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==History==
==History==
[[File:Prince Metternich by Lawrence.jpeg|thumb|right|Klemens von Metternich, architect of the Kaimakamat System.]]
After dismissing Omar Pasha of his position, the Ottoman government tried to appoint two non-Lebanese Ottoman rulers in his place, one on the south of the mountain, that is, on the Druze-majority side, and the other on the north of the mountain, that is, on the Christian-majority side, with the rulers being the subject of the Governor of Beirut, but the Europeans stood in the way of the Ottoman plan, as it entailed strengthening the Ottoman Islamic grip on Mount Lebanon, and since the influence of the Ottoman Empire was weakening at the time and unable to compete with the European influence, the Sultan accepted the proposals of representatives of the great powers to divide the mountain into a Christian and a Druze side and on December 1, 1843, the Sultan agreed to the proposal of [[Prince Metternich]], Chancellor of Austria, and asked Asaad Pasha, the governor of Beirut, to divide Mount Lebanon into two provinces: a northern province ruled by a Christian Qa’im-Maqam and a southern province governed by a Druze Qa’im-Maqam, both of whom are chosen by the notables, and are subject to the Governor of Beirut, this system was later known as the double Qa’im-Maqamate system.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62708329 |title=Lebanon : a country study |date=2005 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |others=Library of Congress. Federal Research Division |isbn=1-4191-2943-0 |location=[Whitefish, MT] |pages=264 |oclc=62708329}}</ref><ref name=":1">Lutsky, Vladimir Borisovich (1969)، "[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716215741/https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch09.htm Modern History of the Arab Countries]"، Progress Publishers، مؤرشف من [https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch09.htm الأصل] في 16 يوليو 2018، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 12 نوفمبر 2009.</ref>
After dismissing Omar Pasha of his position, the Ottoman government tried to appoint two non-Lebanese Ottoman rulers in his place, one on the south of the mountain, that is, on the Druze-majority side, and the other on the north of the mountain, that is, on the Christian-majority side, with the rulers being the subject of the Governor of Beirut, but the Europeans stood in the way of the Ottoman plan, as it entailed strengthening the Ottoman Islamic grip on Mount Lebanon, and since the influence of the Ottoman Empire was weakening at the time and unable to compete with the European influence, the Sultan accepted the proposals of representatives of the great powers to divide the mountain into a Christian and a Druze side and on December 1, 1843, the Sultan agreed to the proposal of [[Prince Metternich]], Chancellor of Austria, and asked Asaad Pasha, the governor of Beirut, to divide Mount Lebanon into two provinces: a northern province ruled by a Christian Qa’im-Maqam and a southern province governed by a Druze Qa’im-Maqam, both of whom are chosen by the notables, and are subject to the Governor of Beirut, this system was later known as the double Qa’im-Maqamate system.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62708329 |title=Lebanon : a country study |date=2005 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |others=Library of Congress. Federal Research Division |isbn=1-4191-2943-0 |location=[Whitefish, MT] |pages=264 |oclc=62708329}}</ref><ref name=":1">Lutsky, Vladimir Borisovich (1969)، "[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716215741/https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch09.htm Modern History of the Arab Countries]"، Progress Publishers، مؤرشف من [https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch09.htm الأصل] في 16 يوليو 2018، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 12 نوفمبر 2009.</ref>

