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In [[physical geography]], terrain is the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the [[elevation]], [[slope]], and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect [[weather]] and [[climate]] patterns.
In [[physical geography]], terrain is the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the [[elevation]], [[slope]], and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect [[weather]] and [[climate]] patterns.


==Importance==
== Importance ==
The understanding of terrain is critical for many reasons:
The understanding of terrain is critical for many reasons:
* The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter [[alluvial plain]]s tend to have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.
* The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter [[alluvial plain]]s tend to have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.
* In terms of [[environmental quality]], [[agriculture]], [[hydrology]] and other interdisciplinary sciences;<ref name=baker2011>Baker, N.T., and Capel, P.D., 2011, "Environmental factors that influence the location of crop agriculture in the conterminous United States": U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5108, 72 p.</ref> understanding the terrain of an area assists the understanding of [[drainage divide|watershed boundaries]], [[drainage basin|drainage characteristics]],<ref>Brush, L. M. (1961). "Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in central Pennsylvania" (pp. 1-44) (United States, U.S. Department of the Interior, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY). Washington D.C.: UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. Retrieved October 29, 2017, from https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282f/report.pdf</ref> [[drainage system (geomorphology)|drainage systems]], [[hydrogeology|groundwater systems]], [[drainage|water movement]], and impacts on [[water quality#Environmental water quality|water quality]]. Complex arrays of relief data are used as input parameters for [[hydrology transport model]]s (such as the [[SWMM]] or [[DSSAM Model]]s) to allow prediction of river [[water pollution|water quality]].
* In terms of [[environmental quality]], [[agriculture]], [[hydrology]] and other interdisciplinary sciences;<ref name=baker2011>{{cite book|last1=Baker |first1=N.T. |last2=Capel |first2=P.D. |date=2011 |chapter=Environmental factors that influence the location of crop agriculture in the conterminous United States |title=U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5108 |publisher=[[U.S. Geological Survey]] |page=72}}</ref> understanding the terrain of an area assists the understanding of [[drainage divide|watershed boundaries]], [[drainage basin|drainage characteristics]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Brush |first=L. M. |date=1961 |title=Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in central Pennsylvania |pages=1–44 |work=U.S. Department of the Interior, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=[[U.S. Geological Survey]] |access-date=October 29, 2017 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0282f/report.pdf}}</ref> [[drainage system (geomorphology)|drainage systems]], [[hydrogeology|groundwater systems]], [[drainage|water movement]], and impacts on [[water quality#Environmental water quality|water quality]]. Complex arrays of relief data are used as input parameters for [[hydrology transport model]]s (such as the [[SWMM]] or [[DSSAM Model]]s) to allow prediction of river [[water pollution|water quality]].
* Understanding terrain also supports [[soil conservation]], especially in agriculture. [[Contour ploughing]] is an established practice enabling [[sustainable agriculture]] on sloping land; it is the practice of ploughing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a slope.
* Understanding terrain also supports [[soil conservation]], especially in agriculture. [[Contour ploughing]] is an established practice enabling [[sustainable agriculture]] on sloping land; it is the practice of ploughing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a slope.
* Terrain is [[military|militarily]] critical because it determines the ability of [[armed forces]] to take and hold areas, and move [[troop]]s and material into and through areas. An [[Military geography#Types of terrain|understanding of terrain]] is basic to both defensive and offensive strategy. The military usage of "terrain" is very broad, encompassing not only landform but land use and land cover, surface transport infrastructure, built structures and [[human geography]], and, by extension under the term [[Human Terrain System|human terrain]], even psychological, cultural, or economic factors.<ref>From [https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/jp1_02-april2010.pdf Joint Publication 1-02], ''Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms:''
* Terrain is [[military|militarily]] critical because it determines the ability of [[armed forces]] to take and hold areas, and move [[troop]]s and material into and through areas. An [[Military geography#Types of terrain|understanding of terrain]] is basic to both defensive and offensive strategy. The military usage of "terrain" is very broad, encompassing not only landform but land use and land cover, surface transport infrastructure, built structures and [[human geography]], and, by extension under the term [[Human Terrain System|human terrain]], even psychological, cultural, or economic factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/jp1_02-april2010.pdf |title=Joint Publication 1-02 |website=Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms |quote=* "compartmentation ... [involves] areas bounded on at least two sides by terrain features such as woods..."<br>* "culture — A feature of the terrain that has been constructed by man. Included are such items as roads, buildings, and canals; boundary lines; and, in a broad sense, all names and legends on a map."<br>* "key terrain — Any locality, or area, the seizure or retention of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant."<br>* "terrain intelligence — Intelligence on the military significance of natural and manmade characteristics of an area."}}</ref>
* "compartmentation ... [involves] areas bounded on at least two sides by terrain features such as woods..."
* "culture — A feature of the terrain that has been constructed by man. Included are such items as roads, buildings, and canals; boundary lines; and, in a broad sense, all names and legends on a map."
* "key terrain — Any locality, or area, the seizure or retention of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant."
* "terrain intelligence — Intelligence on the military significance of natural and manmade characteristics of an area."</ref>


