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{{Globalize|article|date=February 2018}} |
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'''Oralism''' is the [[Education of the deaf|education of deaf student]]s through [[oral language]] by using [[lip reading]], speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech.<ref name=Eyes>Through Deaf Eyes. Diane Garey, Lawrence R. Hott. DVD, PBS (Direct), 2007.</ref> Oralism came into popular use in the United States around the late 1860s. In 1867, the [[Clarke School for the Deaf]] in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]] was the first school to start teaching in this manner.<ref name="Winefield" /> Oralism and its contrast, [[manualism]], manifest differently in [[deaf education]] and are a source of controversy for involved communities.<ref name="Train" /><ref name="Talking" /> |
'''Oralism''' is the [[Education of the deaf|education of deaf student]]s through [[oral language]] by using [[lip reading]], [[speech]], and mimicking the [[Articulatory phonetics|mouth shapes and breathing patterns]] of speech.<ref name=Eyes>Through Deaf Eyes. Diane Garey, Lawrence R. Hott. DVD, PBS (Direct), 2007.</ref> Oralism came into popular use in the United States around the late 1860s. In 1867, the [[Clarke School for the Deaf]] in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], was the first school to start teaching in this manner.<ref name="Winefield" /> Oralism and its contrast, [[manualism]], manifest differently in [[deaf education]] and are a source of controversy for involved communities.<ref name="Train" /><ref name="Talking" /> [[Listening and Spoken Language]], a technique for teaching deaf children that emphasizes the child's perception of auditory signals from [[hearing aid]]s or [[cochlear implant]]s, is how oralism continues on in the current day.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Estes|first1=Ellen L.|title=Listening, language, and learning: Skills of highly qualified Listening and Spoken Language Specialists in educational settings|journal=Volta Review|volume=110|issue=2|date=June 2010|pages=169–178|doi=10.17955/tvr.110.2.m.627|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===16th and 17th century=== |
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[[File:Monumento a Fray Pedro Ponce (Madrid) 02.jpg|thumb|The Spanish friar Pedro Ponce created a pure oral method to teach to deaf people how to read, talk and count.]] |
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Fray [[Pedro Ponce de León]] (1520-1584) is often credited as the inventor of deaf education. Later, [[Juan Pablo Bonet]] (c. 1579–1633) published ''Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos'', which circulated widely as a foundation method for teaching. Bonet was an oralist that defended the use of words to communicate, but also incorporated the use of [[sign language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zaragoza Ayarza |first1=Francisco |title=Introducción a la edición facsímil de la Reducción de las letras, y Arte para enseñar a hablar los mudos, con otros tratados tocantes a la lengua Griega y cifras |publisher=Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza |page=56 |url=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/39/09/_ebook.pdf}}</ref> |
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===Early 18th century=== |
===Early 18th century=== |
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Since the beginning of formal deaf education in the 18th century in the United States, manualism and oralism have been on opposing sides of a heated debate that continues to this day.<ref name=Winefield>Winefield, Richard. Never the Twain Shall Meet. Washington, DC: [[Gallaudet University]] Press, 1987. 4.</ref> Oralism as the systematic education of deaf people began in Spain in the mid-1500s and was the byproduct of socioeconomic motives.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The church barred deaf people from Holy Communion because they could not confess aloud. Deaf people were also prohibited from inheriting their family's wealth; therefore, to preserve the family wealth, deaf heirs in Spain were sent to [[Pedro Ponce de León|Pedro Ponce de Leon]] after hearing that he taught a deaf man to talk in [[San Salvador de Oña|San Salvador Monastery]] in [[Oña]].<ref name=Train>Cohen, Leah. Train Go Sorry. New York, New York: First Vintage Books, 1995.</ref> Oralism provided members of the privileged classes with deaf children a way to channel their children's education and an opportunity to keep them away from the deaf community. Speaking has been associated with the higher classes and higher intellect, and the perception of signing has been the opposite.<ref name=Train/> |
Since the beginning of formal deaf education in the 18th century in the United States, manualism and oralism have been on opposing sides of a heated debate that continues to this day.<ref name=Winefield>Winefield, Richard. Never the Twain Shall Meet. Washington, DC: [[Gallaudet University]] Press, 1987. 4.</ref> Oralism as the systematic education of deaf people began in Spain in the mid-1500s and was the byproduct of socioeconomic motives.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The church barred deaf people from Holy Communion because they could not confess aloud. Deaf people were also prohibited from inheriting their family's wealth; therefore, to preserve the family wealth, deaf heirs in Spain were sent to [[Pedro Ponce de León|Pedro Ponce de Leon]] after hearing that he taught a deaf man to talk in [[San Salvador de Oña|San Salvador Monastery]] in [[Oña]].<ref name=Train>Cohen, Leah. Train Go Sorry. New York, New York: First Vintage Books, 1995.</ref> Oralism provided members of the privileged classes with deaf children a way to channel their children's education and an opportunity to keep them away from the deaf community. Speaking has been associated with the higher classes and higher intellect, and the perception of signing has been the opposite.<ref name=Train/> |
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===Late 19th century=== |
===Late 19th century=== |
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==== Schools ==== |
==== Schools ==== |
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Before the [[Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech|Clarke School for the Deaf]] (now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech) made its mark in deaf American education in the 1860s, there was a popular support of [[ |
Before the [[Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech|Clarke School for the Deaf]] (now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech) made its mark in deaf American education in the 1860s, there was a popular support of [[manualism]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Forbidden signs : American culture and the campaign against sign language|last=C.|first=Baynton, Douglas|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226039640|oclc=48211543|year = 1996}}</ref> Manual language soon became a less popular choice for [[deaf education]] due to the new [[Darwinism|Darwinist]] perspective.<ref name=":2" /> Clarke School for the Deaf in 1867 became a "mainstream service" for deaf students through creating a "learn to listen" mentality.<ref name=":3" /> This was done through the proper training of educators in auditory/oral education.<ref name=":3" /> Since its start, [[Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech|Clarke School]] has expanded and provided support for oral communication within deaf education and policy.<ref name=":3" /> |
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It has been remarked that, in the United States, the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.<ref name="Nielsen">{{cite journal |last1=Nielsen |first1=Kim E. |title=The Southern Ties of Helen Keller |journal=The Journal of Southern History |date=2007 |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=795 |doi=10.2307/27649568 |language=en |issn=0022-4642|jstor=27649568|jstor-access=free}} Footnote 37 references Baynton</ref> |
