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Contribution has been derived in whole or part from the PhD thesis "Pericyclic and related rearrangements for the synthesis of nitrogen heterocyclic ring systems", Oleksandr Zhurakovskyi (2013), Creative Commons CC BY 2.5 (see also User:Minihaa/Incorporation of doctoral theses)
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[[File:Allene.png|right|thumb|[[Propadiene]], the simplest allene, is also known as allene]]
[[File:Allene.png|right|thumb|[[Propadiene]], the simplest allene, is also known as allene]]
'''Allenes''' are [[organic compounds]] in which one [[carbon]] atom has [[double bond]]s with each of its two adjacent carbon centres.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=allenes|file=A00238}}</ref> Allenes are classified as [[diene#Classes|cumulated dienes]]. The parent compound of this class is [[propadiene]], which is itself also called ''allene''. Compounds with an allene-type structure but with more than three carbon atoms are members of a larger class of compounds called [[cumulene]]s with X=C=Y bonding.
'''Allenes''' are [[organic compounds]] in which one [[carbon]] atom has [[double bond]]s with each of its two adjacent carbon centres.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=allenes|file=A00238}}</ref> Allenes are classified as [[diene#Classes|cumulated dienes]]. The parent compound of this class is [[propadiene]], which is itself also called ''allene''. Compounds with an allene-type structure but with more than three carbon atoms are members of a larger class of compounds called [[cumulene]]s with X=C=Y bonding.

== History ==
For many years, allenes were viewed as curiosities but thought to be synthetically useless, difficult to prepare and to work with.<ref name=":0">The Chemistry of the Allenes (vol. 1−3); Landor, S. R., Ed.; cademic Press: London, 1982.</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=David R.|date=1967-06-01|title=The Chemistry of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/cr60247a004|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=317–359|doi=10.1021/cr60247a004|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> Reportedly,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Hoffmann-Röder|first=Anja|last2=Krause|first2=Norbert|date=2004-02-27|title=Synthesis and Properties of Allenic Natural Products and Pharmaceuticals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.200300628|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=43|issue=10|pages=1196–1216|doi=10.1002/anie.200300628|issn=1433-7851}}</ref> the first synthesis of an allene, [[glutinic acid]], was performed in an attempt to prove the non-existence of this class of compounds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burton|first=B. S.|last2=von Pechmann|first2=H.|date=1887-01|title=Ueber die Einwirkung von Chlorphosphor auf Acetondicarbonsäureäther|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cber.18870200136|journal=Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft|language=de|volume=20|issue=1|pages=145–149|doi=10.1002/cber.18870200136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=E. R. H.|last2=Mansfield|first2=G. H.|last3=Whiting|first3=M. C.|date=1954|title=Researches on acetylenic compounds. Part XLVII. The prototropic rearrangements of some acetylenic dicarboxylic acids|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=jr9540003208|journal=Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed)|language=en|pages=3208|doi=10.1039/jr9540003208|issn=0368-1769}}</ref> The situation began to change in the 1950s, and more than 300 papers on allenes have been published in 2012 alone.<ref>Data from the [[Web of Science]] database.</ref> These compounds are not just interesting intermediates but synthetically valuable targets themselves; for example, over 150 natural products are known with an allene or cumulene fragment.<ref name=":1" />


