan̲n̲iyappan̲|publisher= Mullai Nilaiyam|year=1996|pages=51|language=tamil|quote=சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது}}</ref>.
Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)|first=Kenneth|last=David|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977)|year=1977|pages=188|isbn=9027979596}}</ref> The twelfth century Chola emperor's court poet and minister [[Ottakoothar]]’s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as [[Mudaliar]]s during the [[Later Chola|Imperial Chola]] period.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML8yAAAAMAAJ&q=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்|title=Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum|trans-title=Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet|first=Civa|last= Kan̲n̲iyappan̲|publisher= Mullai Nilaiyam|year=1996|pages=51|language=ta|quote=சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது}}</ref>


''Mudali'' means ''first'', suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFF9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236|title=The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India|last=Barnett|first=Marguerite Ross|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-40086-718-9|page=236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=229}}</ref> They also use the title ''Nayanar'' after their names<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaW8CgAAQBAJ&q=kaikolar |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |first=Markus |last=Vink |publisher=Brill |year=2005 |isbn=9789004272620|page=218}}</ref>.
''Mudali'' means ''first'', suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFF9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236|title=The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India|last=Barnett|first=Marguerite Ross|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-40086-718-9|page=236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=229}}</ref> They had also used the title ''Nayanar'' after their names.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaW8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |first=Markus |last=Vink |publisher=Brill |year=2005 |isbn=9789004272620|page=218}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
===Myth of origin===
===Origin===
[[Shiva]] was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [[Parvati]], was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [[Veerabaahu|Virabahu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=231}}</ref> Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with [[Subrahmanya]] at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Cholan . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines2"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan |first=Rajeshwari |last=Ghose|title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation|pages=78–82 |year=1996 |isbn=9788120813915 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>
[[Shiva]] was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [[Parvati]], was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [[Veerabaahu|Virabahu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=231}}</ref> Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with [[Subrahmanya]] at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Chola . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines2"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan |first=Rajeshwari |last=Ghose|title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation|pages=78–82 |year=1996 |isbn=9788120813915 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>


===Chola period===
===Chola period===
The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in ''Adhi Diwakaram'', a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=15 |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |year=1985}}</ref>
The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in ''Adhi Diwakaram'', a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=15 |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review}}</ref>

''Cholan Poorva Pattayam'', a copper plate inception, says about the [[Karikala Chola]], the conquest of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars got the title called Samaya Senapati (meaning commander or head).<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001946468201900103|title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review.|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |year=1982|volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=47–62|doi=10.1177/001946468201900103}}</ref>


Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [[Chola dynasty]], the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole 500 trading group]] during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet [[Ottakoothar]] glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.<ref name="sinopoli">{{cite book |title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650 |first=Carla M. |last=Sinopoli |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781139440745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188 |page=188}}</ref>
Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [[Chola dynasty]], the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole 500 trading group]] during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet [[Ottakoothar]] glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.<ref name="sinopoli">{{cite book |title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650 |first=Carla M. |last=Sinopoli |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781139440745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188 |page=188}}</ref>


They were militarized during the medieval [[Chola]] period, when some of them held the title ''Brahmadaraya'' or ''Brahmamarayan'', which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift|author=S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|publisher=Harman Pub. House |year=2000|page=114}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2019}}
They were militarized during the [[Imperial Cholas|Imperial Chola]] period, when some of them held the title ''Brahmadaraya'' or ''Brahmmarayan'', which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "''Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan''", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift|author=S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|publisher=Harman Pub. House |year=2000|page=114}}</ref> Some of the well known Kaikola Battalions in [[Chola army]] were:

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Virachozha-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Danatonga-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Parantaka-terinia-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Muthuvalpetra-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Samarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Adityapanma-terinda-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Karikala-chozha-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Parttivasekarat-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Madurantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar</span>

<span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> is named after [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola I]] who had another name Kodandarama. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Smarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> and <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> derived their names from possible titles of [[Parantaka I|Parantaka Chola I]]. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> must have been the name of a regiment called after king [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]], the father of [[Uttama (Chola dynasty)|Uttama Chola]]. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar</span>, a regiment named after Singalantaka i.e. Parantaka Chola I. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Danatunga-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> (regiment or group). The early writing of the record and the surname Danatunga of Parantaka I suggests its assignment to his reign. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Muthuvalpetra</span>, meaning the “recipient of the pearl ornamented sword” in Tamil seems to indicate some special honour or rank conferred on the regiment by the king. <span lang="Ta" dir="ltr">Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar</span> is named after [[Raja Raja Chola I]].