* Terrain is important in determining [[weather]] patterns. Two areas geographically close to each other may differ radically in [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] levels or timing because of elevation differences or a "[[rain shadow]]" effect.
* Terrain is important in determining [[weather]] patterns. Two areas geographically close to each other may differ radically in [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] levels or timing because of elevation differences or a "[[rain shadow]]" effect.
* Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in [[aviation]], especially for low-flying routes and maneuvers ([[Terrain awareness and warning system|see terrain collision avoidance]]) and airport altitudes. Terrain will also affect range and performance of radars and terrestrial [[radio navigation]] systems. Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous terrain can strongly impact the implementation of a new [[aerodrome]] and the orientation of its runways.
* Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in [[aviation]], especially for low-flying routes and maneuvers ([[Terrain awareness and warning system|see terrain collision avoidance]]) and airport altitudes. Terrain will also affect range and performance of radars and terrestrial [[radio navigation]] systems. Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous terrain can strongly impact the implementation of a new [[aerodrome]] and the orientation of its runways.


==Relief==
== Relief ==
⚫
Relief (or ''local relief'') refers specifically to the quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a [[landscape]]. It is the difference between maximum and minimum elevations within a given area, usually of limited extent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Summerfield |first=M.A. |date=1991 |title=Global Geomorphology |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |page=537 |isbn=9780582301566}}</ref> A relief can be described qualitatively, such as a "{{visible anchor|low relief|Low relief|Low-relief}}" or "{{visible anchor|high relief|High relief|High-relief}}" [[plain]] or [[Upland and lowland|upland]]. The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the area over which it is measured, making the definition of the scale over which it is measured very important. Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the area of interest and to the [[Stream gradient|gradient]] of any streams present, the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of the Earth's surface. Relief energy, which may be defined ''inter alia'' as "the maximum height range in a regular grid",<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzBNmiGS-7oC&pg=PA48&dq=definition+of+%22relief+energy%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0Yb-8azMAhWGPBoKHVSZCeQ4ChDoAQgjMAE#v=onepage&q=definition%20of%20%22relief%20energy%22&f=false |title=African Landscapes: Interdisciplinary Approaches |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Bollig |editor2-first=Olaf |editor2-last=Bubenzer |location=Cologne |publisher=Springer |date=2009 |page=48}}</ref> is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain.


⚫
== Geomorphology ==
⚫
Relief (or ''local relief'') refers specifically to the quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a [[landscape]]. It is the difference between maximum and minimum elevations within a given area, usually of limited extent.<ref>Summerfield, M.A., 1991, ''Global Geomorphology,'' Pearson, 537 p. {{ISBN|9780582301566}}</ref> A relief can be described qualitatively, such as a "{{visible anchor|low relief|Low relief|Low-relief}}" or "{{visible anchor|high relief|High relief|High-relief}}" [[plain]] or [[Upland and lowland|upland]]. The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the area over which it is measured, making the definition of the scale over which it is measured very important. Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the area of interest and to the [[Stream gradient|gradient]] of any streams present, the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of the Earth's surface. Relief energy, which may be defined ''inter alia'' as "the maximum height range in a regular grid",<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YzBNmiGS-7oC&pg=PA48&dq=definition+of+%22relief+energy%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0Yb-8azMAhWGPBoKHVSZCeQ4ChDoAQgjMAE#v=onepage&q=definition%20of%20%22relief%20energy%22&f=false ''African Landscapes: Interdisciplinary Approaches''], edited by Michael Bollig, Olaf Bubenzer. Cologne: Springer, 2009, p. 48.</ref> is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain.