==Structure and properties==
==Structure and properties==
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==Synthesis==
==Synthesis==
Although allenes often require specialized syntheses, the parent allene, propadiene is produced industrially on a large scale as an equilibrium mixture with [[methylacetylene]]:
Although allenes often require specialized syntheses, the parent allene, [[propadiene]] is produced industrially on a large scale as an equilibrium mixture with [[methylacetylene]]:
:H<sub>2</sub>C=C=CH<sub>2</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>C–C≡CH
:H<sub>2</sub>C=C=CH<sub>2</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>C–C≡CH
This mixture, known as [[MAPP gas]], is commercially available. At 298 K, the Δ''G°'' of this reaction is –1.9 kcal/mol, corresponding to ''K''<sub>eq</sub> = 24.7.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robinson|first1=Marin S.|last2=Polak|first2=Mark L.|last3=Bierbaum|first3=Veronica M.|last4=DePuy|first4=Charles H.|last5=Lineberger|first5=W. C.|date=1995-06-01|title=Experimental Studies of Allene, Methylacetylene, and the Propargyl Radical: Bond Dissociation Energies, Gas-Phase Acidities, and Ion-Molecule Chemistry|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00130a017|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=117|issue=25|pages=6766–6778|doi=10.1021/ja00130a017|issn=0002-7863}}</ref>
This mixture, known as [[MAPP gas]], is commercially available. At 298 K, the Δ''G°'' of this reaction is –1.9 kcal/mol, corresponding to ''K''<sub>eq</sub> = 24.7.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robinson|first1=Marin S.|last2=Polak|first2=Mark L.|last3=Bierbaum|first3=Veronica M.|last4=DePuy|first4=Charles H.|last5=Lineberger|first5=W. C.|date=1995-06-01|title=Experimental Studies of Allene, Methylacetylene, and the Propargyl Radical: Bond Dissociation Energies, Gas-Phase Acidities, and Ion-Molecule Chemistry|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00130a017|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=117|issue=25|pages=6766–6778|doi=10.1021/ja00130a017|issn=0002-7863}}</ref>
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*from reaction of a triphenylphosphinyl ester with an acid halide, a [[Wittig reaction]] accompanied by dehydrohalogenation<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lang|first1=Robert W.|last2=Hansen|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Eine einfache Allencarbonsäureester-Synthese mittels der Wittig-Reaktion|trans-title=A simple synthesis of allene carboxylic acid esters by means of the Wittig reaction|journal=[[Helv. Chim. Acta]]|volume=63|issue=2|pages=438–455|date=1980|doi=10.1002/hlca.19800630215}}</ref><ref>{{OrgSynth|title=α-Allenic Esters from α-Phosphoranylidene Esters and Acid Chlorides: Ethyl 2,3-Pentadienoate [2,3-Pentadienoic acid, ethyl ester]|last1=Lang|first1=Robert W.|last2=Hansen|first2=Hans-Jürgen|collvol=7|collvolpages=232|volume=62|page=202|date=1984|prep=CV7P0232|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.062.0202}}</ref>
*from reaction of a triphenylphosphinyl ester with an acid halide, a [[Wittig reaction]] accompanied by dehydrohalogenation<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lang|first1=Robert W.|last2=Hansen|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Eine einfache Allencarbonsäureester-Synthese mittels der Wittig-Reaktion|trans-title=A simple synthesis of allene carboxylic acid esters by means of the Wittig reaction|journal=[[Helv. Chim. Acta]]|volume=63|issue=2|pages=438–455|date=1980|doi=10.1002/hlca.19800630215}}</ref><ref>{{OrgSynth|title=α-Allenic Esters from α-Phosphoranylidene Esters and Acid Chlorides: Ethyl 2,3-Pentadienoate [2,3-Pentadienoic acid, ethyl ester]|last1=Lang|first1=Robert W.|last2=Hansen|first2=Hans-Jürgen|collvol=7|collvolpages=232|volume=62|page=202|date=1984|prep=CV7P0232|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.062.0202}}</ref>
*from propargylic alcohols via the [[Myers allene synthesis]] protocol—a [[stereospecific]] process
*from propargylic alcohols via the [[Myers allene synthesis]] protocol—a [[stereospecific]] process