It has been remarked that, in the United States, the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.<ref name="Nielsen">{{cite journal |last1=Nielsen |first1=Kim E. |title=The Southern Ties of Helen Keller |journal=The Journal of Southern History |date=2007 |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=795 |doi=10.2307/27649568 |language=en |issn=0022-4642|jstor=27649568|jstor-access=free}} Footnote 37 references Baynton</ref> |
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====Policy==== |
====Policy==== |
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In relation to the early 16th |
In relation to the early 16th-century oralism in Spain, 19th-century oralists viewed oral language as a superior form of communication.<ref name="Winefield" /> [[Gardiner Greene Hubbard|Gardiner Green Hubbard]],<ref name=":3" /> [[Horace Mann]],<ref name="Winefield" /> [[Samuel Gridley Howe]]<ref name="Winefield" /> and [[Alexander Graham Bell]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.agbell.org/FamilyNeedsAssessment/|title=Introduction {{!}} AG Bell {{!}} Listening and Spoken Language|website=www.agbell.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509050657/http://www.agbell.org/FamilyNeedsAssessment/|archive-date=2017-05-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> were popular supporters of oralism and its impact on deaf education and services. Until the end of the 19th century, many educators of deaf America were deaf themselves.<ref name=":5">[https://wfdeaf.org/news/21st-international-congress-on-the-education-of-the-deaf-iced-in-july-2010-in-vancouver-canada/ "21st International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in July 2010 in Vancouver, Canada"]. ''World Federation of the Deaf''. 2016. Retrieved March 12, 2017.</ref>{{irrelevant citation|date=February 2018|reason=No mention on this page of the hearing status of deaf educators.}} However, oralists like [[Alexander Graham Bell]] began to wield increasing influence.<ref name="Winefield" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Alexander Graham Bell|Bell]] and others believed in deaf [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] with the [[Mainstreaming (education)|mainstream]] hearing world.<ref name=":4" /> Bell also believed that sign language was an instrument of imprisonment and that its use prevented the "gesturer" from being a "true American".<ref name="Nielsen 2012">{{Cite book |last=Nielsen |first=Kim |url= |title=A Disability History of the United States |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-080702204-7 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |pages= |author-link=Kim E. Nielsen}}</ref> Bell had no opinion regarding whether or whom deaf people should marry.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Alexander G.|title=Marriage|journal=Science|volume=17|issue=424|date=1891|pages=160–163|doi=10.1126/science.ns-17.424.160|pmid=17790082}}</ref> By contrast, negative eugenicists sought to stop the spread of "bad genes" through invasive measures such as mandatory placement in institutions or sterilization. Bell believed oralism was "an attractive option to sterilization".<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Greenwald|first=Brian H.|date=Spring 2009|title=The Real "Toll" of A.G. Bell: Lessons about Eugenics|jstor=26190555|journal=Sign Language Studies|volume=9|issue=3|pages=258–265|doi=10.1353/sls.0.0020|s2cid=144370435}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=article is commentary/opinion, not fact-based|date=February 2018}} To Bell, implementation of oralism meant the possibility of a mainstream and "normal" life for deaf individuals.<ref name=":6" /> |
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In 1878, the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) met in Paris to discuss the use of [[sign language]] and other issues within deaf education.<ref name=":5" /> During the congregation, no Deaf members were allowed to testify. In 1880, the ICED met again in [[Milan]] with 164 educators attending with one of them being [[Hearing loss|deaf]].<ref name=":5" /> This meeting created the solely oralist classroom preventing any form of [[sign language]] from being used.<ref name=":5" /> After the Milan conference, the Deaf community referred to this time in history as "the dark ages for deaf education in America".<ref name="Eyes" /><ref name="Winefield" /> |
In 1878, the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) met in Paris to discuss the use of [[sign language]] and other issues within deaf education.<ref name=":5" /> During the congregation, no Deaf members were allowed to testify. In 1880, the ICED met again in [[Milan]] with 164 educators attending with one of them being [[Hearing loss|deaf]].<ref name=":5" /> This meeting created the solely oralist classroom preventing any form of [[sign language]] from being used.<ref name=":5" /> After the Milan conference, the Deaf community referred to this time in history as "the dark ages for deaf education in America".<ref name="Eyes" /><ref name="Winefield" /> |
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====Classroom==== |
====Classroom==== |
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Hearing educators who could not sign replaced deaf teachers and, by the mid-20th century, eighty percent of American secondary schools for the deaf used the oral method exclusively.<ref name="Talking">Fox, Margalit. Talking Hands. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. New York, New York: 2007</ref> Some strategies, such as [[Total Communication]] or [[Simultaneous Communication|SimCom]], saw classes conducted in a mixture of spoken and signed English with the teacher signing along, in English word order as they delivered their lecture. For example, |
Hearing educators who could not sign replaced deaf teachers and, by the mid-20th century, eighty percent of American secondary schools for the deaf used the oral method exclusively.<ref name="Talking">Fox, Margalit. Talking Hands. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. New York, New York: 2007</ref> Some strategies, such as [[Total Communication]] or [[Simultaneous Communication|SimCom]], saw classes conducted in a mixture of spoken and signed English with the teacher signing along, in English word order as they delivered their lecture. For example, ''is'', ''was'' and ''the'', which are not used in sign, were spelled out by the teachers using the manual alphabet.<ref name="Talking" /> Students were taught using the [[Articulation (phonetics)|articulation]] method, which taught them how to speak and lip read.<ref name="Train" /> Oralists believed that signs were no more than gross holistic gestures, which stood for English words in a one-to-one correspondence. Sentences in sign were thought to have no grammar. The facial expressions, such as exaggerated movements of the mouth, tongue, eyes, and lips, suggesting grimacing or excessive emotional display, triggered horror in hearing people. Students were asked to stop moving their faces when they signed, which would later be described as equivalent to asking hearing people to speak in declarative sentences uttered in monotone.<ref name="Train" /> |
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===20th century=== |
===20th century=== |
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==Modern usage== |
==Modern usage== |
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Oralism is no longer used to teach language or communication in the United States. Parental use of the oral approach typically stems from parental desire for their child to use a spoken language to communicate with the majority hearing population. They also feel the use of a spoken language will further their child's literacy and written language skills in the classroom. |
