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Coordinates: Sky map 10h 56m 28.99s, +07° 00′ 52″
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=


<ref name="Liefke2007">{{cite journal |last1=Liefke |first1=C. |last2=Reiners |first2=A. |last3=Schmitt |first3=J. H. M. M. |title=Magnetic field variations and a giant flare Multiwavelength observations of CN Leo |journal=Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana |date=January 2007 |volume=78 |pages=258-260 |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007MmSAI..78..258L |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Liefke2007">{{cite journal |last1=Liefke |first1=C. |last2=Reiners |first2=A. |last3=Schmitt |first3=J. H. M. M. |title=Magnetic field variations and a giant flare Multiwavelength observations of CN Leo |journal=Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana |date=January 2007 |volume=78 |pages=258-260 |bibcode=2007MmSAI..78..258L }}</ref>


<ref name=Mv>Assuming negligible [[Extinction (astronomy)|extinction]] at this distance, the absolute magnitude ''M'' is determined as follows:
<ref name=Mv>Assuming negligible [[Extinction (astronomy)|extinction]] at this distance, the absolute magnitude ''M'' is determined as follows:
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<ref name="apj451">{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Robinson | first1=R. D. | last2=Carpenter | first2=K. G. | last3=Percival | first3=J. W. | last4=Bookbinder | first4=J. A. | title=A search for microflaring activity on dMe flare stars. I. Observations of the dM8e Star CN Leonis | journal=Astrophysical Journal | date=1995 | volume=451 | pages=795–805 | bibcode=1995ApJ...451..795R | doi=10.1086/176266 }}</ref>
<ref name="apj451">{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Robinson | first1=R. D. | last2=Carpenter | first2=K. G. | last3=Percival | first3=J. W. | last4=Bookbinder | first4=J. A. | title=A search for microflaring activity on dMe flare stars. I. Observations of the dM8e Star CN Leonis | journal=Astrophysical Journal | date=1995 | volume=451 | pages=795–805 | bibcode=1995ApJ...451..795R | doi=10.1086/176266 }}</ref>


<ref name="aaa466">{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Reiners |first1=Ansgar |last2=Schmitt |first2=Jürgen H. M. M. |last3=Liefke |first3=Carolin |title=Rapid magnetic flux variability on the flare star CN Leonis |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=2007 |volume=466 |issue=2 |pages=L13–L16 |bibcode=2007A&A...466L..13R |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20077095 |arxiv=astro-ph/0703172 |s2cid=17926213 |url=http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/aa/pdf/2007/17/aa7095-07.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="aaa466">{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Reiners |first1=Ansgar |last2=Schmitt |first2=Jürgen H. M. M. |last3=Liefke |first3=Carolin |title=Rapid magnetic flux variability on the flare star CN Leonis |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=2007 |volume=466 |issue=2 |pages=L13–L16 |bibcode=2007A&A...466L..13R |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20077095 |arxiv=astro-ph/0703172 |s2cid=17926213 }}</ref>


<ref name=noao070107>{{cite news | author=Staff | date=January 7, 2007 | title=Calling Dr. Frankenstein! : interactive binaries show signs of induced hyperactivity | publisher=National Optical Astronomy Observatory | url=http://www.noao.edu/outreach/press/pr07/pr0701.html | access-date=2006-05-24 }}</ref>
<ref name=noao070107>{{cite news | author=Staff | date=January 7, 2007 | title=Calling Dr. Frankenstein! : interactive binaries show signs of induced hyperactivity | publisher=National Optical Astronomy Observatory }}</ref>