⚫
==Geomorphology==
{{main|Geomorphology}}
{{main|Geomorphology}}
Geomorphology is in large part the study of the formation of terrain or topography. Terrain is formed by concurrent processes operating on the underlying [[Structural geology#Rock macro-structures|geological structures]] over [[Geologic time scale|geological time]]:
Geomorphology is in large part the study of the formation of terrain or topography. Terrain is formed by concurrent processes operating on the underlying [[Structural geology#Rock macro-structures|geological structures]] over [[Geologic time scale|geological time]]:
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* [[Impact event|Extraterrestrial]]: [[meteorite]] [[impact crater|impacts]].
* [[Impact event|Extraterrestrial]]: [[meteorite]] [[impact crater|impacts]].


[[Tectonic]] processes such as [[Orogeny|orogenies]] and [[Tectonic uplift|uplifts]] cause land to be elevated, whereas erosional and [[weathering]] processes wear the land away by smoothing and reducing topographic features.<ref>Strak, V., Dominguez, S., Petit, C., Meyer, B., & Loget, N. (2011). Interaction between normal fault slip and erosion on relief evolution; insights from experimental modelling. Tectonophysics, 513(1-4), 1-19. {{doi|10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.005}}</ref> The relationship of [[erosion and tectonics]] rarely (if ever) reaches equilibrium.<ref>Gasparini, N., Bras, R., & Whipple, K. (2006). Numerical modeling of non–steady-state river profile evolution using a sediment-flux-dependent incision model. Special Paper - Geological Society of America, 398, 127-141. {{doi|10.1130/2006.2398(08)}}</ref><ref>Roe, G., Stolar, D., & Willett, S. (2006). Response of a steady-state critical wedge orogen to changes in climate and tectonic forcing. Special Paper - Geological Society of America, 398, 227-239. {{doi|10.1130/2005.2398(13)}}</ref><ref>Stolar, D., Willett, S., & Roe, G. (2006). Climatic and tectonic forcing of a critical orogen. Special Paper - Geological Society of America, 398, 241-250. {{doi|10.1130/2006.2398(14)}}</ref> These processes are also codependent, however the full range of their interactions is still a topic of debate.<ref>Wobus, C., Whipple, K., Kirby, E., Snyder, N., Johnson, J., Spyropolou, K., Sheehan, D. (2006). Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls. Special Paper - Geological Society of America, 398, 55-74. {{doi|10.1130/2006.2398(04)}}</ref><ref>Hoth, S., Adam, J., Kukowski, N., & Oncken, O. (2006). Influence of erosion on the kinematics of bivergent orogens: Results from scaled sandbox simulations. Special Paper - Geological Society of America, 398, 201-225. {{doi|10.1130/2006.2398(12)}}</ref><ref>Bonnet, C., J. Malavieille, and J. Mosar (2007), Interactions between tectonics, erosion, and sedimentation during the recent evolution of the Alpine orogen: Analogue modeling insights, Tectonics, 26, TC6016, {{doi|10.1029/2006TC002048}}</ref><ref>University of Cologne. "New insights into the relationship between erosion and tectonics in the Himalayas." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 23 August 2016. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160823083555.htm></ref><ref>King, G., Herman, F., & Guralnik, B. (2016). Northward migration of the eastern himalayan syntaxis revealed by OSL thermochronometry. Science, 353(6301), 800-804. {{doi|10.1126/science.aaf2637}}</ref>
[[Tectonic]] processes such as [[Orogeny|orogenies]] and [[Tectonic uplift|uplifts]] cause land to be elevated, whereas erosional and [[weathering]] processes wear the land away by smoothing and reducing topographic features.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Strak |first1=V. |last2=Dominguez |first2=S. |last3=Petit |first3=C. |last4=Meyer |first4=B. |last5=Loget |first5=N. |date=2011 |title=Interaction between normal fault slip and erosion on relief evolution; insights from experimental modelling |journal=[[Tectonophysics (journal)|Tectonophysics]] |volume=513 |number=1–4 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.005}}</ref> The relationship of [[erosion and tectonics]] rarely (if ever) reaches equilibrium.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gasparini |first1=N. |last2=Bras |first2=R. |last3=Whipple |first3=K. |date=2006 |title=Numerical modeling of non–steady-state river profile evolution using a sediment-flux-dependent incision model. Special Paper |journal=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=398 |pages=127–141 |doi=10.1130/2006.2398(08)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roe |first1=G. |last2=Stolar |first2=D. |last3=Willett |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Response of a steady-state critical wedge orogen to changes in climate and tectonic forcing. Special Paper |journal=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=398 |pages=227–239 |doi=10.1130/2005.2398(13)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stolar |first1=D. |last2=Willett |first2=S. |last3=Roe |first3=G. |date=2006 |title=Climatic and tectonic forcing of a critical orogen. Special Paper |journal=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=398 |pages=241–250 |doi=10.1130/2006.2398(14)}}</ref> These processes are also codependent, however the full range of their interactions is still a topic of debate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wobus |first1=C. |last2=Whipple |first2=K. |last3=Kirby |first3=E. |last4=Snyder |first4=N. |last5=Johnson |first5=J. |last6=Spyropolou |first6=K. |last7=Sheehan |first7=D. |date=2006 |title=Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls. Special Paper |journal=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=398 |pages=55–74 |doi=10.1130/2006.2398(04)}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hoth|Adam|Kukowski|Oncken|2006|pp=201–225}}; {{harvp|Bonnet|Malavieille|Mosar|2007}}; {{harvp|King|Herman|Guralnik|2016|pp=800–804}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=[[University of Cologne]] |title=New insights into the relationship between erosion and tectonics in the Himalayas |website=[[ScienceDaily]] |date=23 August 2016 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160823083555.htm}}</ref>