Oralism is no longer used to teach language or communication in the United States.{{Cn|date=October 2022}} Parental use of the oral approach typically stems from a parental desire for their child to use a spoken language to communicate with the majority hearing population. They also feel the use of a spoken language will further their child's literacy and written language skills in the classroom. Some researchers believe that the success of the oral approach in a classroom setting had not been fully evaluated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAbzF41mwmkC&q=oralism+and+language+acquisition+&pg=PA69|title=Issues in Deaf Education|last=Swanwick|first=Ruth|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136619977|language=en}}</ref> Recent research has demonstrated that an oral education using Listening and Spoken Language can provide most deaf children with spoken language skills that are equivalent to those of their hearing peers if using a [[cochlear implant]], which is a hotly debated device in the Deaf community.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geers|first1=Anne|journal=Pediatrics|title=Early Sign Language Exposure and Cochlear Implantation Benefits|volume=140|issue=1|date=July 2017|pages=e20163489|doi=10.1542/peds.2016-3489|pmid=28759398|pmc=5495521}}</ref> |
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===Oral schools=== |
===Oral schools===<!-- Are there others outside the US? --> |
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[[Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech]]: Focus on helping deaf and hard of hearing children develop spoken English and listening skills. The school's goal is to prepare students for the mainstream setting.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.clarkeschools.org/about/welcome|title=Welcome to Clarke|website=www.clarkeschools.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-04}}</ref> |
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[[Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech]]: focus on helping deaf and hard of hearing children develop spoken English and listening skills. The school's goal is to prepare students for the mainstream setting.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.clarkeschools.org/about/welcome|title=Welcome to Clarke|website=www.clarkeschools.org|date=5 September 2013|language=en|access-date=2017-04-04}}</ref> |
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Cleary School: focus on ASL and spoken English in its elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. Their Pre-K focuses on spoken English.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.clearyschool.org/|title=Cleary School for the Deaf|website=www.clearyschool.org|access-date=2017-04-04}}</ref> |
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Memphis Oral School for the Deaf: teaching children to develop their spoken and written English skills by teaching children in spoken English.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mosdkids.org/who-we-are/|title=Memphis Oral School for the Deaf : Who We Are : Overview|website=mosdkids.org|access-date=2017-04-04}}</ref> |
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[[Tucker Maxon School]] |
[[Moog Center for Deaf Education]]: provides listening and spoken language services to children who are deaf or hard of hearing, ages birth to early elementary years, and their families.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moogcenter.org/|title=Moog Center for Deaf Education|website=www.moogcenter.org|access-date=2020-07-08}}</ref> |
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[[Tucker Maxon School]]: a spoken-language early intervention and Pre-K through 5th grade educational institution based in Portland, Oregon. Enrollment includes children who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as children with typical hearing in an inclusive, co-enrolled, mutually beneficial classroom environment. The school's mission is to teach "deaf and hearing children to listen, talk, learn, and achieve excellence together".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tuckermaxon.org/|title=Tucker Maxon School|website=www.tuckermaxon.org|access-date=2019-01-09}}</ref> |
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===Efficacy=== |
===Efficacy=== |
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Some studies have called into question the role of developing spoken language skills in relation to developing reading skills. One study in particular demonstrated that while individuals who became deaf before developing spoken language did show a decreased ability to differentiate between the [[Phonology|phonological]] properties of a language, they showed equal capability of recognizing and understanding the orthographic properties of what they were reading.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Paul|date=2007-08-01|title=The Role of Phonology in the Word Decoding Skills of Poor Readers: Evidence from Individuals with Prelingual Deafness or Diagnosed Dyslexia|journal=Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=385–408|doi=10.1007/s10882-007-9057-5|s2cid=141473313|issn=1056-263X}}</ref> In fact, compared to their hearing counterparts, the deaf individuals showed an increased rate of written word processing skills as they increased in age. Altogether, this research provided evidence contrary to the belief that spoken skills are critical to the development of reading skills, and further proposes that educational approaches should include a stronger focus on building awareness of written language forms separate from the related aural aspects.<ref name=":1" /> |
Some studies have called into question the role of developing spoken language skills in relation to developing reading skills. One study in particular demonstrated that while individuals who became deaf before developing spoken language did show a decreased ability to differentiate between the [[Phonology|phonological]] properties of a language, they showed equal capability of recognizing and understanding the orthographic properties of what they were reading.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Paul|date=2007-08-01|title=The Role of Phonology in the Word Decoding Skills of Poor Readers: Evidence from Individuals with Prelingual Deafness or Diagnosed Dyslexia|journal=Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=385–408|doi=10.1007/s10882-007-9057-5|s2cid=141473313|issn=1056-263X}}</ref> In fact, compared to their hearing counterparts, the deaf individuals showed an increased rate of written word processing skills as they increased in age. Altogether, this research provided evidence contrary to the belief that spoken skills are critical to the development of reading skills, and further proposes that educational approaches should include a stronger focus on building awareness of written language forms separate from the related aural aspects.<ref name=":1" /> |
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There is little existing research on the social, professional, and mental health of deaf individuals using oral methods in comparison to those using other methods of education and communication. However, some studies suggest that social-emotional outcomes for deaf children who use cochlear implants and spoken language are statistically significantly higher than those of their signing deaf counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moog|first1=Jean|title=Psychosocial adjustment in adolescents who have used cochlear implants since preschool|journal=Ear and Hearing|volume=32|issue=1suppl|date=February 2011|pmc=3160727|pmid=21832891|doi=10.1097/AUD.0b013e3182014c76|pages=75S–83S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Percy-Smith|first1=Lone|title=Factors that affect the social well-being of children with cochlear implants|journal=Cochlear Implants International|volume=9|issue=4|pages=199–214|date=December 2008|doi=10.1179/cim.2008.9.4.199|pmid=18937269|s2cid=11365757}}</ref> |
There is little existing research on the social, professional, and mental health of deaf individuals using oral methods in comparison to those using other methods of education and communication. However, some studies suggest that social-emotional outcomes for deaf children who use cochlear implants and spoken language are statistically significantly higher than those of their signing deaf counterparts in a world made for ableism.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moog|first1=Jean|title=Psychosocial adjustment in adolescents who have used cochlear implants since preschool|journal=Ear and Hearing|volume=32|issue=1suppl|date=February 2011|pmc=3160727|pmid=21832891|doi=10.1097/AUD.0b013e3182014c76|pages=75S–83S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Percy-Smith|first1=Lone|title=Factors that affect the social well-being of children with cochlear implants|journal=Cochlear Implants International|volume=9|issue=4|pages=199–214|date=December 2008|doi=10.1179/cim.2008.9.4.199|pmid=18937269|s2cid=11365757}}</ref> |