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Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as ''Samanta Senapathigal''<ref name="manickam"/> or ''Senaithalaivar''.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA83 |title=India Before Europe |first= Catherine |last=Asher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521809047}}</ref><ref name="manickam">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&q=terinja+kaikkolar |title=Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400 |first=V. |last=Manickam |publisher=Makkal Veliyeedu |year=2001}}</ref> Following is the list of Sengunthar chieftains under Imperial Cholas which is taken from the poem Eetiezhubathu written by Chola emperor's court poet and minister [[Ottakoothar]].


* '''Putridan Kondan:''' King of Kalattur. '''Pallikondan''': Chieftain of Chidambaram. '''Pazhuvur Veeran and Pazhuvur Narayanan:''' Chieftains of Pazhuvur. '''Thaniyan:''' Chieftain of Kanchi. '''Otriyuran:''' Chieftain of Thiruvottriyur. '''Thanjai Vemban:''' Chieftain of Thiruvaiyaru and chief minister under [[Parantaka I|Parantaka Chola I's]] reign. '''Kangeyan:''' ruled [[Tondaimandalam]] under [[Kulothunga Chola II]]. '''Kalanthaiyarasan Mudaliar:''' son of Ponvilaintha kalathur king Madhimaan. '''Puliyur Palli Kondaan:''' son of Chidambaram king Vidangan. '''Pinavan Mudaliar:''' son of Kadambur king Kadhamban. '''Kandiyuran;''' son of Thiru kandiyur king Vibulan. '''Suban Mudaliar:''' Chieftain of Thiruchendur and commander under [[Rajadhiraja Chola I]]. '''Padaimaruthan:''' Chieftain of Thiruvidai maruthur.
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Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as ''Samanta Senapathigal''<ref name="manickam"/>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}} or ''Senaithalaivar''.<ref name="auto"/>{{page needed|date=October 2018}}<ref name="manickam">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&q=terinja+kaikkolar |title=Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400 |first=V. |last=Manickam |publisher=Makkal Veliyeedu |year=2001}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}


According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]].<ref name="Ramaswamy 66">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkolar|title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |pages=172–174|isbn=9781351558259 }}</ref>
According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]]<ref name="Ramaswamy 66">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkolar|title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |pages=172–174|isbn=9781351558259 }}</ref> after the fall of [[Chola Empire|Chola empire]].


===Vijayanagara period===
===Vijayanagara period===
After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985" /><ref name="Mines3">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984}}</ref><ref name="de Neve 2005">{{cite book |title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy |first=Geert |last=de Neve |publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005 |isbn=9788187358183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC}}{{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref>
After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985">{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Mines3">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984}}</ref><ref name="de Neve 2005">{{cite book |title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy |first=Geert |last=de Neve |publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005 |isbn=9788187358183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC}}{{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref>
According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.<ref name="Kumar">Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> During the period of [[Sadasiva Raya]] of Vijayanagara empire, the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985">{{cite book |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Kumar" />
According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.<ref name="Kumar22">Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> During the period of [[Sadasiva Raya]] of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara empire]], the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.<ref name="Ramaswamy 198522">{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Kumar22"/>


In 14th century, '''Kottaiyannan Mudaliar''', a chieftain who was ruling [[Namakkal district|Namakkal]] and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. [[Chandramathi Mudaliar]] was a 17th-century [[Tamils|Tamil]] chieftain and ruler of south [[Kongu Nadu]] (Erode region) who fought many battles against the [[Madurai Nayak]].
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According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in Tiruvannamalai temple, Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.<ref>{{cite book |title=Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies |editor-first=Ruth |editor-last=Barnes |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |page=27 |isbn=978-1-13443-040-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3mCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |first=Himanshu Prabha |last=Ray |chapter=Far-flung fabrics - Indian textiles in ancient maritime trade}}</ref> In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.<ref name="Ramaswamy 66"/>

According to India Before Europe by Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, Cynthia Talbot, Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major Vaishnavite temples of [[Srirangam]] and [[Tirupati]]. In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers.

In the book The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India, 1500–1650, author Sanjay Subrahmanyam states that many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.

