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'''Biotransformation''' is the bichemical modification of one or a mixture chemical compounds. Biotransformations can be conducted with whole cells or their lysates. Increasingly, biotransformations are effected with purified [[enzyme]]s. Major industries and useful technologies depend on biotransformations.<ref>{{cite book|title=Industrial biotransformations|authors=Andreas Liese, Karsten Seelbach, Christian Wandrey|edition=2|publisher=Wiley-VCH|location=Weinheim|year=2006|isbn= 9783527310012 |isbn2=9783527608188|doi=10.1002/3527608184}}</ref> |
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==Pro's and cons== |
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Biotransformations are often attractive because their selectivities can be high, limiting the coproduction of undesirable coproducts. Generally operate under mild temperatures and pressures in aqueous solutions, many biotransformations are [[green chemistry|"green"]]. The catalysts, i.e. the enzymes, are amenable to improvement by genetic manipulation. |
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Biotransformations can be slow and are often incompatible with high temperatures to increase rates. Enzymes are generally only stable < 100 ºC, and usually much lower. Enzymes, like other catalysts are poisonable. |
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==Historical== |
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Wine and beer making are examples of biotransformations that have been practiced since ancient times. Vinegar is produced by fermentation, involving the oxidation of ethanol to [[acetic acid]]. Cheesemaking]] traditionally relies on microbes. Yogurt is produced using the enzyme [[renin]]. |
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==Modern examples== |
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===Pharmaceuticals=== |
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[[Steroid]]s are [[hydroxylate]]d into bioactive drugs. [[Beta-lactam antibiotic]]s are produced by biotransformations. |
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===Sugars=== |
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Cyclodextrins are produced by [[transferase]]s. [[High fructose corn syrup]] is generated by |
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===Amino acids=== |
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[[Amino acid]]s are sometimes produced by [[transaminase]]s. In some cases, amino acids are obtain by biotransformations of peptides using [[peptidase]]s. |
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===Acrylamide=== |
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With [[acrylonitrile]] and water as substrates, [[nitrile hydratase]] enzymes are used to produce [[acrylamide]], a valued [[monomer]]. |
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| ⚫ | <!--<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gaion A, Sartori D, Scuderi A, Fattorini D |date=2014 |title=Bioaccumulation and biotransformation of arsenic compounds in Hediste diversicolor (Muller 1776) after exposure to spiked sediments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-014-2538-z|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=21 |pages=5952–5959|doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2538-z}}</ref> If this modification ends in mineral compounds like [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]], [[ammonium|NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>]], or [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]], the biotransformation is called [[Mineralization (biology)|mineralisation]]. |
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Biotransformation means chemical alteration of chemicals such as [[nutrient]]s, [[amino acids]], [[toxins]], and drugs in the body. It is also needed to render non-[[Chemical polarity|polar compounds]] polar so that they are not reabsorbed in renal tubules and are excreted. Biotransformation of xenobiotics can dominate [[toxicokinetics]] and the metabolites may reach higher concentrations in organisms than their parent compounds.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ashauer | first1 = R | last2 = Hintermeister | first2 = A | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = I | last4 = Elumelu | first4 = M |display-authors=et al | year = 2012 | title = Significance of Xenobiotic Metabolism for Bioaccumulation Kinetics of Organic Chemicals in Gammarus pulex | doi = 10.1021/es204611h | pmid = 22321051 | pmc = 3308200 | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 46| issue = 6| pages = 3498–3508}}</ref> Recently its application is seen as an efficient, cost effective, and easily applicable approach for the valorization of agricultural wastes with potentials of enhancing existing bioactive components and synthesis of new compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchenna |first1=Amadi |last2=Uchechi |first2=Ogunka-Nnoka |last3=Bene |first3=Abbey |title=Properties of oils from plantain pseudostem biotransformed using crude local enzyme sources: a comparison of poultry feed oil |journal=Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric |date=2018 |volume=10 |doi=10.2174/2212798410666181217141311 |pmid=30556509}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amadi |first1=Peter |last2=Ogunka-Nnoka |first2=Charity |last3=Bene |first3=Abbey |title=Biotransformation of plantain pseudostem fibres using local enzyme sources; analysis of their potential as commercial poultry feed |journal=Biocatalysis and Biotransformation |volume=36 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/10242422.2018.1532412 |year=2018 }}</ref> |