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There also was no accurate predictor of oralism's success in the classroom.<ref name="sk.sagepub.com">{{Cite book|title=SAGE Reference - Oralism, Psychological Effects of|year=2016|doi=10.4135/9781483346489|last1=Gertz|first1=Genie|last2=Boudreault|first2=Patrick|isbn=9781452259567}}</ref> |
There also was no accurate predictor of oralism's success in the classroom.<ref name="sk.sagepub.com">{{Cite book|title=SAGE Reference - Oralism, Psychological Effects of|year=2016|doi=10.4135/9781483346489|last1=Gertz|first1=Genie|last2=Boudreault|first2=Patrick|isbn=9781452259567}}</ref> |
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===Social=== |
===Social=== |
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It is reported by some that deaf children in an oral setting may feel depressed, anxious or experience aloneness and embarrassment.<ref name="sk.sagepub.com"/> |
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Deaf children growing up in an oral setting are likely to experience cognitive and developmental delays as a result of a deprivation of natural signed-language.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The decision to place a child in an oral setting, however, likely stems from pressure parents feel to do so from a doctor or medical practitioner.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} Pressure is then said to be placed on deaf children, as they are reported to feel embarrassed if they do not master both lip-reading and spoken English.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} These delays are also not only academic, but also social. Deaf children in an oral setting may feel depressed, anxious and experience aloneness and embarrassment as a result of such language deprivation.<ref name="sk.sagepub.com"/> |
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===Oralism in other countries=== |
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* [[Oralism#oralisminargentina|Argentina]] |
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* Brazil |
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* Italy |
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* Mexico |
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* Spain |
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==Oralism in Argentina== |
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Oralism in Argentina pertains to a pedagogical approach in the realm of deaf education. It underscores spoken language and lipreading as the principal modes of communication and instruction for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. This method has generated considerable discussion and disagreement within the Argentine deaf community. |
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Proponents of oralism assert its efficacy in facilitating the integration of deaf individuals into the wider hearing society. Conversely, critics advocate for the use of sign language, viewing it as a naturally occurring and culturally significant form of communication. This educational debate continues to be a prominent issue among experts and stakeholders in Argentina's deaf education landscape.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morales-López |first=E |date=2008 |title=Sign Bilingualism in Spanish Deaf Education |url=https://www.academia.edu/42449425 |website=Academia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rey |first=M. I. |url=https://www.academia.edu/49824949 |title=La comunidad sorda argentina: una mirada antropológica. |publisher=La Plata: Al Margen |year=2013 |edition=1st ed. La Plata: Al Margen.}}</ref> |
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===History=== |
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The history of oralism in Argentina can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by the introduction of European methods of oral education for the deaf within the country. Prior to the widespread acceptance of oralism, deaf education in Argentina was predominantly influenced by manualism, a pedagogical approach centered on the use of sign language as the primary mode of communication. |
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A pivotal moment in this historical narrative occurred with the establishment of the Instituto Nacional de Sordomudos (National Institute for the Deaf) in Buenos Aires in 1882. This institution played a notable role in advocating for oralism as the preferred instructional method. Its stance was strongly influenced by the Milan Conference of 1880, which championed oralism over sign language as the superior approach in the education of the deaf. |
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The Argentine Association for the Deaf (Asociación Argentina de Sordomudos), founded in 1887, also contributed significantly to the promotion of oralism in Argentina's deaf education landscape. |
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Over time, educational institutions dedicated to deaf education in Argentina began adopting oralist methodologies. Oralist schools were established, and educators received training in these methods. This era witnessed a decline in the use of sign language as the primary instructional mode.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burad |first=V |date=2009 |title=Día Nacional de las Personas Sordas Argentinas. |url=https://educacion.uncuyo.edu.ar/upload/Dia_nacional_personas_sordas_argentinas.pdf |website=Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Educación}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Creación del primer Instituto Educativo Nacional Para Sordo Mudos. |url=https://museosarmiento.cultura.gob.ar/noticia/creacion-del-primer-instituto-educativo-nacional-para-sordo-mudos/#:~:text=Museo%20Hist%C3%B3rico%20Sarmiento-,Creaci%C3%B3n%20del%20primer%20Instituto%20Educativo%20Nacional%20Para%20Sordo%20Mudos,Terry |work=Museos Nacionales}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=McCotter |first1=M. A. |url=http://www.bnm.me.gov.ar/proyectos/medar/historia_investigacion/1880_1910/ideas_pedagogicas/sordomudos.php |title=La escuela mixta en los institutos de Sordomudos. |last2=Díaz Gómez |first2=J. P. |publisher=Tipografía de El Tiempo. |year=1899}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Burad |first=V |date=2008 |title=El Congreso de Milán y su efecto dominó en la República Argentina: Aproximación a algunos hechos relacionados con la comunidad sorda argentina. |url=https://www.cultura-sorda.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Burad_V_Congreso_Milan_efecto_domino_Argentina_20081.pdf |website=cultura-sorda.eu}}</ref> |
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===Oralist Schools in Argentina=== |
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====''Escuela de Sordos'' in ''Hospital de Rehabilitación Manuel Rocca''==== |
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This oralist school is situated in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It offers educational services that include both kindergarten and primary school levels. With an enrollment of 172 students, the institution maintains a low student-to-teacher ratio, averaging approximately six students per class. |
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In addition to traditional academic programs, the school provides a range of workshops to enrich students' learning experiences. One feature of this educational institution is its flexibility, allowing students to concurrently attend regular mainstream schools while benefiting from the specialized services offered by the oralist school. This approach enables students to complement their education and develop a diverse skill set. |
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The school operates with both morning and afternoon shifts. The establishment features the Assistance Pedagogy Service, staffed by an interdisciplinary team dedicated to providing comprehensive care to disabled children. This team conducts ongoing evaluations of each student's progress and needs, fostering a holistic and inclusive approach to education. |