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According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in [[Arunachalesvara Temple|Tiruvannamalai Arunachalesvara temple]], Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.<ref>{{cite book |title=Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies |editor-first=Ruth |editor-last=Barnes |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |page=27 |isbn=978-1-13443-040-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3mCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |first=Himanshu Prabha |last=Ray |chapter=Far-flung fabrics - Indian textiles in ancient maritime trade}}</ref> In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.<ref name="Ramaswamy 66" />

During [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] period, Sengunthars built [[Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple]] at [[Palakkad]]. When issue aroused between [[Nambudiri]]s and Sengunthars on which style the worship will take place in the temple, the King of Palakkad ordered that the worship will take place according to Sengunthars' culture.

Bogan, Poonduraiyan, Kanchaan, Pachayan, Kanjivelan, Senji, Paramakali, Aaran, Manikatti Sadayan and Mannayan clan of Sengunthars were appointed as Pulavars(Poet) for 24 nadus of [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu Mandalam]] for their Proficiency in Tamil language. The Pulavars were granted rights over land, tax and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.<ref>{{cite book |title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |editor= Vijaya Ramaswamy |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2017 |page=28-33 |isbn=9781351558259 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&dq=sengunthar+bank&pg=PA30 }}</ref>


==Traditions and festivals==
==Traditions and festivals==
Sengunthar Shaivite priests are vegetarian, wear the [[sacred thread]], and shave their foreheads in the [[Brahmanic]] fashion. Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Sengunthars thus follow both a priestly model and a Dravidian tradition.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=467–484 |doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> The ''Kaikola Teesikar'' or ''Desigar'' who were non-Brahmin priest at temples of [[Murugan]]. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.<ref name="Mines 5">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=15}}</ref>
Among Sengunthars, Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Senaithalaivar thus follow both a priestly model and a Tamil tradition.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=467–484 |doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> The ''Kaikola Teesikar'' or ''Desigar'' were non-Brahmin priests at temples of [[Murugan]]. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.<ref name="Mines 5">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=15}}</ref>


Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own ''Kula Deivam'' (deity). Sengunthars share [[Murugan]] as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as [[Ankalamma|Angalamman]] or Ambayamman.<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref>
Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own ''Kula Deivam'' (deity). Sengunthars share [[Murugan]] as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as [[Ankalamma|Angalamman]] or Ambayamman.<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref>
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The ''Sura Samharam'' festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [[Karthikeya]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/001946468201900103 |title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=19 |pages=47–62 |year=1982 |last1=Ramaswamy |first1=Vijaya |s2cid=145467633 }}</ref>
The ''Sura Samharam'' festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [[Karthikeya]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/001946468201900103 |title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=19 |pages=47–62 |year=1982 |last1=Ramaswamy |first1=Vijaya |s2cid=145467633 }}</ref>


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===Tamil Nadu===
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[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|right|'''Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka''']]
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Historically there were four {{transl|ta|thisai nadus}}, which in turn was divided into 17 {{transl|ta|kilai nadus}}, exclusive of {{transl|ta|thisai nadus}}, totally making 72 {{transl|ta|nadus}} in the Sengunthar. The thisai {{transl|ta|nadus}} were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north.
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In the flag hoisting ceremony at [[Sri Lanka]] [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old [[Jaffna Kingdom]] have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag as the ceremony of ''Sura Samharam'' battle.The houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga hang in their houses, in the day of the flag ceremony.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283|title=Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple|language=English|accessdate=12 August 2011 |work=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)]]|author=Dr. Kumar Vadivel |location = Nallur, Sri Lanka|publisher=Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598|title=Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins|language=English|accessdate=10 August 2005 |work=[[TamilNet]]|location = Nallur, Sri Lanka}}</ref>

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===Nadu system===
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Historically there were 4 thisai nadus, which in turn was divided into 17 kilai nadus, exclusive of thisai nadus, totally making 72 nadus in the Sengunthar. The thisai nadus were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north.
<ref name="Mines 12">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=73–98}}
<ref name="Mines 12">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=73–98}}
</ref>
</ref>
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</ref>
</ref>
The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.<ref name="Mines 13"/>
The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.<ref name="Mines 13"/>

Sengunthar Kaikola Mudaliyar have rights to give festival flag for [[Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple]] at [[Palani]], the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan. Because these people are descendamts of Navaveerargal who helped lord Murugan in [[Sura Samhaaram|Sura Samharam]] battle. During [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] period, Sengunthars built [[Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple]] at [[Palakkad]]. During ''Sura Samharam'' festival, according to traditional ritual Senguntha Kaikolars dress as Navaveerargal lieutenants of [[Murugan]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.
[[File:Palani Hill Temple.JPG|thumb|300x300px|'''Shri Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple, Palani, Dindugul''']]

=== Andhra Pradesh ===
In Andhra pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as [[Kaikalas|Kaikala or Karikala Bhakthulu]]. They consider the early Chola emperor [[Karikala Chola]] as their hero who is said to have conquered the Andhra region around 3rd century CE and converted forest lands there into agricultural lands. They built a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a [[Satram]] in his name at [[Srisailam]] in [[Nandyal district]]. The Kaikalas form a very important part of the ''Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara'', the annual folk festival held at [[Tirupati (city)|Tirupati]].