<ref name=apj450_9>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Schmitt | first1=J. H. M. M. | last2=Fleming | first2=T. A. | last3=Giampapa | first3=M. S. | title=The X-ray view of the low-mass stars in the solar neighborhood | journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=September 1995 | volume=450 | issue=9 | pages=392–400 | bibcode=1995ApJ...450..392S | doi=10.1086/176149 }}</ref>
<ref name=apj450_9>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Schmitt | first1=J. H. M. M. | last2=Fleming | first2=T. A. | last3=Giampapa | first3=M. S. | title=The X-ray view of the low-mass stars in the solar neighborhood | journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=September 1995 | volume=450 | issue=9 | pages=392–400 | bibcode=1995ApJ...450..392S | doi=10.1086/176149 }}</ref>
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<ref name=cook_jewell95>{{cite web | display-authors=1 | last1=McCook | first1=G. P. | last2=Jewell | first2=E. R. | date=1995 | title=Fully convective M dwarfs | publisher=Villanova University | url=http://www.csc.villanova.edu/~astronom/obs95/node12.html | access-date=2010-05-17 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615064340/http://www.csc.villanova.edu/~astronom/obs95/node12.html | archive-date=2011-06-15 }}</ref>
<ref name=cook_jewell95>{{cite web | display-authors=1 | last1=McCook | first1=G. P. | last2=Jewell | first2=E. R. | date=1995 | title=Fully convective M dwarfs | publisher=Villanova University | url=http://www.csc.villanova.edu/~astronom/obs95/node12.html | access-date=2010-05-17 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615064340/http://www.csc.villanova.edu/~astronom/obs95/node12.html | archive-date=2011-06-15 }}</ref>


<ref name=apj161>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Greenstein | first1=Jesse L. | last2=Neugebauer | first2=G. | last3=Becklin | first3=E. E. | title=The faint end of the main sequence | journal=Astrophysical Journal | volume=161 | pages=519 |date=August 1970 | doi=10.1086/150556 | bibcode=1970ApJ...161..519G | url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/74718/1/1970ApJ___161__519G.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name=apj161>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Greenstein | first1=Jesse L. | last2=Neugebauer | first2=G. | last3=Becklin | first3=E. E. | title=The faint end of the main sequence | journal=Astrophysical Journal | volume=161 | pages=519 |date=August 1970 | doi=10.1086/150556 | bibcode=1970ApJ...161..519G }}</ref>


<ref name=adams04>{{cite conference | display-authors=1 | last1=Adams | first1=Fred C. | last2=Laughlin | first2=Gregory | last3=Graves | first3=Genevieve J. M. | title=Red dwarfs and the end of the main sequence | book-title=Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets | pages=46–49 |date=December 2004 | publisher=Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica | bibcode=2004RMxAC..22...46A }}</ref>
<ref name=adams04>{{cite conference | display-authors=1 | last1=Adams | first1=Fred C. | last2=Laughlin | first2=Gregory | last3=Graves | first3=Genevieve J. M. | title=Red dwarfs and the end of the main sequence | book-title=Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets | pages=46–49 |date=December 2004 | publisher=Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica | bibcode=2004RMxAC..22...46A }}</ref>
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<ref name=aaa538_A141>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Rodler | first1=F. | last2=Deshpande | first2=R. | last3=Zapatero Osorio | first3=M. R. | last4=Martín | first4=E. L. | last5=Montgomery | first5=M. M. | last6=Del Burgo | first6=C. | last7=Creevey | first7=O. L. | title=Search for radial velocity variations in eight M-dwarfs with NIRSPEC/Keck II | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=538 | page=A141 |date=February 2012 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201117577 | bibcode=2012A&A...538A.141R | arxiv=1112.1382 | s2cid=56103966 }}</ref>
<ref name=aaa538_A141>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Rodler | first1=F. | last2=Deshpande | first2=R. | last3=Zapatero Osorio | first3=M. R. | last4=Martín | first4=E. L. | last5=Montgomery | first5=M. M. | last6=Del Burgo | first6=C. | last7=Creevey | first7=O. L. | title=Search for radial velocity variations in eight M-dwarfs with NIRSPEC/Keck II | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=538 | page=A141 |date=February 2012 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201117577 | bibcode=2012A&A...538A.141R | arxiv=1112.1382 | s2cid=56103966 }}</ref>