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The Escuela de Sordos in Buenos Aires, Argentina, plays a crucial role in offering specialized educational services to deaf and hard of hearing students, promoting inclusive and personalized learning experiences within the region.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017 |title=La escuela porteña donde se enseña a hablar a los chicos sordos. |work=Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Medios |url=https://buenosaires.gob.ar/noticias/como-es-la-escuela-portena-donde-se-ensena-hablar-los-chicos-sordos }}</ref> |
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===Controversy and Opposition=== |
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One of the primary criticisms of oralism is that it can result in limited language acquisition for deaf individuals. Learning spoken language and lip-reading can be challenging, and some deaf individuals may struggle to develop language skills at the same level as their hearing peers. This can lead to difficulties in academic achievement and overall communication. |
|||
Some critics argue that an exclusive focus on oralism can lead to social isolation for deaf individuals. Without a strong foundation in sign language, which may be more accessible and natural for many deaf individuals, they might struggle to communicate effectively within the deaf community. This can result in feelings of isolation and exclusion. |
|||
The use of sign language has been shown to support cognitive development in deaf individuals, just as spoken language does for hearing individuals. Critics of oralism argue that by discouraging the use of sign language, cognitive development might be hindered, potentially affecting learning, problem-solving, and other cognitive abilities. |
|||
Many within the deaf community view sign language as an integral part of their cultural identity. An exclusive focus on oralism can undermine the preservation and promotion of deaf culture and identity, as sign language is a crucial aspect of this culture. Emphasizing oralism may send the message that deaf individuals should strive to be more like hearing individuals rather than embracing their unique identity. |
|||
Learning to speak and lip-read can be stressful and exhausting for some deaf individuals. The pressure to conform to oralist methods and expectations can lead to emotional and psychological stress, potentially impacting their overall well-being and mental health. While some individuals may thrive using oralist methods, others may struggle significantly. The effectiveness of oralism can vary widely based on factors such as the degree of hearing loss, individual communication preferences, and the availability of appropriate resources and support. |
|||
With advancements in technology such as cochlear implants and hearing aids, the landscape of deaf education has evolved. While these technologies can facilitate oral communication for some, they are not a one-size-fits-all solution. Some deaf individuals may not benefit from or have access to these technologies, and the push for exclusive oralism might overlook their needs. |
|||
In some cases, the exclusive focus on oralism can lead to a phenomenon known as "language deprivation." This occurs when a deaf individual is not exposed to a full and rich linguistic environment, which can have long-lasting effects on their cognitive and language development.<ref>Veinberg, S. (1996). Argentinien: Anfänge und Entwicklung der Erziehung Gehörloser [Argentina: Inicios y desarrollo de la educación del sordo]. ''Das Zeichen. Zeitschrift Zum Thema Gebärdensprache und Kommunikation Gehörlose, 38,'' 488-496. Retrieved from [http://modalidadespecial.educ.ar/datos/recursos/pdf/argentina-inicios-y-desarrollo-de-la-educacion-de-los-sordos.pdf modalidadespecial.educ.ar]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Juliarena |first=G. E. |url=http://www.memoria.fahce.unlp.edu.ar/trab_eventos/ev.2725/ev.2725.pdf |title=Bilingüismo en sordos. |publisher=IV Jornadas de Español como Lengua Segunda y Extranjera, 7 y 8 de noviembre de 2012, La Plata, Argentina. Experiencias, Desarrollos, Propuestas. En Memoria Académica. |year=2012 |location=La Plata, Argentina.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quinteros |first=A. de los Ángeles |url=https://repositorio.21.edu.ar/bitstream/handle/ues21/12899/QUINTEROS%20Andrea%20de%20los%20Angeles.pdf?sequence=1 |title=DERECHO A LA COMUNICACIÓN. SORDERA VS LENGUA DE SEÑAS ARGENTINA. |publisher=Universidad siglo 21 |year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Burad |first=V |date=2005 |title=El Derecho a la Minoría Sorda. Cultura Sorda. |url=https://cultura-sorda.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Burad_V_Derecho_minoria_sorda_argentina_2005.pdf |website=cultura-sorda.org}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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Latest revision as of 13:16, 5 September 2024
 | The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (February 2018) |
Oralism is the education of deaf students through oral language by using lip reading, speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech.[1] Oralism came into popular use in the United States around the late 1860s. In 1867, the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts, was the first school to start teaching in this manner.[2] Oralism and its contrast, manualism, manifest differently in deaf education and are a source of controversy for involved communities.[3][4] Listening and Spoken Language, a technique for teaching deaf children that emphasizes the child's perception of auditory signals from hearing aids or cochlear implants, is how oralism continues on in the current day.[5]
History
[edit]16th and 17th century
[edit]_02.jpg)
Fray Pedro Ponce de León (1520-1584) is often credited as the inventor of deaf education. Later, Juan Pablo Bonet (c. 1579–1633) published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos, which circulated widely as a foundation method for teaching. Bonet was an oralist that defended the use of words to communicate, but also incorporated the use of sign language.[6]
Early 18th century
[edit]Since the beginning of formal deaf education in the 18th century in the United States, manualism and oralism have been on opposing sides of a heated debate that continues to this day.[2] Oralism as the systematic education of deaf people began in Spain in the mid-1500s and was the byproduct of socioeconomic motives.[citation needed] The church barred deaf people from Holy Communion because they could not confess aloud. Deaf people were also prohibited from inheriting their family's wealth; therefore, to preserve the family wealth, deaf heirs in Spain were sent to Pedro Ponce de Leon after hearing that he taught a deaf man to talk in San Salvador Monastery in Oña.[3] Oralism provided members of the privileged classes with deaf children a way to channel their children's education and an opportunity to keep them away from the deaf community. Speaking has been associated with the higher classes and higher intellect, and the perception of signing has been the opposite.[3]
Late 19th century
[edit]Schools
[edit]Before the Clarke School for the Deaf (now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech) made its mark in deaf American education in the 1860s, there was a popular support of manualism.[7] Manual language soon became a less popular choice for deaf education due to the new Darwinist perspective.[7] Clarke School for the Deaf in 1867 became a "mainstream service" for deaf students through creating a "learn to listen" mentality.[8] This was done through the proper training of educators in auditory/oral education.[8] Since its start, Clarke School has expanded and provided support for oral communication within deaf education and policy.[8]
It has been remarked that, in the United States, the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.[9]
Policy