The presiding deity of the [[Srikalahasteeswara temple]] at [[Srikalahasti]] Gnana Prasunambika Devi was born in Vellathurar Gotra of Senguntha Kaikola Mudaliar caste. It is customary for the bride to bring home the dowry and submit it by Sengunthars at the Shiva-Parvati wedding held here.

=== Sri Lanka ===
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In the flag hoisting ceremony at [[Sri Lanka]] [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old [[Jaffna Kingdom]] have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag at the ceremony of ''Sura Samharam'' battle. During the flag ceremony day, the houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated with curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga.<ref>{{cite news |author=Dr. Kumar Vadivel |title=Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple |language=en |work=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)]] |publisher=Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka |location=Nallur, Sri Lanka |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283 |access-date=12 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins |language=en |work=[[TamilNet]] |location=Nallur, Sri Lanka |url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598 |access-date=10 August 2005}}</ref>

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[[File:Nallur_Kandasamy_front_entrance.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka''']]


==Subgroups==
==Subgroups==
There are some divisions among Kaikolar based on their traditions.
There are some divisions among a section of the caste based on their traditions.


===Siru Thaali Kaikolar===
===Siru Thaali Kaikolar===
Siru thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.<ref name="Mines 8">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=172}}</ref> Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or [[Mangala sutra]] . This section allow widows to wear colored [[sari]]s as other women.<ref name="Mines 7">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=24–25}}</ref> They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu<ref name="Mines 9">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=169}}</ref>( [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Namakkal]] districts ).
Siru thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.<ref name="Mines 8">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=172}}</ref> Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or [[Mangala sutra]], due to which they are called so. This section allow widows to wear colored [[sari]]s as other women.<ref name="Mines 7">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=24–25}}</ref> They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu<ref name="Mines 9">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=169}}</ref>( [[Erode district|Erode]], [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Namakkal]] districts ).


===Perun Thaali Kaikolar===
===Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar===
Perun thaali Kaikolar, also known as Kongu Kaikolar and Vellai kaikkoolar. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or saffron [[sari]]s and they were mainly found in the [[Erode]] side of the [[Bhavani River]].<ref name="Mines 7"/>
Perun thaali Kaikolar (பெருதாலிகட்டி கைகோளர் முதலியார்கள்), also known as Kongu Kaikolar and 'Vellai seelai kaikkolar'. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or [[sari]]s like other Kongu castes hence the name 'Vellai seelai Kaikolar'. They are mainly found vastly in [[Coimbatore]] District and the '''Bhavani River Belt''' of [[Erode]] district. Being the aboriginal weavers of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region unlike later immigrants, they are properly called 'Kongu Kaikkolvar'


===Rattukaara Kaikolar===
===Rattukaara Kaikolar===
Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed
Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed
of double threads and they are traditional [[carpet]] makers. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Mines 7"/>
of double threads and they are traditional [[carpet]] makers. Other reason is said to be their sacrifice of first born's heads for weaving a skirt for their caste poet [[Ottakoothar]]. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu also from Koorai Nadu in Tanjore district of the [[Chola Nadu|Chola country]].<ref name="Mines 7"/>


===Thalaikooda Mudaliyar===
===Thalaikooda Mudaliyar===
They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, [[Ottakoothar]] to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in [[Tanjore]] district.<ref name="Mines 10">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=27}}</ref> Now they are found in [[Pondicherry]]<ref name="Martinson">{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=477|doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> region.
They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, [[Ottakoothar]] to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in [[Tanjore]] district of [[Chola Nadu|Chola country]].<ref name="Mines 10">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=27}}</ref> Now they are found in [[Pondicherry]]<ref name="Martinson">{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=477|doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> region. Also called 'Thattaya Nattar' from their sub-region of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region.

=== Maduraiyar ===
Kaikolars of the [[Pandya Nadu|Pandya]] country who wear the [[Meenakshi Temple, Madurai|Meenakshi Sundareswarar]] [[Thaali|thali]] like other Pandya country native castes.