==Defects==
==Defects==
The defects of the double Qa’im-Maqamate system became clear when sectarian strife continued under it,<ref name="قائممقامية">[http://www.moqatel.com/openshare/Behoth/Siasia21/HarbLebnan/sec04.doc_cvt.htm موسوعة مقاتل الصحراء: نظام القائممقاميتين والحرب الأهلية الثانية (1842-1845)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211073056/http://www.moqatel.com/openshare/Behoth/Siasia21/HarbLebnan/sec04.doc_cvt.htm|date=11 ديسمبر 2017}}</ref> the reason for this is that this system not only failed to eliminate the causes of discord among the inhabitants of the mountain, but also added to it a new factor of discrimination and conflict, the factor being the class struggle between the feudal lords and the common people, after taking away from the Druze and Christian feudal leaders their judicial and financial powers, and making them the prerogative of the Qaimaqam and the Qaimaqam Council.<ref name="قائممقامية" /> In the year 1856, [[Abdulmejid I|Sultan Abd al-Majid I]] issued his famous [[firman]], in which he equalized all Ottoman subjects, regardless of their different religious beliefs, and abolished the political and social privileges enjoyed by a group or a sect. The Christians were at the forefront of those adhering to the provisions of this decree, as they constituted most of the peasants and the majority of the working class consisted of them. The peasants in the Christian areas, led by [[Tanyus Shahin]], revolted against the feudal lords and burned their palaces and robbed their crops. Then the movement of revolution spread to the south of Mount Lebanon, where the farmers were a mixture of Druze and Christians, however, at that time, confidence was already lost between the two parties, making it impossible to unite the word of the peasants of the two communities for their common interest against their feudal leaders.<ref name="حركة الستين">المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، [[دار العلم للملايين]]، [[بيروت]] - [[لبنان]]، تأليف: شفيق جحا، [[بهيج عثمان]]، [[منير البعلبكي]]: الفتنة الكبرى 1860، صفحة: 196-197</ref> The Druze feudal leaders took advantage of religious ties, and they convinced their peasants of their own sect that conflict between them and the Christians exists and that they could not be trusted, and urged them to support their leaders and rally around them to defend their followers of their faith.<ref name="حركة الستين" />
The defects of the double Qa’im-Maqamate system became clear when sectarian strife continued under it,<ref name="قائممقامية">[http://www.moqatel.com/openshare/Behoth/Siasia21/HarbLebnan/sec04.doc_cvt.htm موسوعة مقاتل الصحراء: نظام القائممقاميتين والحرب الأهلية الثانية (1842-1845)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211073056/http://www.moqatel.com/openshare/Behoth/Siasia21/HarbLebnan/sec04.doc_cvt.htm|date=11 ديسمبر 2017}}</ref> the reason for this is that this system not only failed to eliminate the causes of discord among the inhabitants of the mountain, but also added to it a new factor of discrimination and conflict, the factor being the class struggle between the feudal lords and the common people, after taking away from the Druze and Christian feudal leaders their judicial and financial powers, and making them the prerogative of the Qaimaqam and the Qaimaqam Council.<ref name="قائممقامية" /> In the year 1856, [[Abdulmejid I|Sultan Abd al-Majid I]] issued his famous [[firman]], in which he equalized all Ottoman subjects, regardless of their different religious beliefs, and abolished the political and social privileges enjoyed by a group or a sect. The Christians were at the forefront of those adhering to the provisions of this decree, as they constituted most of the peasants and the majority of the working class consisted of them. The peasants in the Christian areas, led by [[Tanyus Shahin]], revolted against the feudal lords and burned their palaces and robbed their crops. Then the movement of revolution spread to the south of Mount Lebanon, where the farmers were a mixture of Druze and Christians, however, at that time, confidence was already lost between the two parties, making it impossible to unite the word of the peasants of the two communities for their common interest against their feudal leaders.<ref name="حركة الستين">المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، [[دار العلم للملايين]]، [[بيروت]] - [[لبنان]]، تأليف: شفيق جحا، [[بهيج عثمان]]، [[منير البعلبكي]]: الفتنة الكبرى 1860، صفحة: 196-197</ref> The Druze feudal leaders took advantage of religious ties, and they convinced their peasants of their own sect that conflict between them and the Christians exists and that they could not be trusted, and urged them to support their leaders and rally around them to defend their followers of their faith.<ref name="حركة الستين" />

Revision as of 18:17, 5 November 2022

The Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon (1843-1861, Template:Lang-ar, or simply, "اَلْقَائِم مَقَامِيَّتَيْن"; lit. 'The Double Qaim-Maqamate') was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the abolishment of the Mount Lebanon Emirate.

Background

Omar Pasha - Lithograph

After the removal of Prince Bashir III, the Lebanese Chehab emirate, which had been the ruling entity of the country and its population for many years, collapsed. The Ottomans appointed one of the most senior officials as direct ruler on the mountain, with the ruler being a Sunni Muslim of Austrian origins named Omar Pasha, the Druze welcomed him and the Christians rejected him, and the majority of the Christians stood by the Maronite Patriarch Youssef Boutros Hobeish, who announced that he refused to cooperate with any non-Lebanese ruler or any ruler not chosen by the Lebanese themselves. The Pasha had hired agents to edit petitions that showed the people’s support for him and their refusal to return to the Chehab rule. A number of people signed these petitions in exchange for a bribe, a promise or a threat, and some of them signed them with consent,[1] when the matter of the petitions was exposed in Constantinople and the Porte got determined to dismiss the Austrian, the Pasha tried to lure the Druze to him and persuade them to fight the Christians population, but the Druze, feeling that the Pasha had taken advantage of them, led forces against him and almost stormed his palace,[1] had it not been for a battalion of the Ottoman soldiers had rescued him, then he was sent to Beirut, where he was dismissed from his position, on the same day, the Porte and representatives of European countries reached in Constantinople a new project to govern Mount Lebanon, and to be implemented in early 1843.[2]

History

Klemens von Metternich, architect of the Kaimakamat System.