[edit]In relation to the early 16th-century oralism in Spain, 19th-century oralists viewed oral language as a superior form of communication.[2] Gardiner Green Hubbard,[8] Horace Mann,[2] Samuel Gridley Howe[2] and Alexander Graham Bell[10] were popular supporters of oralism and its impact on deaf education and services. Until the end of the 19th century, many educators of deaf America were deaf themselves.[11][irrelevant citation] However, oralists like Alexander Graham Bell began to wield increasing influence.[2][10] Bell and others believed in deaf assimilation with the mainstream hearing world.[10] Bell also believed that sign language was an instrument of imprisonment and that its use prevented the "gesturer" from being a "true American".[12] Bell had no opinion regarding whether or whom deaf people should marry.[13] By contrast, negative eugenicists sought to stop the spread of "bad genes" through invasive measures such as mandatory placement in institutions or sterilization. Bell believed oralism was "an attractive option to sterilization".[14][unreliable source?] To Bell, implementation of oralism meant the possibility of a mainstream and "normal" life for deaf individuals.[14]
In 1878, the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) met in Paris to discuss the use of sign language and other issues within deaf education.[11] During the congregation, no Deaf members were allowed to testify. In 1880, the ICED met again in Milan with 164 educators attending with one of them being deaf.[11] This meeting created the solely oralist classroom preventing any form of sign language from being used.[11] After the Milan conference, the Deaf community referred to this time in history as "the dark ages for deaf education in America".[1][2]
Classroom
[edit]Hearing educators who could not sign replaced deaf teachers and, by the mid-20th century, eighty percent of American secondary schools for the deaf used the oral method exclusively.[4] Some strategies, such as Total Communication or SimCom, saw classes conducted in a mixture of spoken and signed English with the teacher signing along, in English word order as they delivered their lecture. For example, is, was and the, which are not used in sign, were spelled out by the teachers using the manual alphabet.[4] Students were taught using the articulation method, which taught them how to speak and lip read.[3] Oralists believed that signs were no more than gross holistic gestures, which stood for English words in a one-to-one correspondence. Sentences in sign were thought to have no grammar. The facial expressions, such as exaggerated movements of the mouth, tongue, eyes, and lips, suggesting grimacing or excessive emotional display, triggered horror in hearing people. Students were asked to stop moving their faces when they signed, which would later be described as equivalent to asking hearing people to speak in declarative sentences uttered in monotone.[3]
20th century
[edit]Movement towards manualism
[edit]Even though students were not allowed to use manual signs within the classroom, many deaf students preferred manual signs and used them frequently in their dorm rooms at residential schools for the deaf.[1] Some deaf children were considered "oral failures" because they could not pick up oral language.[citation needed] Others thought that the techniques of oralism actually limited them on what they were taught because they always had to concentrate on the way the words were formed, not what they meant.[1][2]
Leaders of the manualist movement, including Edward M. Gallaudet, argued against the teaching of oralism because it restricted the ability of deaf students to communicate in what was considered their native language.[2] Moreover, "attempts to eliminate sign language were tantamount to stripping them of their identity, their community, and their culture."[2]
Policy change
[edit]The retraction of laws forbidding the use of sign language in the classroom occurred in 2010 with the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in Vancouver.[11] Deaf grassroots activists and the planning committee of ICED created a solution to provide proper education to the deaf globally.[11]
Modern usage
[edit]Oralism is no longer used to teach language or communication in the United States.[citation needed] Parental use of the oral approach typically stems from a parental desire for their child to use a spoken language to communicate with the majority hearing population. They also feel the use of a spoken language will further their child's literacy and written language skills in the classroom. Some researchers believe that the success of the oral approach in a classroom setting had not been fully evaluated.[15] Recent research has demonstrated that an oral education using Listening and Spoken Language can provide most deaf children with spoken language skills that are equivalent to those of their hearing peers if using a cochlear implant, which is a hotly debated device in the Deaf community.[16]
Oral schools
[edit]Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech: focus on helping deaf and hard of hearing children develop spoken English and listening skills. The school's goal is to prepare students for the mainstream setting.[8]
Cleary School: focus on ASL and spoken English in its elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. Their Pre-K focuses on spoken English.[17]
Memphis Oral School for the Deaf: teaching children to develop their spoken and written English skills by teaching children in spoken English.[18]
Moog Center for Deaf Education: provides listening and spoken language services to children who are deaf or hard of hearing, ages birth to early elementary years, and their families.[19]
Tucker Maxon School: a spoken-language early intervention and Pre-K through 5th grade educational institution based in Portland, Oregon. Enrollment includes children who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as children with typical hearing in an inclusive, co-enrolled, mutually beneficial classroom environment. The school's mission is to teach "deaf and hearing children to listen, talk, learn, and achieve excellence together".[20]
Efficacy
[edit]There have been few quantitative evaluations regarding the long-term outcomes of oral programs for deaf individuals, but those that do exist tend to study this in relation to children with cochlear implants. One study compared the English development of deaf children with a cochlear implant versus what the English development might have been without the implant. English development was greater and more successful for the implanted deaf child than that of the non-implanted child based on the implementation of a predictive model. The predictive model employs age, residual hearing, and communication mode used by the child to predict the language development. Although deaf implanted children are already at a disadvantage for English development when compared to their hearing counterparts, the implant, on average, reduced what could have been an even larger deficit had the child not been implanted (based on the predictive model). The authors recommend implanting the child as early as possible.[21]
The studies did not consider how a non-implanted child exposed to a signed language and a bilingual/bicultural education could develop English skills in relation to a hearing child's English development. Multiple studies find that by ensuring a deaf child has access to American Sign Language, their overall academic performance is better than those who are not.[22]
Communication in oral-deaf students without cochlear implants is typically less frequent and less complex than hearing peers of the same age. These expressed communications are less clear than that of their hearing peers.[23] Linguistically, these communications are typical of the language skills seen much earlier in their hearing counterparts.[23] Despite efforts to encourage the sole reliance on speech and spoken language in oral schools, some oral-deaf individuals developed sign systems among themselves in non-supervised settings.[24] Additionally, oral-deaf children often used manual gestures/signs simultaneously or in addition to vocalizations during expressive communications at home.[23]