Kaikolar originally of the [[Pandya Nadu|Pandya country]] who wear the thali (marriage badge) of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar like other Pandya country native castes.

== Kulagurus ==
The Kongu section has [[Adisaivam|Adi Saiva]] kulagurus in common with other Kongu castes while the last three sub castes have the Irayamangalam Math, the descendant of [[Paranjothi]] Nayanar as their guru,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sustainer |date=2009-09-04 |title=கொங்க குலகுருக்கள்: கொங்கு குலகுருக்கள் - 48. இறையமங்கலம் கைக்கோலர் மடம் |url=http://kongukulagurus.blogspot.com/2012/05/48.html |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=கொங்க குலகுருக்கள்}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> army general of the Pallava [[Narasimhavarman I]]. His seat is at Irayamangalam by the Kaveri in the Namakkal District.


==Current status==
==Sengunthars from 20th century==
Sengunthars are classified and listed as a [[Backward Class]] by the governments of both Tamil Nadu and India.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm|title= List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Government of Tamil Nadu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html|title=Central list of backward classes|publisher= Government of India}}</ref>
Sengunthars were originally classified as [[Forward caste|Forward Caste]](FC) but later listed as a [[Backward Class]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] because of the efforts of [[:ta:எஸ். மீனாட்சிசுந்தர முதலியார்|Erode Meenakshi Sundara Mudaliar]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm|title= List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Government of Tamil Nadu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html|title=Central list of backward classes|publisher= Government of India}}</ref> Kerala government refused to add Sengunthars in Backward classes list as according to them Sengunthars are not either socially or economically backward and they belonged to upper status.<ref>{{Cite book |last=M.S. |first=Joseph |url=https://kscbc.kerala.gov.in/images/stories/docs/36_96_1996.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjp3JnI-reEAxW6RmcHHaMNCrA4FBAWegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw1Pk-xqfF5KhnY8iqE_uDpG |title=Inclusion of Sengunthar community in the list of Other Backward Classes for reservation in public service |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=1996 |publication-date=1996 |language=English}}</ref>


==Literary references==
==Literary references==
*''Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SenguntharPrabanthaThiratu |title=Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu |accessdate=4 December 2011}}</ref> is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hj0eAAAAIAAJ&q=sengunta|title=The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics|date=1982|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|language=en}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2018}} The collection contains:
*''Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SenguntharPrabanthaThiratu |title=Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hj0eAAAAIAAJ&q=sengunta|title=The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics|date=1982|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|language=en}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2018}} The collection contains:
*''Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh'' by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
*''Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh'' by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
*''Eetti Ezhubathu'', the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola II]]. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188 |title=Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil |year= 1975|accessdate=4 December 2011|isbn=978-9004041905 |last1=Spuler |first1=Bertold }}</ref>
*''Eetti Ezhubathu'', the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola II]]. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188 |title=Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil |year= 1975|access-date=4 December 2011|isbn=978-9004041905 |last1=Spuler |first1=Bertold |publisher=BRILL }}</ref>
*''Ezhupezhubathu'', a sequel to ''Eetti Ezhubathu'' written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
*''Ezhupezhubathu'', a sequel to ''Eetti Ezhubathu'' written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
*''Kalipporubathu'', a collection of ten stanzas compiled by [[Kulothunga Chola III]]. These stanzas were written after ''Ezhupezhubathu'' to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
*''Kalipporubathu'', a collection of ten stanzas compiled by [[Kulothunga Chola III]]. These stanzas were written after ''Ezhupezhubathu'' to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
Line 98: Line 159:


==See also==
==See also==
{{Portal|Tamils|India|Hinduism}}
*[[Adaviyar]]
*[[Adaviyar]]
*[[Padmashali]]
*[[Padmashali]]
*[[Tanti]]
*[[Tanti]]
*[[Kaikalas]]
*[[Salagama]]
*[[Pattusali]]


==Notes==
==Notes==
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==References==
==References==
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Mines |first=Mattison |year=1984 |title=The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521267144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Mines |first=Mattison |year=1984 |title=The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521267144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
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[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Weaving communities of South Asia]]
[[Category:Weaving communities of South Asia]]
[[Category:Social groups of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:South Indian communities]]

Latest revision as of 17:18, 16 December 2024

Sengunthar
Virabahu and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord Kartikeya on the wall of Chidambaram temple
Kuladevta (male)Kartikeya[1][2][3]
Kuladevi (female)Kamakshi Amman,[3] Angalamman Parameswari
ReligionsHinduism
LanguagesTamil
Populated statesTamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry, Sri Lanka
Feudal titleMudaliar, Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan
Notable membersList of Sengunthars
Related groupsKaikalas of Andhra