The chemistry of allenes has been reviewed in a number of books<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/501315951|title=The chemistry of ketenes, allenes and related compounds. Part 1|date=1980|publisher=Wiley|others=Saul Patai|isbn=978-0-470-77160-0|location=Chichester|oclc=501315951}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/520990503|title=The chemistry of ketenes, allenes and related compounds. Part 2|date=1980|publisher=Wiley|others=Saul Patai|isbn=978-0-470-77161-7|location=Chichester|oclc=520990503}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Brandsma|first=L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/162570992|title=Synthesis of acetylenes, allenes and cumulenes : methods and techniques|date=2004|publisher=Elsevier|others=H. D. Verkruijsse|isbn=978-0-12-125751-4|edition=1st ed|location=Amsterdam|oclc=162570992}}</ref> and journal articles.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pasto|first=Daniel J.|date=1984-01|title=Recent developments in allene chemistry|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004040200191289X|journal=Tetrahedron|language=en|volume=40|issue=15|pages=2805–2827|doi=10.1016/S0040-4020(01)91289-X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zimmer|first=Reinhold|last2=Dinesh|first2=Chimmanamada U.|last3=Nandanan|first3=Erathodiyil|last4=Khan|first4=Faiz Ahmed|date=2000-08-01|title=Palladium-Catalyzed Reactions of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr9902796|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=100|issue=8|pages=3067–3126|doi=10.1021/cr9902796|issn=0009-2665}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ma|first=Shengming|date=2009-10-20|title=Electrophilic Addition and Cyclization Reactions of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ar900153r|journal=Accounts of Chemical Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=10|pages=1679–1688|doi=10.1021/ar900153r|issn=0001-4842}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alcaide|first=Benito|last2=Almendros|first2=Pedro|last3=Aragoncillo|first3=Cristina|date=2010|title=Exploiting [2+2] cycloaddition chemistry: achievements with allenes|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=B913749A|journal=Chem. Soc. Rev.|language=en|volume=39|issue=2|pages=783–816|doi=10.1039/B913749A|issn=0306-0012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pinho e Melo|first=Teresa M. V. D.|date=2011-07|title=Allenes as building blocks in heterocyclic chemistry|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00706-011-0505-7|journal=Monatshefte für Chemie - Chemical Monthly|language=en|volume=142|issue=7|pages=681–697|doi=10.1007/s00706-011-0505-7|issn=0026-9247}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=López|first=Fernando|last2=Mascareñas|first2=José Luis|date=2011-01-10|title=Allenes as Three‐Carbon Units in Catalytic Cycloadditions: New Opportunities with Transition‐Metal Catalysts|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/chem.201002366|journal=Chemistry – A European Journal|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=418–428|doi=10.1002/chem.201002366|issn=0947-6539}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aubert|first=Corinne|last2=Fensterbank|first2=Louis|last3=Garcia|first3=Pierre|last4=Malacria|first4=Max|last5=Simonneau|first5=Antoine|date=2011-03-09|title=Transition Metal Catalyzed Cycloisomerizations of 1, n -Allenynes and -Allenenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr100376w|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=111|issue=3|pages=1954–1993|doi=10.1021/cr100376w|issn=0009-2665}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krause|first=Norbert|last2=Winter|first2=Christian|date=2011-03-09|title=Gold-Catalyzed Nucleophilic Cyclization of Functionalized Allenes: A Powerful Access to Carbo- and Heterocycles|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr1004088|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=111|issue=3|pages=1994–2009|doi=10.1021/cr1004088|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> Some key approaches towards allenes are outlined in the following scheme:<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Sydnes|first=Leiv K.|date=2003-04-01|title=Allenes from Cyclopropanes and Their Use in Organic SynthesisRecent Developments|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr010025w|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=103|issue=4|pages=1133–1150|doi=10.1021/cr010025w|issn=0009-2665}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Brummond|first=Kay|last2=DeForrest|first2=Jolie|date=2007-03|title=Synthesizing Allenes Today (1982-2006)|url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2007-965963|journal=Synthesis|language=en|volume=2007|issue=6|pages=795–818|doi=10.1055/s-2007-965963|issn=0039-7881}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Yu|first=Shichao|last2=Ma|first2=Shengming|date=2011|title=How easy are the syntheses of allenes?|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C0CC05640E|journal=Chemical Communications|language=en|volume=47|issue=19|pages=5384–5418|doi=10.1039/C0CC05640E|issn=1359-7345}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Tejedor|first=David|last2=Méndez-Abt|first2=Gabriela|last3=Cotos|first3=Leandro|last4=García-Tellado|first4=Fernando|date=2013|title=Propargyl Claisen rearrangement: allene synthesis and beyond|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C2CS35311C|journal=Chem. Soc. Rev.|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=458–471|doi=10.1039/C2CS35311C|issn=0306-0012}}</ref>