Some studies have called into question the role of developing spoken language skills in relation to developing reading skills. One study in particular demonstrated that while individuals who became deaf before developing spoken language did show a decreased ability to differentiate between the phonological properties of a language, they showed equal capability of recognizing and understanding the orthographic properties of what they were reading.[25] In fact, compared to their hearing counterparts, the deaf individuals showed an increased rate of written word processing skills as they increased in age. Altogether, this research provided evidence contrary to the belief that spoken skills are critical to the development of reading skills, and further proposes that educational approaches should include a stronger focus on building awareness of written language forms separate from the related aural aspects.[25]
There is little existing research on the social, professional, and mental health of deaf individuals using oral methods in comparison to those using other methods of education and communication. However, some studies suggest that social-emotional outcomes for deaf children who use cochlear implants and spoken language are statistically significantly higher than those of their signing deaf counterparts in a world made for ableism.[26][27]
There also was no accurate predictor of oralism's success in the classroom.[28]
Social
[edit]It is reported by some that deaf children in an oral setting may feel depressed, anxious or experience aloneness and embarrassment.[28]
Oralism in other countries
[edit]- Argentina
- Brazil
- Italy
- Mexico
- Spain
Oralism in Argentina
[edit]Oralism in Argentina pertains to a pedagogical approach in the realm of deaf education. It underscores spoken language and lipreading as the principal modes of communication and instruction for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. This method has generated considerable discussion and disagreement within the Argentine deaf community. Proponents of oralism assert its efficacy in facilitating the integration of deaf individuals into the wider hearing society. Conversely, critics advocate for the use of sign language, viewing it as a naturally occurring and culturally significant form of communication. This educational debate continues to be a prominent issue among experts and stakeholders in Argentina's deaf education landscape.[29][30]
History
[edit]The history of oralism in Argentina can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by the introduction of European methods of oral education for the deaf within the country. Prior to the widespread acceptance of oralism, deaf education in Argentina was predominantly influenced by manualism, a pedagogical approach centered on the use of sign language as the primary mode of communication. A pivotal moment in this historical narrative occurred with the establishment of the Instituto Nacional de Sordomudos (National Institute for the Deaf) in Buenos Aires in 1882. This institution played a notable role in advocating for oralism as the preferred instructional method. Its stance was strongly influenced by the Milan Conference of 1880, which championed oralism over sign language as the superior approach in the education of the deaf. The Argentine Association for the Deaf (Asociación Argentina de Sordomudos), founded in 1887, also contributed significantly to the promotion of oralism in Argentina's deaf education landscape. Over time, educational institutions dedicated to deaf education in Argentina began adopting oralist methodologies. Oralist schools were established, and educators received training in these methods. This era witnessed a decline in the use of sign language as the primary instructional mode.[31][32][33][34]
Oralist Schools in Argentina
[edit]Escuela de Sordos in Hospital de Rehabilitación Manuel Rocca
[edit]This oralist school is situated in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It offers educational services that include both kindergarten and primary school levels. With an enrollment of 172 students, the institution maintains a low student-to-teacher ratio, averaging approximately six students per class. In addition to traditional academic programs, the school provides a range of workshops to enrich students' learning experiences. One feature of this educational institution is its flexibility, allowing students to concurrently attend regular mainstream schools while benefiting from the specialized services offered by the oralist school. This approach enables students to complement their education and develop a diverse skill set. The school operates with both morning and afternoon shifts. The establishment features the Assistance Pedagogy Service, staffed by an interdisciplinary team dedicated to providing comprehensive care to disabled children. This team conducts ongoing evaluations of each student's progress and needs, fostering a holistic and inclusive approach to education. The Escuela de Sordos in Buenos Aires, Argentina, plays a crucial role in offering specialized educational services to deaf and hard of hearing students, promoting inclusive and personalized learning experiences within the region.[35]
Controversy and Opposition
[edit]One of the primary criticisms of oralism is that it can result in limited language acquisition for deaf individuals. Learning spoken language and lip-reading can be challenging, and some deaf individuals may struggle to develop language skills at the same level as their hearing peers. This can lead to difficulties in academic achievement and overall communication. Some critics argue that an exclusive focus on oralism can lead to social isolation for deaf individuals. Without a strong foundation in sign language, which may be more accessible and natural for many deaf individuals, they might struggle to communicate effectively within the deaf community. This can result in feelings of isolation and exclusion. The use of sign language has been shown to support cognitive development in deaf individuals, just as spoken language does for hearing individuals. Critics of oralism argue that by discouraging the use of sign language, cognitive development might be hindered, potentially affecting learning, problem-solving, and other cognitive abilities. Many within the deaf community view sign language as an integral part of their cultural identity. An exclusive focus on oralism can undermine the preservation and promotion of deaf culture and identity, as sign language is a crucial aspect of this culture. Emphasizing oralism may send the message that deaf individuals should strive to be more like hearing individuals rather than embracing their unique identity. Learning to speak and lip-read can be stressful and exhausting for some deaf individuals. The pressure to conform to oralist methods and expectations can lead to emotional and psychological stress, potentially impacting their overall well-being and mental health. While some individuals may thrive using oralist methods, others may struggle significantly. The effectiveness of oralism can vary widely based on factors such as the degree of hearing loss, individual communication preferences, and the availability of appropriate resources and support. With advancements in technology such as cochlear implants and hearing aids, the landscape of deaf education has evolved. While these technologies can facilitate oral communication for some, they are not a one-size-fits-all solution. Some deaf individuals may not benefit from or have access to these technologies, and the push for exclusive oralism might overlook their needs. In some cases, the exclusive focus on oralism can lead to a phenomenon known as "language deprivation." This occurs when a deaf individual is not exposed to a full and rich linguistic environment, which can have long-lasting effects on their cognitive and language development.[36][37][38][39]
See also
[edit]- Baby sign language
- Deaf culture
- History of deaf education in the United States
- Language deprivation in deaf and hard of hearing children
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Through Deaf Eyes. Diane Garey, Lawrence R. Hott. DVD, PBS (Direct), 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Winefield, Richard. Never the Twain Shall Meet. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1987. 4.
- ^ a b c d e Cohen, Leah. Train Go Sorry. New York, New York: First Vintage Books, 1995.