<ref name=apj748_2_934>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Rojas-Ayala | first1=Bárbara | last2=Covey | first2=Kevin R. | last3=Muirhead | first3=Philip S. | last4=Lloyd | first4=James P. | title=Metallicity and temperature indicators in M dwarf K-band spectra: testing new and updated calibrations with observations of 133 solar neighborhood M dwarfs | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=748 | issue=2 | page=93 |date=April 2012 | doi=10.1088/0004-637X/748/2/93 | bibcode=2012ApJ...748...93R | arxiv=1112.4567 | s2cid=41902340 | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/31363/1/RojasAyala2012p18033Astrophys_J.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name=apj748_2_934>{{cite journal | display-authors=1 | last1=Rojas-Ayala | first1=Bárbara | last2=Covey | first2=Kevin R. | last3=Muirhead | first3=Philip S. | last4=Lloyd | first4=James P. | title=Metallicity and temperature indicators in M dwarf K-band spectra: testing new and updated calibrations with observations of 133 solar neighborhood M dwarfs | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=748 | issue=2 | page=93 |date=April 2012 | doi=10.1088/0004-637X/748/2/93 | bibcode=2012ApJ...748...93R | arxiv=1112.4567 | s2cid=41902340 }}</ref>


<ref name="aaa555_A104">{{cite journal | display-authors=1
<ref name="aaa555_A104">{{cite journal | display-authors=1

Revision as of 14:01, 8 June 2022

This article is about the star. For the fictional Star Trek battle, see Battle of Wolf 359. For the The Outer Limits episode, see Wolf 359 (The Outer Limits). For the podcast, see Wolf 359 (podcast).
Wolf 359

Wolf 359 is the orange-hued star located just above the center of this 2009 astrophotograph.
Observation data
Epoch J2000      Equinox J2000
Constellation Leo
Right ascension 10h 56m 28.921s[1]
Declination +07° 00′ 53.00″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V) 13.507[2]
Characteristics
Spectral type M6V[3]
Apparent magnitude (J) 7.1[4]
Apparent magnitude (K) 6.1[4]
U−B color index +1.165[2]
B−V color index +2.034[2]
Variable type UV Ceti[5]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)+19 ± 1[6] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: –3,866[1] mas/yr
Dec.: –2,699[1] mas/yr
Parallax (π)415.1794 ± 0.0684 mas[1]
Distance7.856 ± 0.001 ly
(2.4086 ± 0.0004 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)16.65[7]
Details
Mass0.09[8] M☉
Radius0.16[9] R☉
Luminosity (bolometric)0.0014 L☉
Luminosity (visual, LV)0.00002 L☉
Habitable zone inner limit0.024[10] AU
Habitable zone outer limit0.052[10] AU
Surface gravity (log g)5.5[11] cgs
Temperature2,800 ± 100[12] K
Metallicity [Fe/H]+0.18 ± 0.17[13] dex
Rotational velocity (v sin i)< 3.0[6] km/s
Age100–350[12] Myr
Other designations
CN Leonis, CN Leo, GJ 406, G 045-020, LTT 12923, LFT 750, LHS 36, GCTP 2553[14]
Database references
SIMBADdata
Wolf 359 is located in the constellation Leo.
Wolf 359 is located in the constellation Leo.
Wolf 359
Wolf 359 is shown near the ecliptic in the southern region of Leo

Wolf 359 is a red dwarf star located in the constellation Leo, near the ecliptic. At a distance of approximately 7.9 light years from Earth, it has an apparent magnitude of 13.54 and can only be seen with a large telescope. Wolf 359 is one of the nearest stars to the Sun; only the Alpha Centauri system (including Proxima Centauri), Barnard's Star, the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 (WISE 1049-5319), and WISE 0855−0714 are known to be closer. Its proximity to Earth has led to its mention in several works of fiction.

Wolf 359 is one of the faintest and lowest-mass stars known. At the light-emitting layer called the photosphere, it has a temperature of about 2,800 K, which is low enough for chemical compounds to form and survive. The absorption lines of compounds such as water and titanium(II) oxide have been observed in the spectrum.[15] The surface has a magnetic field that is stronger than the average magnetic field on the Sun. As a result of magnetic activity caused by convection, Wolf 359 is a flare star that can undergo sudden increases in luminosity for several minutes. These flares emit strong bursts of X-ray and gamma ray radiation that have been observed by space telescopes. Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years. Two planetary companions are suspected but as yet no debris disks have been unmasked.[16]