[[File:Overview_common_allene_syntheses_Zhurakovskyi.svg]]

One of the older methods is the Skattebøl rearrangement<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Skattebøl|first=Lars|last2=Nilsson|first2=Martin|last3=Lindberg|first3=Bengt|last4=McKay|first4=James|last5=Munch-Petersen|first5=Jon|date=1963|title=The Synthesis of Allenes from 1,1-Dihalocyclopropane Derivatives and Alkyllithium.|url=http://actachemscand.org/doi/10.3891/acta.chem.scand.17-1683|journal=Acta Chemica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=17|pages=1683–1693|doi=10.3891/acta.chem.scand.17-1683|issn=0904-213X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=William R.|last2=Ward|first2=Harold R.|date=1962-12|title=The Formation of Allenes from gem-Dihalocyclopropanes by Reaction with Alkyllithium Reagents 1,2|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jo01059a013|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=27|issue=12|pages=4179–4181|doi=10.1021/jo01059a013|issn=0022-3263}}</ref> (also called the Doering–Moore–Skattebøl or Doering–LaFlamme<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fedoryński|first=Michał|date=2003-04-01|title=Syntheses of gem -Dihalocyclopropanes and Their Use in Organic Synthesis|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr0100087|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=103|issue=4|pages=1099–1132|doi=10.1021/cr0100087|issn=0009-2665}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kurti|first=Laszlo|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/850164343|title=Strategic Applications of Named Reactions in Organic Synthesis : Background and Detailed Mechanisms.|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier Science|others=Barbara Czako|isbn=978-0-08-057541-4|location=Burlington|pages=758|oclc=850164343}}</ref> rearrangement), in which a gem-dihalocyclopropane '''3''' is treated with an organolithium compound (or dissolving metal) and the presumed intermediate rearranges into an allene either directly or via carbene-like species. Notably, even strained allenes can be generated by this procedure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shi|first=Min|last2=Shao|first2=Li-Xiong|last3=Lu|first3=Jian-Mei|last4=Wei|first4=Yin|last5=Mizuno|first5=Kazuhiko|last6=Maeda|first6=Hajime|date=2010-10-13|title=Chemistry of Vinylidenecyclopropanes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr900381k|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=110|issue=10|pages=5883–5913|doi=10.1021/cr900381k|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> Modifications involving leaving groups of different nature are also known.<ref name=":3" /> Arguably, the most convenient modern method of allene synthesis is by [[sigmatropic rearrangement]] of [[Propargyl group|propargylic substrates]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Johnson–Claisen<ref name=":6" /> and Ireland–Claisen<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ireland|first=Robert E.|last2=Mueller|first2=Richard H.|last3=Willard|first3=Alvin K.|date=1976-05|title=The ester enolate Claisen rearrangement. Stereochemical control through stereoselective enolate formation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00426a033|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=98|issue=10|pages=2868–2877|doi=10.1021/ja00426a033|issn=0002-7863}}</ref> rearrangements of ketene acetals '''4''' have been used a number of times to prepare allenic esters and acids. Reactions of vinyl ethers '''5''' (the Saucy–Marbet rearrangement) give allene aldehydes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurtz|first=Kimberly C.M.|last2=Frederick|first2=Michael O.|last3=Lambeth|first3=Robert H.|last4=Mulder|first4=Jason A.|last5=Tracey|first5=Michael R.|last6=Hsung|first6=Richard P.|date=2006-04|title=Synthesis of chiral allenes from ynamides through a highly stereoselective Saucy–Marbet rearrangement|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040402006001268|journal=Tetrahedron|language=en|volume=62|issue=16|pages=3928–3938|doi=10.1016/j.tet.2005.11.087}}</ref> while propargylic sulfenates '''6''' give allene sulfoxides.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukai|first=Chisato|last2=Kobayashi|first2=Minoru|last3=Kubota|first3=Shoko|last4=Takahashi|first4=Yukie|last5=Kitagaki|first5=Shinji|date=2004-03|title=Construction of Azacycles Based on Endo-Mode Cyclization of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jo035729f|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=69|issue=6|pages=2128–2136|doi=10.1021/jo035729f|issn=0022-3263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukai|first=Chisato|last2=Ohta|first2=Masaru|last3=Yamashita|first3=Haruhisa|last4=Kitagaki|first4=Shinji|date=2004-10|title=Base-Catalyzed Endo-Mode Cyclization of Allenes: Easy Preparation of Five- to Nine-Membered Oxacycles|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jo0488614|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=69|issue=20|pages=6867–6873|doi=10.1021/jo0488614|issn=0022-3263}}</ref> Allenes can also be prepared by [[nucleophilic substitution]] in '''9''' and '''10''' (nucleophile Nu<sup>−</sup> can be a hydride anion), [[1,2-elimination]] from '''8''', proton transfer in '''7''', and other, less general, methods.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />

== Use and occurrence ==

=== Use ===
The reactivity of allenes is rich and opens wide possibilities for discovery.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Pasto|first=Daniel J.|date=1984-01|title=Recent developments in allene chemistry|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004040200191289X|journal=Tetrahedron|language=en|volume=40|issue=15|pages=2805–2827|doi=10.1016/S0040-4020(01)91289-X}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Ma|first=Shengming|date=2009-10-20|title=Electrophilic Addition and Cyclization Reactions of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ar900153r|journal=Accounts of Chemical Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=10|pages=1679–1688|doi=10.1021/ar900153r|issn=0001-4842}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yu|first=Shichao|last2=Ma|first2=Shengming|date=2012-03-26|title=Allenes in Catalytic Asymmetric Synthesis and Natural Product Syntheses|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201101460|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=51|issue=13|pages=3074–3112|doi=10.1002/anie.201101460}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Ma|first=Shengming|date=2005-07-01|title=Some Typical Advances in the Synthetic Applications of Allenes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr020024j|journal=Chemical Reviews|language=en|volume=105|issue=7|pages=2829–2872|doi=10.1021/cr020024j|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> The two [[Pi bond|π-bonds]] are located at the 90° angle to each other, and thus require a reagent to approach from somewhat different directions. With an appropriate substitution pattern, allenes exhibit axial chirality as predicted by van’t Hoff as early as 1875.<ref>Van ’t Hoff, J. H. ''La Chimie dans l’Espace''; P.M. Bazendijk, 1875; p. 43.</ref> Such compounds are now extensively investigated.<ref name=":9" /> Protonation of allenes gives cations '''11''' that undergo further transformations.56 Reactions with soft electrophiles (e.g. Br<sup>+</sup>) deliver positively charged [[Onium ion|onium ions]] '''13'''.<ref name=":102">{{Cite book|last=Brandsma|first=L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/162570992|title=Synthesis of acetylenes, allenes and cumulenes : methods and techniques|date=2004|publisher=Elsevier|others=H. D. Verkruijsse|isbn=978-0-12-125751-4|edition=1st ed|location=Amsterdam|oclc=162570992}}</ref> Transition-metal-catalysed reactions proceed via allylic intermediates '''15''' and have attracted significant interest in recent years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ma|first=Shengming|date=2006-01-01|title=Transition-metal-catalyzed reactions of allenes|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200678020197/html|journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry|volume=78|issue=2|pages=197–208|doi=10.1351/pac200678020197|issn=1365-3075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Roderick W.|last2=Satcharoen|first2=Vachiraporn|date=2002-03-06|title=Nucleophilic transition metal based cyclization of allenes|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=b103904k|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=31|issue=1|pages=12–21|doi=10.1039/b103904k}}</ref> Numerous cycloadditions are also known, including [4+2]-, (2+1)-, and [2+2]-variants, which deliver, e.g., '''12''', '''14''', and '''16''', respectively.<ref name=":72" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cherney|first=Emily C.|last2=Green|first2=Jason C.|last3=Baran|first3=Phil S.|date=2013-08-19|title=Synthesis of ent -Kaurane and Beyerane Diterpenoids by Controlled Fragmentations of Overbred Intermediates|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201304609|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=52|issue=34|pages=9019–9022|doi=10.1002/anie.201304609|pmc=PMC3814173|pmid=23861294}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wiesner|first=K.|date=1975-08|title=On the stereochemistry of photoaddition between α,β-unsaturated ketones and olefins|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0040402075850824|journal=Tetrahedron|language=en|volume=31|issue=15|pages=1655–1658|doi=10.1016/0040-4020(75)85082-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rahman|first=W.|last2=Kuivila|first2=Henry G.|date=1966-03|title=Synthesis of Some Alkylidenecyclopropanes from Allenes 1|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jo01341a029|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=31|issue=3|pages=772–776|doi=10.1021/jo01341a029|issn=0022-3263}}</ref>