Land surface parameters are quantitative measures of various [[morphometric]] properties of a surface. The most common examples are used to derive [[slope]] or [[Aspect (geography)|aspect]] of a terrain or curvatures at each location. These measures can also be used to derive [[Hydrology|hydrological parameters]] that reflect flow/erosion processes. [[Climate|Climatic]] parameters are based on the modelling of [[solar radiation]] or air flow.
Land surface parameters are quantitative measures of various [[morphometric]] properties of a surface. The most common examples are used to derive [[slope]] or [[Aspect (geography)|aspect]] of a terrain or curvatures at each location. These measures can also be used to derive [[Hydrology|hydrological parameters]] that reflect flow/erosion processes. [[Climate|Climatic]] parameters are based on the modelling of [[solar radiation]] or air flow.
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Land surface objects, or [[landform]]s, are definite physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ from the surrounding objects. The most typical examples airlines of [[Water divide|watershed]]s, [[stream]] patterns, [[ridge]]s, [[Fall line|break-line]]s, [[stream pool|pool]]s or borders of specific landforms.
Land surface objects, or [[landform]]s, are definite physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ from the surrounding objects. The most typical examples airlines of [[Water divide|watershed]]s, [[stream]] patterns, [[ridge]]s, [[Fall line|break-line]]s, [[stream pool|pool]]s or borders of specific landforms.


==Digital terrain model==
== Digital terrain model ==
{{excerpt|Digital terrain model}}
{{excerpt|Digital terrain model}}


==See also==
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[GNSS applications#Surveying and mapping|Applications of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS)]]
* [[GNSS applications#Surveying and mapping|Applications of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS)]]
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{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


==References==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


=== Bibliography ===
⚫
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Bonnet |first1=C. |last2=Malavieille |first2=J. |last3=Mosar |first3=J. |date=2007 |title=Interactions between tectonics, erosion, and sedimentation during the recent evolution of the Alpine orogen: Analogue modeling insights |journal=[[Tectonics (journal)|Tectonics]] |volume=26 |number=TC6016 |doi=10.1029/2006TC002048}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hoth |first1=S. |last2=Adam |first2=J. |last3=Kukowski |first3=N. |last4=Oncken |first4=O. |date=2006 |title=Influence of erosion on the kinematics of bivergent orogens: Results from scaled sandbox simulations. Special Paper |journal=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=398 |pages=201–225 |doi=10.1130/2006.2398(12)}}
* {{cite journal |last1=King |first1=G. |last2=Herman |first2=F. |last3=Guralnik |first3=B. |date=2016 |title=Northward migration of the eastern himalayan syntaxis revealed by OSL thermochronometry |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=353 |number=6301 |pages=800–804 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf2637}}