- ^ a b c Fox, Margalit. Talking Hands. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. New York, New York: 2007
- ^ Estes, Ellen L. (June 2010). "Listening, language, and learning: Skills of highly qualified Listening and Spoken Language Specialists in educational settings". Volta Review. 110 (2): 169–178. doi:10.17955/tvr.110.2.m.627.
- ^ Zaragoza Ayarza, Francisco. Introducción a la edición facsímil de la Reducción de las letras, y Arte para enseñar a hablar los mudos, con otros tratados tocantes a la lengua Griega y cifras (PDF). Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza. p. 56.
- ^ a b C., Baynton, Douglas (1996). Forbidden signs : American culture and the campaign against sign language. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226039640. OCLC 48211543.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e "Welcome to Clarke". www.clarkeschools.org. 5 September 2013. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
- ^ Nielsen, Kim E. (2007). "The Southern Ties of Helen Keller". The Journal of Southern History. 73 (4): 795. doi:10.2307/27649568. ISSN 0022-4642. JSTOR 27649568. Footnote 37 references Baynton
- ^ a b c "Introduction | AG Bell | Listening and Spoken Language". www.agbell.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-09. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
- ^ a b c d e f "21st International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in July 2010 in Vancouver, Canada". World Federation of the Deaf. 2016. Retrieved March 12, 2017.
- ^ Nielsen, Kim (2012). A Disability History of the United States. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-080702204-7.
- ^ Bell, Alexander G. (1891). "Marriage". Science. 17 (424): 160–163. doi:10.1126/science.ns-17.424.160. PMID 17790082.
- ^ a b Greenwald, Brian H. (Spring 2009). "The Real "Toll" of A.G. Bell: Lessons about Eugenics". Sign Language Studies. 9 (3): 258–265. doi:10.1353/sls.0.0020. JSTOR 26190555. S2CID 144370435.
- ^ Swanwick, Ruth (2012-12-06). Issues in Deaf Education. Routledge. ISBN 9781136619977.
- ^ Geers, Anne (July 2017). "Early Sign Language Exposure and Cochlear Implantation Benefits". Pediatrics. 140 (1): e20163489. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3489. PMC 5495521. PMID 28759398.
- ^ "Cleary School for the Deaf". www.clearyschool.org. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
- ^ "Memphis Oral School for the Deaf : Who We Are : Overview". mosdkids.org. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
- ^ "Moog Center for Deaf Education". www.moogcenter.org. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
- ^ "Tucker Maxon School". www.tuckermaxon.org. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
- ^ Svirsky, Mario A.; Robbins, Amy M.; Iler Kirk, Karen; Pisoni, David B.; Miyamoto, Richard T. (March 2000). "Language Development in Profoundly Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants". Psychological Science. 11 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00231. JSTOR 40063514. PMC 3429133. PMID 11273423.
- ^ "More Than Meets the Eye". gupress.gallaudet.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
- ^ a b c Nicholas, Johanna G.; Geers, Ann E. (1997). "Communication of Oral Deaf and Normally Hearing Children at 36 Months of Age". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 40 (6): 1314–1327. doi:10.1044/jslhr.4006.1314. PMID 9430751. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
- ^ Anglin-Jaffe, Hannah (2013-05-01). "Signs of Resistance: Peer Learning of Sign Languages Within 'Oral' Schools for the Deaf". Studies in Philosophy and Education. 32 (3): 261–271. doi:10.1007/s11217-012-9350-3. ISSN 0039-3746. S2CID 145422142.
- ^ a b Miller, Paul (2007-08-01). "The Role of Phonology in the Word Decoding Skills of Poor Readers: Evidence from Individuals with Prelingual Deafness or Diagnosed Dyslexia". Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 19 (4): 385–408. doi:10.1007/s10882-007-9057-5. ISSN 1056-263X. S2CID 141473313.
- ^ Moog, Jean (February 2011). "Psychosocial adjustment in adolescents who have used cochlear implants since preschool". Ear and Hearing. 32 (1suppl): 75S–83S. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3182014c76. PMC 3160727. PMID 21832891.
- ^ Percy-Smith, Lone (December 2008). "Factors that affect the social well-being of children with cochlear implants". Cochlear Implants International. 9 (4): 199–214. doi:10.1179/cim.2008.9.4.199. PMID 18937269. S2CID 11365757.
- ^ a b Gertz, Genie; Boudreault, Patrick (2016). SAGE Reference - Oralism, Psychological Effects of. doi:10.4135/9781483346489. ISBN 9781452259567.
- ^ Morales-López, E (2008). "Sign Bilingualism in Spanish Deaf Education". Academia.
- ^ Rey, M. I. (2013). La comunidad sorda argentina: una mirada antropológica (1st ed. La Plata: Al Margen. ed.). La Plata: Al Margen.
- ^ Burad, V (2009). "Día Nacional de las Personas Sordas Argentinas" (PDF). Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Educación.
- ^ "Creación del primer Instituto Educativo Nacional Para Sordo Mudos". Museos Nacionales.
- ^ McCotter, M. A.; Díaz Gómez, J. P. (1899). La escuela mixta en los institutos de Sordomudos. Tipografía de El Tiempo.
- ^ Burad, V (2008). "El Congreso de Milán y su efecto dominó en la República Argentina: Aproximación a algunos hechos relacionados con la comunidad sorda argentina" (PDF). cultura-sorda.eu.
- ^ "La escuela porteña donde se enseña a hablar a los chicos sordos". Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Medios. 2017.
- ^ Veinberg, S. (1996). Argentinien: Anfänge und Entwicklung der Erziehung Gehörloser [Argentina: Inicios y desarrollo de la educación del sordo]. Das Zeichen. Zeitschrift Zum Thema Gebärdensprache und Kommunikation Gehörlose, 38, 488-496. Retrieved from modalidadespecial.educ.ar
- ^ Juliarena, G. E. (2012). Bilingüismo en sordos (PDF). La Plata, Argentina.: IV Jornadas de Español como Lengua Segunda y Extranjera, 7 y 8 de noviembre de 2012, La Plata, Argentina. Experiencias, Desarrollos, Propuestas. En Memoria Académica.
- ^ Quinteros, A. de los Ángeles (2015). DERECHO A LA COMUNICACIÓN. SORDERA VS LENGUA DE SEÑAS ARGENTINA (PDF). Universidad siglo 21.
- ^ Burad, V (2005). "El Derecho a la Minoría Sorda. Cultura Sorda" (PDF). cultura-sorda.org.