Biotransformation means chemical alteration of chemicals such as [[nutrient]]s, [[amino acids]], [[toxins]], and drugs in the body. It is also needed to render non-[[Chemical polarity|polar compounds]] polar so that they are not reabsorbed in renal tubules and are excreted. Biotransformation of xenobiotics can dominate [[toxicokinetics]] and the metabolites may reach higher concentrations in organisms than their parent compounds.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ashauer | first1 = R | last2 = Hintermeister | first2 = A | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = I | last4 = Elumelu | first4 = M |display-authors=et al | year = 2012 | title = Significance of Xenobiotic Metabolism for Bioaccumulation Kinetics of Organic Chemicals in Gammarus pulex | doi = 10.1021/es204611h | pmid = 22321051 | pmc = 3308200 | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 46| issue = 6| pages = 3498–3508}}</ref> Recently its application is seen as an efficient, cost effective, and easily applicable approach for the valorization of agricultural wastes with potentials of enhancing existing bioactive components and synthesis of new compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchenna |first1=Amadi |last2=Uchechi |first2=Ogunka-Nnoka |last3=Bene |first3=Abbey |title=Properties of oils from plantain pseudostem biotransformed using crude local enzyme sources: a comparison of poultry feed oil |journal=Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric |date=2018 |volume=10 |doi=10.2174/2212798410666181217141311 |pmid=30556509}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amadi |first1=Peter |last2=Ogunka-Nnoka |first2=Charity |last3=Bene |first3=Abbey |title=Biotransformation of plantain pseudostem fibres using local enzyme sources; analysis of their potential as commercial poultry feed |journal=Biocatalysis and Biotransformation |volume=36 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/10242422.2018.1532412 |year=2018 }}</ref> |
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==Metabolic engineering and biocatalytic applications== |
==Metabolic engineering and biocatalytic applications== |
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The study of the fate of persistent organic chemicals in the environment has revealed a large reservoir of enzymatic reactions with a large potential in preparative organic synthesis, which has already been exploited for a number of [[oxygenase]]s on pilot and even on industrial scale. Novel catalysts can be obtained from [[metagenomic]] libraries and [[DNA sequence]] based approaches. Our increasing capabilities in adapting the catalysts to specific reactions and process requirements by rational and random [[mutagenesis]] broadens the scope for application in the fine chemical industry, but also in the field of [[biodegradation]]. In many cases, these catalysts need to be exploited in whole cell [[bioconversion]]s or in [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]]s, calling for system-wide approaches to understanding strain physiology and metabolism and rational approaches to the engineering of whole cells as they are increasingly put forward in the area of systems [[biotechnology]] and [[synthetic biology]].<ref name=chapter12>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.horizonpress.com/biod|author=Meyer A and Panke S|year=2008|chapter=Genomics in Metabolic Engineering and Biocatalytic Applications of the Pollutant Degradation Machinery|title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn=978-1-904455-17-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/microbialbiodegr0000unse}}</ref> |
The study of the fate of persistent organic chemicals in the environment has revealed a large reservoir of enzymatic reactions with a large potential in preparative organic synthesis, which has already been exploited for a number of [[oxygenase]]s on pilot and even on industrial scale. Novel catalysts can be obtained from [[metagenomic]] libraries and [[DNA sequence]] based approaches. Our increasing capabilities in adapting the catalysts to specific reactions and process requirements by rational and random [[mutagenesis]] broadens the scope for application in the fine chemical industry, but also in the field of [[biodegradation]]. In many cases, these catalysts need to be exploited in whole cell [[bioconversion]]s or in [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]]s, calling for system-wide approaches to understanding strain physiology and metabolism and rational approaches to the engineering of whole cells as they are increasingly put forward in the area of systems [[biotechnology]] and [[synthetic biology]].<ref name=chapter12>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.horizonpress.com/biod|author=Meyer A and Panke S|year=2008|chapter=Genomics in Metabolic Engineering and Biocatalytic Applications of the Pollutant Degradation Machinery|title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn=978-1-904455-17-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/microbialbiodegr0000unse}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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[[Category:Bioremediation]] |
[[Category:Bioremediation]] |
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Revision as of 19:45, 13 February 2022
Biotransformation is the bichemical modification of one or a mixture chemical compounds. Biotransformations can be conducted with whole cells or their lysates. Increasingly, biotransformations are effected with purified enzymes. Major industries and useful technologies depend on biotransformations.[1]
Pro's and cons
Biotransformations are often attractive because their selectivities can be high, limiting the coproduction of undesirable coproducts. Generally operate under mild temperatures and pressures in aqueous solutions, many biotransformations are "green". The catalysts, i.e. the enzymes, are amenable to improvement by genetic manipulation.
Biotransformations can be slow and are often incompatible with high temperatures to increase rates. Enzymes are generally only stable < 100 ºC, and usually much lower. Enzymes, like other catalysts are poisonable.
Historical
Wine and beer making are examples of biotransformations that have been practiced since ancient times. Vinegar is produced by fermentation, involving the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid. Cheesemaking]] traditionally relies on microbes. Yogurt is produced using the enzyme renin.
Modern examples
Pharmaceuticals
Steroids are hydroxylated into bioactive drugs. Beta-lactam antibiotics are produced by biotransformations.
Sugars
Cyclodextrins are produced by transferases. High fructose corn syrup is generated by
Amino acids
Amino acids are sometimes produced by transaminases. In some cases, amino acids are obtain by biotransformations of peptides using peptidases.
Acrylamide
With acrylonitrile and water as substrates, nitrile hydratase enzymes are used to produce acrylamide, a valued monomer.
See also
References
- ^ Industrial biotransformations (2 ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2006. doi:10.1002/3527608184. ISBN 9783527310012.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|authors=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|isbn2=ignored (help)