After dismissing Omar Pasha of his position, the Ottoman government tried to appoint two non-Lebanese Ottoman rulers in his place, one on the south of the mountain, that is, on the Druze-majority side, and the other on the north of the mountain, that is, on the Christian-majority side, with the rulers being the subject of the Governor of Beirut, but the Europeans stood in the way of the Ottoman plan, as it entailed strengthening the Ottoman Islamic grip on Mount Lebanon, and since the influence of the Ottoman Empire was weakening at the time and unable to compete with the European influence, the Sultan accepted the proposals of representatives of the great powers to divide the mountain into a Christian and a Druze side and on December 1, 1843, the Sultan agreed to the proposal of Prince Metternich, Chancellor of Austria, and asked Asaad Pasha, the governor of Beirut, to divide Mount Lebanon into two provinces: a northern province ruled by a Christian Qa’im-Maqam and a southern province governed by a Druze Qa’im-Maqam, both of whom are chosen by the notables, and are subject to the Governor of Beirut, this system was later known as the double Qa’im-Maqamate system.[3][4]

Defects

The defects of the double Qa’im-Maqamate system became clear when sectarian strife continued under it,[5] the reason for this is that this system not only failed to eliminate the causes of discord among the inhabitants of the mountain, but also added to it a new factor of discrimination and conflict, the factor being the class struggle between the feudal lords and the common people, after taking away from the Druze and Christian feudal leaders their judicial and financial powers, and making them the prerogative of the Qaimaqam and the Qaimaqam Council.[5] In the year 1856, Sultan Abd al-Majid I issued his famous firman, in which he equalized all Ottoman subjects, regardless of their different religious beliefs, and abolished the political and social privileges enjoyed by a group or a sect. The Christians were at the forefront of those adhering to the provisions of this decree, as they constituted most of the peasants and the majority of the working class consisted of them. The peasants in the Christian areas, led by Tanyus Shahin, revolted against the feudal lords and burned their palaces and robbed their crops. Then the movement of revolution spread to the south of Mount Lebanon, where the farmers were a mixture of Druze and Christians, however, at that time, confidence was already lost between the two parties, making it impossible to unite the word of the peasants of the two communities for their common interest against their feudal leaders.[6] The Druze feudal leaders took advantage of religious ties, and they convinced their peasants of their own sect that conflict between them and the Christians exists and that they could not be trusted, and urged them to support their leaders and rally around them to defend their followers of their faith.[6]

Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope, a British orientalist who lived for 29 years in Mount Lebanon and had a prominent role in igniting the Druze revolt against the Egyptians and fueling sectarian hatred between the Druze and Christians.[7]

Foreign countries played a major role in worsening sectarian hatreds. The British, after their Protestant missionaries were unable to win a large audience of native Lebanese Christians, supported and encouraged the Druze and supplied them with money and weapons, as did the French for the Maronites, with most of Britain and France’s agents being Orientalists who spent many years in the Levant. For all of these reasons, the atmosphere in Mount Lebanon had become filled with tensions between the Maronites and the Druze, and was liable to explode at any moment for the most trivial of reasons.[6]

Fall

1860 civil war

Main article: 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
Christian refugees during the 1860 strife

The events of this civil war began in the summer of 1859, with a simple dispute over a game of Gelleh (Marbles) between a Druze and a Maronite kid in the town of Beit Meri, the parents of each of the kids participated in the dispute, and it turned into a bloody quarrel in which the people of the two sects from Beit Meri, then from all the villages of Matn, participated. The fighting got reignited on May 22, 1860, when a small group of Maronites fired on a group of Druze at the entrance to Beirut,[4] killing one and wounding two. This sparked a torrent of violence which swept through Lebanon. In a mere three days, from May 29 to 31, 60 villages were destroyed in the vicinity of Beirut.[8] 33 Christians and 48 Druze were killed.[9] By June, the disturbances had spread to the “mixed” neighbourhoods of southern Lebanon and the Anti Lebanon, to Sidon, Hasbaya, Rashaya, Deir el Qamar, and Zahlé. The Druze peasants laid siege to Catholic monasteries and missions, burnt them, and killed the monks.[8] France intervened on behalf of the local Christian population and Britain on behalf of the Druze after the massacres, in which over 10,000 Christians were killed.[10][11]

Beirut in 1860, in the center of the picture is Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri, who had come to help end the conflict between the Druze and the Christians.