Sengunthar ([sɛŋkʊnʈɻ]), also known as the Kaikolar and Senguntha Mudaliar is a caste commonly found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and the neighboring country Sri Lanka. In Andhra Pradesh, they are known as Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu, who consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero.[4] They were Warriors of Cholas and Traditionally Textile Merchants and Silk Weavers by occupation [5] They were part of the Chola army as Kaikola regiment and were dominant during the rule of Imperial Cholas, holding commander and minister positions in the court.[6] Ottakoothar, 12th century court poet and minister of Cholas under Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II, Raja Raja Chola II reign belong to this community. In the olden days in India, the Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.[7] In early thirteenth century, after the fall of Chola empire large number of Kaikolars migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession as they sworn to be soldiers only for Chola emperors. At present, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. Majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a patrilineal lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.

Etymology

[edit]

The ancient occupational name of Kaikkolar comes from the words kai (hand) and kol (a shuttle used in looms). The appended -ar means people.[8] Kaikkolar also means men with stronger arms.[9][10]

Sengunthar means red spear people, which has the community's connection to the Lord Murugan, who is known as a red god. Legend has it that there were nine commanders called Navaveerargal in Murugan's army and Sengunthars descended from them.[8]

In ancient times they were also called as Kaarugar (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), Senguntha padaiyar (soldiers), Senaithalaivar (army commander) and Kaikolar (Weaver).[11]

Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.[12] The twelfth century Chola emperor's court poet and minister Ottakoothar’s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as Mudaliars during the Imperial Chola period.[13]

Mudali means first, suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.[14][15] They had also used the title Nayanar after their names.[16]

History

[edit]

Origin

[edit]

Shiva was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, Parvati, was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely Virabahu,[17] Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with Subrahmanya at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Chola . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars.[8][18]

Chola period

[edit]

The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in Adhi Diwakaram, a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.[19]

Cholan Poorva Pattayam, a copper plate inception, says about the Karikala Chola, the conquest of the Kongu region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars got the title called Samaya Senapati (meaning commander or head).[20]

Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the Chola dynasty, the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the Ayyavole 500 trading group during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet Ottakoothar glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.[21]

They were militarized during the Imperial Chola period, when some of them held the title Brahmadaraya or Brahmmarayan, which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.[22] Some of the well known Kaikola Battalions in Chola army were:

Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar

Virachozha-terinja-Kaikkolar

Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar

Danatonga-terinja-Kaikkolar

Parantaka-terinia-Kaikkolar

Muthuvalpetra-Kaikkolar

Samarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar

Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Adityapanma-terinda-Kaikkolar

Karikala-chozha-terinja-Kaikkolar

Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar

Parttivasekarat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar

Madurantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar

Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar is named after Aditya Chola I who had another name Kodandarama. Smarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar and Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar derived their names from possible titles of Parantaka Chola I. Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar must have been the name of a regiment called after king Gandaraditya Chola, the father of Uttama Chola. Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar, a regiment named after Singalantaka i.e. Parantaka Chola I. Danatunga-terinja-Kaikkolar (regiment or group). The early writing of the record and the surname Danatunga of Parantaka I suggests its assignment to his reign. Muthuvalpetra, meaning the “recipient of the pearl ornamented sword” in Tamil seems to indicate some special honour or rank conferred on the regiment by the king. Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar is named after Raja Raja Chola I.

Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as Samanta Senapathigal[23] or Senaithalaivar.[24][23] Following is the list of Sengunthar chieftains under Imperial Cholas which is taken from the poem Eetiezhubathu written by Chola emperor's court poet and minister Ottakoothar.

  • Putridan Kondan: King of Kalattur. Pallikondan: Chieftain of Chidambaram. Pazhuvur Veeran and Pazhuvur Narayanan: Chieftains of Pazhuvur. Thaniyan: Chieftain of Kanchi. Otriyuran: Chieftain of Thiruvottriyur. Thanjai Vemban: Chieftain of Thiruvaiyaru and chief minister under Parantaka Chola I's reign. Kangeyan: ruled Tondaimandalam under Kulothunga Chola II. Kalanthaiyarasan Mudaliar: son of Ponvilaintha kalathur king Madhimaan. Puliyur Palli Kondaan: son of Chidambaram king Vidangan. Pinavan Mudaliar: son of Kadambur king Kadhamban. Kandiyuran; son of Thiru kandiyur king Vibulan. Suban Mudaliar: Chieftain of Thiruchendur and commander under Rajadhiraja Chola I. Padaimaruthan: Chieftain of Thiruvidai maruthur.