⚫
== Further reading ==
* [http://geographicalimaginations.com/2014/09/20/boots-on-the-ground/ Boots on the ground]. On military terrain from the perspective of the combat soldier. By Professor [[Derek Gregory]]
* [http://geographicalimaginations.com/2014/09/20/boots-on-the-ground/ Boots on the ground]. On military terrain from the perspective of the combat soldier. By Professor [[Derek Gregory]]


==External links==
== External links ==
* [https://maps.google.com/ Google Maps]
* [https://maps.google.com/ Google Maps]
* [http://www.microsoft.com/maps/ Bing Maps]
* [http://www.microsoft.com/maps/ Bing Maps]

Revision as of 15:20, 12 October 2022

For other uses, see Terrain (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Terrane.
Present-day Earth altimetry and bathymetry. Data from the National Geophysical Data Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model.
Relief map of Sierra Nevada, Spain
A shaded and colored image (i.e. terrain is enhanced) of varied terrain from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. This shows elevation model of New Zealand's Alpine Fault running about 500 km (300 mi) long. The escarpment is flanked by a vast chain of hills between the fault and the mountains of New Zealand's Southern Alps. Northeast is towards the top.

Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) involves the vertical and horizontal dimensions of land surface. The term bathymetry is used to describe underwater relief, while hypsometry studies terrain relative to sea level. The Latin word terra (the root of terrain) means "earth."

In physical geography, terrain is the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns.

Importance

The understanding of terrain is critical for many reasons:

  • Terrain is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas geographically close to each other may differ radically in precipitation levels or timing because of elevation differences or a "rain shadow" effect.
  • Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in aviation, especially for low-flying routes and maneuvers (see terrain collision avoidance) and airport altitudes. Terrain will also affect range and performance of radars and terrestrial radio navigation systems. Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous terrain can strongly impact the implementation of a new aerodrome and the orientation of its runways.

Relief

Relief (or local relief) refers specifically to the quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a landscape. It is the difference between maximum and minimum elevations within a given area, usually of limited extent.[4] A relief can be described qualitatively, such as a "low relief" or "high relief" plain or upland. The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the area over which it is measured, making the definition of the scale over which it is measured very important. Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the area of interest and to the gradient of any streams present, the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of the Earth's surface. Relief energy, which may be defined inter alia as "the maximum height range in a regular grid",[5] is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain.

Geomorphology

Main article: Geomorphology

Geomorphology is in large part the study of the formation of terrain or topography. Terrain is formed by concurrent processes operating on the underlying geological structures over geological time:

Tectonic processes such as orogenies and uplifts cause land to be elevated, whereas erosional and weathering processes wear the land away by smoothing and reducing topographic features.[6] The relationship of erosion and tectonics rarely (if ever) reaches equilibrium.[7][8][9] These processes are also codependent, however the full range of their interactions is still a topic of debate.[10][11][12]

Land surface parameters are quantitative measures of various morphometric properties of a surface. The most common examples are used to derive slope or aspect of a terrain or curvatures at each location. These measures can also be used to derive hydrological parameters that reflect flow/erosion processes. Climatic parameters are based on the modelling of solar radiation or air flow.

Land surface objects, or landforms, are definite physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ from the surrounding objects. The most typical examples airlines of watersheds, stream patterns, ridges, break-lines, pools or borders of specific landforms.

Digital terrain model

This section is an excerpt from Digital elevation model.[edit]
3D rendering of a DEM of Tithonium Chasma on Mars

A digital elevation model (DEM) or digital surface model (DSM) is a 3D computer graphics representation of elevation data to represent terrain or overlaying objects, commonly of a planet, moon, or asteroid. A "global DEM" refers to a discrete global grid. DEMs are used often in geographic information systems (GIS), and are the most common basis for digitally produced relief maps. A digital terrain model (DTM) represents specifically the ground surface while DEM and DSM may represent tree top canopy or building roofs.