[[File:Overview_allene_reactivity_Zhurakovskyi.svg]]


==Occurrence==
===Occurrence===
[[File:Fucoxanthin.svg|thumb|422 px|[[Fucoxanthin]], the most abundant of all carotinoids, is the light-absorbing [[pigment]] in the [[chloroplast]]s of [[brown algae]], giving them a brown or olive-green color.]]
[[File:Fucoxanthin.svg|thumb|422 px|[[Fucoxanthin]], the most abundant of all carotinoids, is the light-absorbing [[pigment]] in the [[chloroplast]]s of [[brown algae]], giving them a brown or olive-green color.]]
Numerous natural products contain the allene functional group. Noteworthy are the pigments [[fucoxanthin]] and [[peridinin]]. Little is known about the biosynthesis, although it is conjectured that they are often generated from alkyne precursors.<ref>{{cite book |title= Modern Allene Chemistry |chapter= 18. Allenic Natural Products and Pharmaceuticals |first1= Norbert |last1= Krause |first2= Anja |last2= Hoffmann‐Röder |editor1-first= Norbert |editor1-last= Krause |editor2-first= A. Stephen K. |editor2-last= Hashmi |year= 2004|pages= 997–1040 |doi= 10.1002/9783527619573.ch18 |isbn= 9783527619573 }}</ref>
Numerous natural products contain the allene functional group. Noteworthy are the pigments [[fucoxanthin]] and [[peridinin]]. Little is known about the biosynthesis, although it is conjectured that they are often generated from alkyne precursors.<ref>{{cite book |title= Modern Allene Chemistry |chapter= 18. Allenic Natural Products and Pharmaceuticals |first1= Norbert |last1= Krause |first2= Anja |last2= Hoffmann‐Röder |editor1-first= Norbert |editor1-last= Krause |editor2-first= A. Stephen K. |editor2-last= Hashmi |year= 2004|pages= 997–1040 |doi= 10.1002/9783527619573.ch18 |isbn= 9783527619573 }}</ref>

Revision as of 13:32, 8 August 2021

For the given name, see Allene (given name).
For the organic compound with the common name allene, see propadiene.
Propadiene, the simplest allene, is also known as allene

Allenes are organic compounds in which one carbon atom has double bonds with each of its two adjacent carbon centres.[1] Allenes are classified as cumulated dienes. The parent compound of this class is propadiene, which is itself also called allene. Compounds with an allene-type structure but with more than three carbon atoms are members of a larger class of compounds called cumulenes with X=C=Y bonding.

History

For many years, allenes were viewed as curiosities but thought to be synthetically useless, difficult to prepare and to work with.[2][3] Reportedly,[4] the first synthesis of an allene, glutinic acid, was performed in an attempt to prove the non-existence of this class of compounds.[5][6] The situation began to change in the 1950s, and more than 300 papers on allenes have been published in 2012 alone.[7] These compounds are not just interesting intermediates but synthetically valuable targets themselves; for example, over 150 natural products are known with an allene or cumulene fragment.[4]

Structure and properties

Geometry

3D view of propadiene (allene)

The central carbon atom of allenes forms two sigma bonds and two pi bonds. The central carbon atom is sp-hybridized, and the two terminal carbon atoms are sp2-hybridized. The bond angle formed by the three carbon atoms is 180°, indicating linear geometry for the central carbon atom. The two terminal carbon atoms are planar, and these planes are twisted 90° from each other. The structure can also be viewed as an "extended tetrahedral" with a similar shape to methane, an analogy that is continued into the stereochemical analysis of certain derivative molecules.