The number of dead reached twelve thousand,[12] and the Druze were the fiercest fighters, it was said that out of the 12,000 dead, 10,000 of them were Christians.[10][13] Property losses were estimated at four million golden pound sterlings, and the strife occurred during the silk season, which was the mainstay of the Levantine economy in general and the Lebanese mountainous economy in particular, the war destroyed it and eliminated it, and many Christian craftsmen emigrated from Damascus, fearing for their lives, leading to the dramatic decline of the famous Damascene steel industry.[14] The violence of the sedition was mitigated by inter-religious support, with the Druze Banu Talhouq defending Christian monks and sheltering them in their homes, and some Christians remained in the protection of the Druze sheikhs, safe from any harm that might befall on them. In Damascus, Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri protected the Christians, sheltering them in his house and in a citadel, he also took advantage of his influence in Beirut to protect them, Muslim clerics and a number of Beirut notables opened their homes to the afflicted Maronites, as did the Shiite leaders in Jabal Amel.[12]

When Sultan Abd al-Majid I feared that this sedition would lead to the military intervention of foreign countries in the Ottoman affairs, he instructed the Ottoman officials in Beirut and Damascus to put the civil war down immediately, and at the same time he dispatched the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fuad Pasha, who was known for his cunning and firmness, and who gave him absolute powers, to deal with the situation. With his mission succeeding, he executed most of those who caused the massacres, imprisoned the rest, exiled some of them, returned some of the war booty to their afflicted Christian owners, and collected many donations, which he spent on restoring villages.[12] The major European countries pressured the Sultan and urged him to accept the formation of an international committee entrusted with restoring stability to Mount Lebanon, liquidating the sedition, and setting up a new system of governance. Thus, the reign of the double Qa’im-Maqamate ended in the year 1861, after it lasted for nineteen years.[15]

References

  1. ^ a b العمامة: موسوعة التوحيد الدرزية، سيرة البطل شبلي العريان؛ بقلم الشيخ أبو غالب حاتم قاسم حلبي Archived 2016-03-07 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، دار العلم للملايين، بيروت - لبنان، تأليف: شفيق جحا، بهيج عثمان، منير البعلبكي: نهاية الإمارة الشهابية، صفحة: 186 183
  3. ^ Lebanon : a country study. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. [Whitefish, MT]: Kessinger Publishing. 2005. p. 264. ISBN 1-4191-2943-0. OCLC 62708329.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. ^ a b Lutsky, Vladimir Borisovich (1969)، "Modern History of the Arab Countries"، Progress Publishers، مؤرشف من الأصل في 16 يوليو 2018، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 12 نوفمبر 2009.
  5. ^ a b موسوعة مقاتل الصحراء: نظام القائممقاميتين والحرب الأهلية الثانية (1842-1845) Archived 2017-12-11 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ^ a b c المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، دار العلم للملايين، بيروت - لبنان، تأليف: شفيق جحا، بهيج عثمان، منير البعلبكي: الفتنة الكبرى 1860، صفحة: 196-197
  7. ^ حمزة عليان (05-07-2009). صورة الليدي الإنكليزية حرّضت الدروز على الحكم المصري Archived 2016-03-06 at the Wayback Machine. جريدة القبس الكويتية. وُصِل لهذا المسار في 8 أغسطس 2009.
  8. ^ a b Lutsky, Vladimir Borisovich (1969). "Modern History of the Arab Countries". Progress Publishers. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  9. ^ Ceasar E. Farah (2000). Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon, 1830-1861. I.B.Tauris. p. 564. ISBN 978-1-86064-056-8. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
  10. ^ a b Fawaz, Leila Tarazi (1995). Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris & Company. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-86064-028-5.
  11. ^ U.S. Library of Congress. "Lebanon - Religious Conflicts". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 2009-11-23.
  12. ^ a b c المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، دار العلم للملايين، بيروت - لبنان، تأليف: شفيق جحا، بهيج عثمان، منير البعلبكي: الفتنة الكبرى 1860، صفحة: 198-199
  13. ^ "Lebanon - Religious Conflicts". web.archive.org. 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  14. ^ جريدة النور: حوادث 1860 في لبنان ودمشق فتنة دينية أم مؤامرة سياسية غربية؟!؛ صفحة الرأي- بقلم الأستاذ إلياس بولاد، محاضرة في مركز اللقاء ببطريريكية الروم الكاثوليك بدمشق: 3/ 2/ 2006. Archived 2010-07-19 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ المصور في التاريخ، الجزء السابع، دار العلم للملايين، بيروت - لبنان، تأليف: شفيق جحا، بهيج عثمان، منير البعلبكي: إخماد الفتنة ونهاية عهد القائممقاميتين، صفحة: 200
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