While a DSM may be useful for landscape modeling, city modeling and visualization applications, a DTM is often required for flood or drainage modeling, land-use studies,[13] geological applications, and other applications,[14] and in planetary science.

See also

References

  1. ^ Baker, N.T.; Capel, P.D. (2011). "Environmental factors that influence the location of crop agriculture in the conterminous United States". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5108. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 72.
  2. ^ Brush, L. M. (1961). Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in central Pennsylvania (PDF). Washington D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 1–44. Retrieved October 29, 2017. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  3. ^ "Joint Publication 1-02" (PDF). Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. * "compartmentation ... [involves] areas bounded on at least two sides by terrain features such as woods..."
    * "culture — A feature of the terrain that has been constructed by man. Included are such items as roads, buildings, and canals; boundary lines; and, in a broad sense, all names and legends on a map."
    * "key terrain — Any locality, or area, the seizure or retention of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant."
    * "terrain intelligence — Intelligence on the military significance of natural and manmade characteristics of an area."
  4. ^ Summerfield, M.A. (1991). Global Geomorphology. Pearson. p. 537. ISBN 9780582301566.
  5. ^ Bollig, Michael; Bubenzer, Olaf, eds. (2009). African Landscapes: Interdisciplinary Approaches. Cologne: Springer. p. 48.
  6. ^ Strak, V.; Dominguez, S.; Petit, C.; Meyer, B.; Loget, N. (2011). "Interaction between normal fault slip and erosion on relief evolution; insights from experimental modelling". Tectonophysics. 513 (1–4): 1–19. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.005.
  7. ^ Gasparini, N.; Bras, R.; Whipple, K. (2006). "Numerical modeling of non–steady-state river profile evolution using a sediment-flux-dependent incision model. Special Paper". Geological Society of America. 398: 127–141. doi:10.1130/2006.2398(08).
  8. ^ Roe, G.; Stolar, D.; Willett, S. (2006). "Response of a steady-state critical wedge orogen to changes in climate and tectonic forcing. Special Paper". Geological Society of America. 398: 227–239. doi:10.1130/2005.2398(13).
  9. ^ Stolar, D.; Willett, S.; Roe, G. (2006). "Climatic and tectonic forcing of a critical orogen. Special Paper". Geological Society of America. 398: 241–250. doi:10.1130/2006.2398(14).
  10. ^ Wobus, C.; Whipple, K.; Kirby, E.; Snyder, N.; Johnson, J.; Spyropolou, K.; Sheehan, D. (2006). "Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls. Special Paper". Geological Society of America. 398: 55–74. doi:10.1130/2006.2398(04).
  11. ^ Hoth et al. (2006), pp. 201–225; Bonnet, Malavieille & Mosar (2007); King, Herman & Guralnik (2016), pp. 800–804
  12. ^ University of Cologne (23 August 2016). "New insights into the relationship between erosion and tectonics in the Himalayas". ScienceDaily.
  13. ^ I. Balenovic, H. Marjanovic, D. Vuletic, etc. Quality assessment of high density digital surface model over different land cover classes. PERIODICUM BIOLOGORUM. VOL. 117, No 4, 459–470, 2015.
  14. ^ "Appendix A – Glossary and Acronyms" (PDF). Severn Tidal Tributaries Catchment Flood Management Plan – Scoping Stage. UK: Environment Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-10.

Bibliography

  • Bonnet, C.; Malavieille, J.; Mosar, J. (2007). "Interactions between tectonics, erosion, and sedimentation during the recent evolution of the Alpine orogen: Analogue modeling insights". Tectonics. 26 (TC6016). doi:10.1029/2006TC002048.
  • Hoth, S.; Adam, J.; Kukowski, N.; Oncken, O. (2006). "Influence of erosion on the kinematics of bivergent orogens: Results from scaled sandbox simulations. Special Paper". Geological Society of America. 398: 201–225. doi:10.1130/2006.2398(12).
  • King, G.; Herman, F.; Guralnik, B. (2016). "Northward migration of the eastern himalayan syntaxis revealed by OSL thermochronometry". Science. 353 (6301): 800–804. doi:10.1126/science.aaf2637.

Further reading

The dictionary definition of terrain at Wiktionary

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