Symmetry

The symmetry and isomerism of allenes has long fascinated organic chemists.[8] For allenes with four identical substituents, there exist two twofold axes of rotation through the central carbon atom, inclined at 45° to the CH2 planes at either end of the molecule. The molecule can thus be thought of as a two-bladed propeller. A third twofold axis of rotation passes through the C=C=C bonds, and there is a mirror plane passing through both CH2 planes. Thus this class of molecules belong to the D2d point group. Because of the symmetry, an unsubstituted allene has no net dipole moment.

R and S configurations are determined by precedences of the groups attached to the axial section of the molecule when viewed along that axis. The front plane is given higher priority over the other and the final assignment is given from priority 2 to 3 (i.e. the relationship between the two planes).

An allene with two different substituents on each of the two carbon atoms will be chiral because there will no longer be any mirror planes. The chirality of these types of allenes was first predicted in 1875 by Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, but not proven experimentally until 1935.[9] Where A has a greater priority than B according to the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules, the configuration of the axial chirality can be determined by considering the substituents on the front atom followed by the back atom when viewed along the allene axis. For the back atom, only the group of higher priority need be considered.

Chiral allenes have been recently used as building blocks in the construction of organic materials with exceptional chiroptical properties.[10] There are a few examples of drug molecule having an allene system in their structure.[11]  Mycomycin, an antibiotic with tuberculostatic properties,[12] is a typical example. This drug exhibits enantiomerism due to the presence of a suitably substituted allene system.

Although the semi-localized textbook σ-π separation model describes the bonding of allene using a pair of localized orthogonal π orbitals, the full molecular orbital description of the bonding is more subtle. The symmetry-correct doubly-degenerate HOMOs of allene (adapted to the D2d point group) can either be represented by a pair of orthogonal MOs or as twisted helical linear combinations of these orthogonal MOs. The symmetry of the system and the implied degeneracy of these orbitals result in both descriptions being correct (in the same way that there are infinitely many ways to depict the doubly degenerate HOMOs and LUMOs of benzene that correspond to different choices of eigenfunctions in a two-dimensional eigenspace). However, this degeneracy is lifted in substituted allenes, and the helical picture becomes the only symmetry-correct description for the HOMO and HOMO–1 of the C2-symmetric 1,3-dimethylallene.[13][14] This qualitative MO description extends to higher odd-carbon cumulenes (e.g., 1,2,3,4-pentatetraene).

Chemical and spectral properties

Allenes differ considerably from other alkenes in terms of their chemical properties. Compared to isolated and conjugated dienes, they are considerably less stable: comparing the isomeric pentadienes, the allenic 1,2-pentadiene has a heat of formation of 33.6 kcal/mol, compared to 18.1 kcal/mol for (E)-1,3-pentadiene and 25.4 kcal/mol for the isolated 1,4-pentadiene.[15]

The C–H bonds of allenes are considerably weaker and more acidic compared to typical vinylic C–H bonds: the bond dissociation energy is 87.7 kcal/mol (compared to 111 kcal/mol in ethylene), while the gas-phase acidity is 381 kcal/mol (compared to 409 kcal/mol for ethylene[16]), making it slightly more acidic than the propargylic C–H bond of propyne (382 kcal/mol).