Observation history and name

Wolf 359 first came to the attention of astronomers because of the relatively high rate of transverse motion against the background, known as the proper motion. A high rate of proper motion can indicate that a star is located nearby, as more distant stars must move at higher velocities in order to achieve the same rate of angular travel across the celestial sphere. The proper motion of Wolf 359 was first measured in 1917 by German astronomer Max Wolf, with the aid of astrophotography. In 1919 he published a catalog of over one thousand stars with high proper motions, including this one, that are still identified by his name.[17] He listed this star as entry number 359, and the star has since been referred to as Wolf 359 in reference to Max Wolf's catalogue.[18]

The first parallax measurement of Wolf 359 was reported in 1928 from the Mount Wilson Observatory, yielding an annual shift in the star's position of 0.407 ± 0.009 arcseconds. From this position change, and the known size of the Earth's orbit, the distance to the star could be estimated. It was the lowest-mass and faintest star known until the discovery of VB 10 in 1944.[19][20] The infrared magnitude of the star was measured in 1957.[21] In 1969, a brief flare in the luminosity of Wolf 359 was observed, linking it to the class of variable stars known as flare stars.[22]

Properties

Wolf 359 has a stellar classification of M6,[3] although various sources list a spectral class of M5.5,[23] M6.5[24] or M8.[25] Most M-type stars are red dwarfs: they are called red because the energy emission of the star reaches a peak in the red and infrared parts of the spectrum.[26] Wolf 359 has a very low luminosity, emitting about 0.1% of the Sun's energy.[12][27] If it were moved to the location of the Sun, it would appear ten times as bright as the full Moon.[28]

At an estimated 9% of the Sun's mass, Wolf 359 is just above the lowest limit at which a star can perform hydrogen fusion through the proton–proton chain reaction: 8% of the Sun's mass.[29] (Substellar objects below this limit are known as brown dwarfs.) The radius of Wolf 359 is an estimated 16% of the Sun's radius, or about 110,000 km.[30] For comparison, the equatorial radius of the planet Jupiter is 71,492 km, which is 65% as large as Wolf 359's.[31]

The entire star is undergoing convection, whereby the energy generated at the core is being transported toward the surface by the convective motion of plasma, rather than by transmission through radiation. This circulation redistributes any accumulation of helium that is generated through stellar nucleosynthesis at the core throughout the star.[32] This process will allow the star to remain on the main sequence as a hydrogen fusing star proportionately longer than a star such as the Sun where helium steadily accumulates at the core. In combination with a lower rate of hydrogen consumption due to its low mass, the convection will allow Wolf 359 to remain a main-sequence star for about eight trillion years.[33]

A search of this star by the Hubble Space Telescope revealed no stellar companions, but two candidate planets have since been detected.[34] No excess infrared emission has been detected, which may indicate the lack of a debris disk in orbit around it.[35][36] Radial velocity measurements of this star using the Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSPEC) instrument at the Keck II observatory have not revealed any variations that might otherwise indicate the presence of an orbiting companion. This instrumentation is sensitive enough to detect the gravitational perturbations of massive, short period companions with the mass of Neptune or greater.[37]

Outer atmosphere

The outer, light-emitting layer of a star is known as the photosphere. Temperature estimates of the photosphere of Wolf 359 range from 2,500 K to 2,900 K,[38] which is sufficiently cool for equilibrium chemistry to occur. The resulting chemical compounds survive long enough to be observed through their spectral lines.[39] Numerous molecular bands appear in the spectrum of Wolf 359, including those of carbon monoxide (CO),[40] iron hydride (FeH), chromium hydride (CrH), water (H2O),[15] magnesium hydride (MgH), vanadium(II) oxide (VO),[12] titanium(II) oxide (TiO) and possibly the molecule CaOH.[41] Since there are no lines of lithium in the spectrum, this element must have already been consumed by fusion at the core. This indicates the star must be at least 100 million years old.[12]

Beyond the photosphere lies a nebulous, high temperature region known as the stellar corona. In 2001, Wolf 359 became the first star other than the Sun to have the spectrum of its corona observed from a ground-based telescope. The spectrum showed emission lines of Fe XIII, which is heavily ionized iron that has been stripped of twelve of its electrons.[42] The strength of this line can vary over a time period of several hours, which may be evidence of microflare heating.[12]