According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam[25] after the fall of Chola empire.

Vijayanagara period

[edit]

After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.[26][27][28] According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.[29] During the period of Sadasiva Raya of Vijayanagara empire, the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.[30][29]

In 14th century, Kottaiyannan Mudaliar, a chieftain who was ruling Namakkal and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. Chandramathi Mudaliar was a 17th-century Tamil chieftain and ruler of south Kongu Nadu (Erode region) who fought many battles against the Madurai Nayak.

According to India Before Europe by Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, Cynthia Talbot, Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major Vaishnavite temples of Srirangam and Tirupati. In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers.

In the book The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India, 1500–1650, author Sanjay Subrahmanyam states that many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.

According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in Tiruvannamalai Arunachalesvara temple, Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.[31] In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.[25]

During Vijayanagara period, Sengunthars built Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple at Palakkad. When issue aroused between Nambudiris and Sengunthars on which style the worship will take place in the temple, the King of Palakkad ordered that the worship will take place according to Sengunthars' culture.

Bogan, Poonduraiyan, Kanchaan, Pachayan, Kanjivelan, Senji, Paramakali, Aaran, Manikatti Sadayan and Mannayan clan of Sengunthars were appointed as Pulavars(Poet) for 24 nadus of Kongu Mandalam for their Proficiency in Tamil language. The Pulavars were granted rights over land, tax and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.[32]

Traditions and festivals

[edit]

Among Sengunthars, Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Senaithalaivar thus follow both a priestly model and a Tamil tradition.[33] The Kaikola Teesikar or Desigar were non-Brahmin priests at temples of Murugan. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.[34]

Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own Kula Deivam (deity). Sengunthars share Murugan as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as Angalamman or Ambayamman.[1]

The Sura Samharam festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of Karthikeya and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.[35]

Tamil Nadu

[edit]

Historically there were four thisai nadus, which in turn was divided into 17 kilai nadus, exclusive of thisai nadus, totally making 72 nadus in the Sengunthar. The thisai nadus were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north. [36]

The head of 72 nadu was Kancheepuram nadu which was called as Mahanadu by the Sengunthars.[37] The head officer of Mahanadu were called as Aandavar and Aandavar is highest authority leader for Sengunthars.[38] The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.[37]

Sengunthar Kaikola Mudaliyar have rights to give festival flag for Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple at Palani, the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan. Because these people are descendamts of Navaveerargal who helped lord Murugan in Sura Samharam battle. During Vijayanagara period, Sengunthars built Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple at Palakkad. During Sura Samharam festival, according to traditional ritual Senguntha Kaikolars dress as Navaveerargal lieutenants of Murugan and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.

Shri Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple, Palani, Dindugul

Andhra Pradesh

[edit]

In Andhra pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as Kaikala or Karikala Bhakthulu. They consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero who is said to have conquered the Andhra region around 3rd century CE and converted forest lands there into agricultural lands. They built a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a Satram in his name at Srisailam in Nandyal district. The Kaikalas form a very important part of the Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara, the annual folk festival held at Tirupati.

The presiding deity of the Srikalahasteeswara temple at Srikalahasti Gnana Prasunambika Devi was born in Vellathurar Gotra of Senguntha Kaikola Mudaliar caste. It is customary for the bride to bring home the dowry and submit it by Sengunthars at the Shiva-Parvati wedding held here.

Sri Lanka

[edit]

In the flag hoisting ceremony at Sri Lanka Nallur Kandaswamy temple, the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old Jaffna Kingdom have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag at the ceremony of Sura Samharam battle. During the flag ceremony day, the houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated with curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga.[39][40]

Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka

Subgroups

[edit]

There are some divisions among a section of the caste based on their traditions.

Siru Thaali Kaikolar

[edit]

Siru thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.[41] Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or Mangala sutra, due to which they are called so. This section allow widows to wear colored saris as other women.[42] They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu[43]( Erode, Salem and Namakkal districts ).

Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar

[edit]

Perun thaali Kaikolar (பெருதாலிகட்டி கைகோளர் முதலியார்கள்), also known as Kongu Kaikolar and 'Vellai seelai kaikkolar'. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or saris like other Kongu castes hence the name 'Vellai seelai Kaikolar'. They are mainly found vastly in Coimbatore District and the Bhavani River Belt of Erode district. Being the aboriginal weavers of the Kongu region unlike later immigrants, they are properly called 'Kongu Kaikkolvar'

Rattukaara Kaikolar

[edit]

Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed of double threads and they are traditional carpet makers. Other reason is said to be their sacrifice of first born's heads for weaving a skirt for their caste poet Ottakoothar. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu also from Koorai Nadu in Tanjore district of the Chola country.[42]

Thalaikooda Mudaliyar

[edit]

They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, Ottakoothar to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in Tanjore district of Chola country.[44] Now they are found in Pondicherry[45] region. Also called 'Thattaya Nattar' from their sub-region of the Kongu region.

Maduraiyar

[edit]

Kaikolars of the Pandya country who wear the Meenakshi Sundareswarar thali like other Pandya country native castes.

Kaikolar originally of the Pandya country who wear the thali (marriage badge) of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar like other Pandya country native castes.

Kulagurus

[edit]

The Kongu section has Adi Saiva kulagurus in common with other Kongu castes while the last three sub castes have the Irayamangalam Math, the descendant of Paranjothi Nayanar as their guru,[46][9] army general of the Pallava Narasimhavarman I. His seat is at Irayamangalam by the Kaveri in the Namakkal District.

Current status

[edit]

Sengunthars were originally classified as Forward Caste(FC) but later listed as a Backward Class in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because of the efforts of Erode Meenakshi Sundara Mudaliar.[47][48] Kerala government refused to add Sengunthars in Backward classes list as according to them Sengunthars are not either socially or economically backward and they belonged to upper status.[49]

Literary references

[edit]
  • Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu[50] is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.[51][full citation needed] The collection contains:
  • Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
  • Eetti Ezhubathu, the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of Rajaraja Chola II. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.[52]
  • Ezhupezhubathu, a sequel to Eetti Ezhubathu written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
  • Kalipporubathu, a collection of ten stanzas compiled by Kulothunga Chola III. These stanzas were written after Ezhupezhubathu to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
  • Thirukkai Vazhakkam, which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi.
  • Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community.

Notable people

[edit]
Further information: List of Sengunthars

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Mines 1984, pp. 62–64
  2. ^ Mines, Mattison (1994). Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India. University of California Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780520084797.
  3. ^ a b Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
  4. ^ "National Commission for Backward Classes". www.ncbc.nic.in. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
  5. ^ Mines 1984, p. 11.
  6. ^ Martial races of undivided India by Vidya Prakash Tyagi 2009 Page 278 https://www.google.com/books?id=vRwS6FmS2g0C
  7. ^ David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
  8. ^ a b c Mines 1984, pp. 54–55
  9. ^ a b Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 491. ISBN 978-8-12241-198-0.
  10. ^ V, Sudarsen; Reddy, G. Prakash; M, Suryanarayana (1987). Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 97. ISBN 9788170184355.
  11. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
  12. ^ David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
  13. ^ Kan̲n̲iyappan̲, Civa (1996). Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum [Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet] (in Tamil). Mullai Nilaiyam. p. 51. சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது
  14. ^ Barnett, Marguerite Ross (2015). The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India. Princeton University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-40086-718-9.
  15. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
  16. ^ Vink, Markus (2005). Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Brill. p. 218. ISBN 9789004272620.
  17. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
  18. ^ Ghose, Rajeshwari (1996). The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–82. ISBN 9788120813915.
  19. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  20. ^ Vijaya Ramaswamy (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 19 (1): 47–62. doi:10.1177/001946468201900103.
  21. ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN 9781139440745.
  22. ^ S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary (2000). Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift. Harman Pub. House. p. 114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ a b Manickam, V. (2001). Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400. Makkal Veliyeedu.
  24. ^ Asher, Catherine (2006). India Before Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521809047.
  25. ^ a b Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Routledge. pp. 172–174. ISBN 9781351558259.
  26. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press.[page needed]
  27. ^ Mines 1984
  28. ^ de Neve, Geert (2005). The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy. Berghahn Books. ISBN 9788187358183.[page needed]
  29. ^ a b Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar[full citation needed]
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  32. ^ Vijaya Ramaswamy, ed. (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Taylor & Francis. p. 28-33. ISBN 9781351558259.
  33. ^ Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". American Ethnologist. 9 (3): 467–484. doi:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020. JSTOR 643998.
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  49. ^ M.S., Joseph (1996). Inclusion of Sengunthar community in the list of Other Backward Classes for reservation in public service. Government of Kerala.
  50. ^ Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
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References

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Further reading

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