The 13C NMR spectrum of allenes is characterized by the signal of the sp-hybridized carbon, resonating at a characteristic 200-220 ppm.[17]

Allenes possess a rich cycloaddition chemistry, including both [4+2] and [2+2] modes of addition,[18][19] as well as undergoing formal cycloaddition processes catalyzed by transition metals.[20][21] Allenes also serve as substrates for transition metal catalyzed hydrofunctionalization reactions.[22][23][24]

Synthesis

Although allenes often require specialized syntheses, the parent allene, propadiene is produced industrially on a large scale as an equilibrium mixture with methylacetylene:

H2C=C=CH2 ⇌ H3C–C≡CH

This mixture, known as MAPP gas, is commercially available. At 298 K, the ΔG° of this reaction is –1.9 kcal/mol, corresponding to Keq = 24.7.[25]

The first allene to be synthesized was penta-2,3-dienedioic acid, which was prepared by Burton and Pechmann in 1887. However, the structure was only correctly identified in 1954.[26]

Laboratory methods for the formation of allenes include:

The chemistry of allenes has been reviewed in a number of books[2][33][34][35] and journal articles.[3][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43] Some key approaches towards allenes are outlined in the following scheme:[44][45][46][47]

One of the older methods is the Skattebøl rearrangement[44][48][49] (also called the Doering–Moore–Skattebøl or Doering–LaFlamme[50][51] rearrangement), in which a gem-dihalocyclopropane 3 is treated with an organolithium compound (or dissolving metal) and the presumed intermediate rearranges into an allene either directly or via carbene-like species. Notably, even strained allenes can be generated by this procedure.[52] Modifications involving leaving groups of different nature are also known.[44] Arguably, the most convenient modern method of allene synthesis is by sigmatropic rearrangement of propargylic substrates.[45][46][47] Johnson–Claisen[47] and Ireland–Claisen[53] rearrangements of ketene acetals 4 have been used a number of times to prepare allenic esters and acids. Reactions of vinyl ethers 5 (the Saucy–Marbet rearrangement) give allene aldehydes,[54] while propargylic sulfenates 6 give allene sulfoxides.[55][56] Allenes can also be prepared by nucleophilic substitution in 9 and 10 (nucleophile Nu− can be a hydride anion), 1,2-elimination from 8, proton transfer in 7, and other, less general, methods.[45][46]

Use and occurrence

Use

The reactivity of allenes is rich and opens wide possibilities for discovery.[57][58][59][60] The two π-bonds are located at the 90° angle to each other, and thus require a reagent to approach from somewhat different directions. With an appropriate substitution pattern, allenes exhibit axial chirality as predicted by van’t Hoff as early as 1875.[61] Such compounds are now extensively investigated.[60] Protonation of allenes gives cations 11 that undergo further transformations.56 Reactions with soft electrophiles (e.g. Br+) deliver positively charged onium ions 13.[62] Transition-metal-catalysed reactions proceed via allylic intermediates 15 and have attracted significant interest in recent years.[63][64] Numerous cycloadditions are also known, including [4+2]-, (2+1)-, and [2+2]-variants, which deliver, e.g., 12, 14, and 16, respectively.[57][65][66][67]

Occurrence

Fucoxanthin, the most abundant of all carotinoids, is the light-absorbing pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae, giving them a brown or olive-green color.

Numerous natural products contain the allene functional group. Noteworthy are the pigments fucoxanthin and peridinin. Little is known about the biosynthesis, although it is conjectured that they are often generated from alkyne precursors.[68]

Allenes serve as ligands in organometallic chemistry. A typical complex is Pt(η2-allene)(PPh3)2. Ni(0) reagents catalyze the cyclooligomerization of allene.[69] Using a suitable catalyst (e.g. Wilkinson's catalyst), it is possible to reduce just one of the double bonds of an allene.[70]

Delta convention

Many rings or ring systems are known by semisystematic names that assume a maximum number of noncumulative bonds. To unambiguously specify derivatives that include cumulated bonds (and hence fewer hydrogen atoms than would be expected from the skeleton), a lowercase delta may be used with a subscript indicating the number of cumulated double bonds from that atom, e.g. 8δ2-benzocyclononene. This may be combined with the λ-convention for specifying nonstandard valency states, e.g. 2λ4δ2,5λ4δ2-thieno[3,4-c]thiophene.[71]

See also

  • Compounds with three or more adjacent carbon–carbon double bonds are called cumulenes.

References

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Further reading

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