A blue band light curve for a flare on CN Leonis, adapted from Liefke et al. (2007)[43]

Wolf 359 is classified as a UV Ceti-type flare star,[5] which is a star that undergoes brief, energetic increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity in the photosphere. Its variable star designation is CN Leonis. Wolf 359 has a relatively high flare rate. Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope detected 32 flare events within a two-hour period, with energies of 1027 ergs (1020 joules) and higher.[25] The mean magnetic field at the surface of Wolf 359 has a strength of about 2.2 kG (0.22 teslas), but this varies significantly on time scales as short as six hours.[23] By comparison, the magnetic field of the Sun averages 1 gauss (100 μT), although it can rise as high as 3 kG (0.3 T) in active sunspot regions.[44] During flare activity, Wolf 359 has been observed emitting X-rays and gamma rays.[45][46]

Motion

Distances of the nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 years in the future. Wolf 359 is not shown, but it currently has a distance of 7.9ly and increasing, with the minimum of 7.3ly at about -13,850 years

The rotation of a star causes a Doppler shift to the spectrum. On average, this results in a broadening of the absorption lines in its spectrum, with the lines increasing in width with higher rates of rotation. However, only the rotational motion in the direction of the observer can be measured by this means, so the resulting data provides a lower limit on the star's rotation. This projected rotational velocity of Wolf 359's equator is less than 3 km/s, which is below the threshold of detection through spectral line broadening.[6] This low rate of rotation may have been caused by loss of angular momentum through a stellar wind. Typically, the time scale for the spin down of a star at spectral class M6 is roughly 10 billion years, because fully convective stars like this lose their rotation more slowly than other stars.[47] However, evolutionary models suggest that Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years.[12]

The proper motion Wolf 359 against the background is 4.696 arcseconds per year, and it is moving away from the Sun at a velocity of 19 km/s.[6][8] When translated into the galactic coordinate system, this motion corresponds to a space velocity of (U, V, W) = (−26, −44, −18) km/s.[48] The space velocity of Wolf 359 implies that it belongs to the population of old-disk stars. It follows an orbit through the Milky Way that will bring it as close as 20.5 kly (6.3 kpc) and as distant as 28 kly (8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The galactic orbit has an eccentricity of 0.156, and the star can travel as far as 444 light-years (136 pc) away from the galactic plane.[49] The closest stellar neighbor to Wolf 359 is the red dwarf Ross 128 at 3.79 ly (1.16 pc) away.[50] Approximately 13,850 years ago, Wolf 359 was at its minimal distance of about 7.35 ly (2.25 pc) from the Sun.[51]

Planetary system

In June of 2019, an international team of astronomers led by Mikko Tuomi from the University of Hertfordshire, UK, submitted a paper to a publication for peer-review with the results of the first reported detection of two candidate exoplanets orbiting Wolf 359 using the radial velocity method from observations with HARPS in Chile and HIRES in Hawaii.[16] The setup of the system is similar to but more extreme than that of nearby red dwarf Proxima Centauri, both having a close-in low-mass planet and a farther out higher-mass planet. The inner planet, Wolf 359c, receives about three times more stellar radiation than Earth does, making it very unlikely to be a habitable planet.[16]

The Wolf 359 planetary system
Companion
(in order from star) 		Mass Semimajor axis
(AU) 		Orbital period
(days) 		Eccentricity Inclination Radius
c 3.8+2.0
−1.6 M🜨 		0.018±0.002 2.68687+0.00039
−0.00031 		0.15+0.20
−0.15 		— —
b 43.9+29.5
−23.9 M🜨 		1.845+0.289
−0.258 		2,938±436 0.04+0.27
−0.04 		— —

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Brown, A. G. A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (2021). "Gaia Early Data Release 3: Summary of the contents and survey properties". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 649: A1. arXiv:2012.01533. Bibcode:2021A&A...649A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039657. S2CID 227254300. (Erratum: doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039657e). Gaia EDR3 record for this source at VizieR.
  2. ^ a b c Landolt, Arlo U. (May 2009). "UBVRI photometric standard stars around the celestial equator: Updates and Additions". The Astronomical Journal. 137 (5): 4186–4269. arXiv:0904.0638. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.4186L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/5/4186. S2CID 118627330. See table II.
  3. ^ a b Henry, Todd J.; et al. (October 1994). "The solar neighborhood, 1: Standard spectral types (K5-M8) for northern dwarfs within eight parsecs". The Astronomical Journal. 108 (4): 1437–1444. Bibcode:1994AJ....108.1437H. doi:10.1086/117167.
  4. ^ a b Cutri, Roc M.; Skrutskie, Michael F.; Van Dyk, Schuyler D.; Beichman, Charles A.; Carpenter, John M.; Chester, Thomas; Cambresy, Laurent; Evans, Tracey E.; Fowler, John W.; Gizis, John E.; Howard, Elizabeth V.; Huchra, John P.; Jarrett, Thomas H.; Kopan, Eugene L.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Light, Robert M.; Marsh, Kenneth A.; McCallon, Howard L.; Schneider, Stephen E.; Stiening, Rae; Sykes, Matthew J.; Weinberg, Martin D.; Wheaton, William A.; Wheelock, Sherry L.; Zacarias, N. (2003). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point Sources (Cutri+ 2003)". CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2246: II/246. Bibcode:2003yCat.2246....0C.
  5. ^ a b Gershberg, R. E.; et al. (1983). "Characteristics of activity energetics of the UV Cet-type flare stars". Astrophysics and Space Science. 95 (2): 235–253. Bibcode:1983Ap&SS..95..235G. doi:10.1007/BF00653631. S2CID 122101052.
  6. ^ a b c d Mohanty, Subhanjoy; et al. (2003). "Rotation and activity in mid-M to L field dwarfs". The Astrophysical Journal. 583 (1): 451–472. arXiv:astro-ph/0201455. Bibcode:2003ApJ...583..451M. doi:10.1086/345097. S2CID 119463177.
  7. ^ Assuming negligible extinction at this distance, the absolute magnitude M is determined as follows:
    M = m – 5(log10( D ) – 1)
    = 13.54 – 5(log10( 2.39 ) – 1)
    = 13.54 – 5(0.378 – 1) = 16.65

    where m is the apparent magnitude, D is the distance in parsecs and log10 is the base-10 logarithm. See:

    Lang, Kenneth R. (2006). Astrophysical formulae. Astronomy and Astrophysics Library. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Birkhäuser. p. 31. ISBN 978-3-540-29692-8.
  8. ^ a b Staff (June 8, 2007). "List of the nearest 100 stellar systems". Research Consortium on Nearby Stars. Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  9. ^ Doyle, J. G.; et al. (1990). "Optical and infrared photometry of dwarf M and K stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 235 (1–2): 335–339. Bibcode:1990A&A...235..335D.
  10. ^ a b Cantrell, Justin R.; et al. (October 2013). "The Solar Neighborhood XXIX: The Habitable Real Estate of Our Nearest Stellar Neighbors". The Astronomical Journal. 146 (4): 99. arXiv:1307.7038. Bibcode:2013AJ....146...99C. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/146/4/99. S2CID 44208180.
  11. ^ Fuhrmeister, B.; et al. (September 2005). "PHOENIX model chromospheres of mid- to late-type M dwarfs". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 439 (3): 1137–1148. arXiv:astro-ph/0505375. Bibcode:2005A&A...439.1137F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042338. S2CID 16499769.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Pavlenko, Ya. V.; et al. (2006). "Spectral energy distribution for GJ406". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 447 (2): 709–717. arXiv:astro-ph/0510570. Bibcode:2006A&A...447..709P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20052979. S2CID 119068354.
  13. ^ Rojas-Ayala, Bárbara; et al. (April 2012). "Metallicity and temperature indicators in M dwarf K-band spectra: testing new and updated calibrations with observations of 133 solar neighborhood M dwarfs". The Astrophysical Journal. 748 (2): 93. arXiv:1112.4567. Bibcode:2012ApJ...748...93R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/748/2/93. S2CID 41902340.
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